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Wave Optics

Multiple lit Di�raction

 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

B the end of this section, ou will be

able to:

• Discuss the pattern obtained from

di�raction grating.

• Explain di�raction grating e�ects.

An interesting thing
happens if ou pass
light through a large
number of evenl
spaced parallel slits,
called a di�raction Figure 1. The colors
re�ected b this compact
grating. An interfer- disc var with angle and
are not caused b
ence pattern is cre- pigments. Colors such as
these are direct evidence
of the wave character of
ated that is ver simi- light. (credit: Infopro,
Wikimedia Commons)
lar to the one formed
b a double slit (see
Figure 2). A di�raction grating can be manufac-
tured b scratching glass with a sharp tool in a
number of precisel positioned parallel lines,
with the untouched regions acting like slits.
These can be photographicall mass produced
rather cheapl. Di�raction gratings work both
for transmission of light, as in Figure 2, and for
re�ection of light, as on butter� wings and the
Australian opal in Figure 3 or the CD in Figure 1.
In addition to their use as novelt items, di�rac-
tion gratings are commonl used for spectro-
scopic dispersion and analsis of light. What
makes them particularl useful is the fact that
the form a sharper pattern than double slits do.
That is, their bright regions are narrower and
brighter, while their dark regions are darker.
Figure 4 shows idealized graphs demonstrating
the sharper pattern. Natural di�raction gratings
occur in the feathers of certain birds. Tin,
�nger-like structures in regular patterns act as
re�ection gratings, producing constructive inter-
ference that gives the feathers colors not solel
due to their pigmentation. This is called irides-
cence.
Figure 1. A di�raction grating is a large number of
evenl spaced parallel slits. (a) Light passing through is
di�racted in a pattern similar to a double slit, with
bright regions at various angles. (b) The pattern
obtained for white light incident on a grating. The
central maximum is white, and the higher-order maxima
disperse white light into a rainbow of colors.

Figure 2. (a) This Australian opal and (b) the butter�

wings have rows of re�ectors that act like re�ection
gratings, re�ecting di�erent colors at di�erent angles.
(credits: (a) Opals-On-Black.com, via Flickr (b)
whologwh, Flickr)
The analsis of a di�-
�raction grating is ver
similar to that for a
double slit (see Figure
5). As we know from
our discussion of dou-
ble slits in Young’s
Double lit
Experiment, light is
di�racted b each slit
Figure 4. Idealized graphs
and spreads out after of the intensit of light
passing through a double
passing through. Ras slit (a) and a di�raction
grating (b) for
monochromatic light.
traveling in the same Maxima can be produced
at the same angles, but
direction (at an angle those for the di�raction
grating are narrower and
θ relative to the inci- hence sharper. The
maxima become narrower
dent direction) are and the regions between
darker as the number of
shown in Figure 5. slits is increased.

Each of these ras

travels a di�erent distance to a common point
on a screen far awa. The ras start in phase,
and the can be in or out of phase when the
reach a screen, depending on the di�erence in
the path lengths traveled.
As seen in Figure 5, each ra travels a distance
d sin θ di�erent from that of its neighbor, where
d is the distance between slits. If this distance
equals an integral number of wavelengths, the
ras all arrive in phase, and constructive inter-
ference (a maximum) is obtained. Thus, the con-
dition necessar to obtain constructive interfer-
ence for a di�raction grating is d sin θ = mλ, for
m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . (constructive) where d is
the distance between slits in the grating, λ is
the wavelength of light, and m is the order of
the maximum. Note that this is exactl the same
equation as for double slits separated b d.
However, the slits are usuall closer in di�rac-
tion gratings than in double slits, producing
fewer maxima at larger angles.

In Figure 5, we see a di�-

�raction grating showing
light ras from each slit
traveling in the same di-
rection. Each ra travels a
di�erent distance to reach
a common point on a
screen (not shown). Each
ra travels a distance d
sin θ di�erent from that of
its neighbor.

Where are di�raction grat-

ings used? Di�raction
gratings are ke compo-
nents of monochromators Figure 5.
used, for example, in opti-
cal imaging of particular wavelengths from bio-
logical or medical samples. A di�raction grating
can be chosen to speci�call analze a wave-
length emitted b molecules in diseased cells in
a biops sample or to help excite strategic mol-
ecules in the sample with a selected frequenc
of light. Another vital use is in optical �ber tech-
nologies where �bers are designed to provide
optimum performance at speci�c wavelengths.
A range of di�raction gratings are available for
selecting speci�c wavelengths for such use.
 TAKE-HOME EXPERIMENT: RAINBOW ON A CD

The spacing d of the grooves in a CD or

DVD can be well determined b using a
laser and the equation d sin θ = mλ, for m
= 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . . However, we can still
make a good estimate of this spacing b
using white light and the rainbow of col-
ors that comes from the interference.
Re�ect sunlight from a CD onto a wall
and use our best judgment of the loca-
tion of a strongl di�racted color to �nd
the separation d.

EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING TYPICAL DIFFRACTION

GRATING EFFECT

Di�raction gratings with 10,000 lines per

centimeter are readil available. uppose
ou have one, and ou send a beam of
white light through it to a screen 2.00 m
awa.
�. Find the angles for the �rst-order
di�raction of the shortest and
longest wavelengths of visible
light (380 and 760 nm).

�. What is the distance between the

ends of the rainbow of visible light
produced on the screen for �rst-
order interference? (ee Figure 6.)

Figure 6. The di�raction grating

considered in this example
produces a rainbow of colors on
a screen a distance from the
grating. The distances along the
 screen are measured
perpendicular to the x-direction.
In other words, the rainbow
pattern extends out of the page.

trateg

The angles can be found using the equa-

tion d sin θ = mλ (for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . .
) once a value for the slit spacing d has
been determined. ince there are 10,000
lines per centimeter, each line is sepa-
rated b 1/10,000 of a centimeter. Once
the angles are found, the distances along
the screen can be found using simple
trigonometr.

olution for Part 1

The distance between slits is

d= 1 cm
10,000 = 1.00 × 10−4 cm

or 1.00 × 10−6 m. Let us call the two an-

gles θV for violet (380 nm) and θR for red
(760 nm). olving the equation d sin θV
= mλ for sin θV,
mλV
sin θV = d
, where m = 1 for �rst order and λV = 380
nm = 3.80 × 10−7 m. ubstituting these
values gives

3.80 × 10−7 m
sin θV = = 0.380
1.00 × 10−6 m

Thus the angle θV is θV = sin−1 0.380 =

22.33º.

imilarl,

7.60 × 10−7 m
sin θR =
1.00 × 10−6 m

Thus the angle θR is θR = sin−1 0.760 =

49.46º.

Notice that in both equations, we re-

ported the results of these intermediate
calculations to four signi�cant �gures to
use with the calculation in Part 2.

olution for Part 2

The distances on the screen are labeled

V and R in Figure 6. Noting that
 y
tan θ = x

, we can solve for V and R. That is, V

= x tan θV = (2.00 m)(tan 22.33º) = 0.815
m and R = x tan θR = (2.00 m)(tan 49.46º)
= 2.338 m.

The distance between them is there-

fore R − V = 1.52 m.

Discussion

The large distance between the red and

violet ends of the rainbow produced from
the white light indicates the potential this
di�raction grating has as a spectroscopic
tool. The more it can spread out the
wavelengths (greater dispersion), the
more detail can be seen in a spectrum.
This depends on the qualit of the di�-
�raction grating—it must be ver precisel
made in addition to having closel
spaced lines.

ection ummar
A di�raction grating is a large collection of
evenl spaced parallel slits that produces an in-
terference pattern similar to but sharper than
that of a double slit.
There is constructive interference for a di�rac-
tion grating when d sin θ = mλ (for m = 0 , 1, –1,
2, –2, …), where d is the distance between slits
in the grating, λ is the wavelength of light, and
m is the order of the maximum.

CONCEPTUAL QUETION

�. What is the advantage of a di�rac-

tion grating over a double slit in
dispersing light into a spectrum?

�. What are the advantages of a di�-

�raction grating over a prism in dis-
persing light for spectral analsis?

�. Can the lines in a di�raction grat-

ing be too close together to be
useful as a spectroscopic tool for
visible light? If so, what tpe of EM
 radiation would the grating be
suitable for? Explain.

�. If a beam of white light passes

through a di�raction grating with
vertical lines, the light is dispersed
into rainbow colors on the right
and left. If a glass prism disperses
white light to the right into a rain-
bow, how does the sequence of
colors compare with that pro-
duced on the right b a di�raction
grating?

�. uppose pure-wavelength light

falls on a di�raction grating. What
happens to the interference pat-
tern if the same light falls on a
grating that has more lines per
centimeter? What happens to the
interference pattern if a longer-
wavelength light falls on the same
grating? Explain how these two
e�ects are consistent in terms of
 the relationship of wavelength to
the distance between slits.

�. uppose a feather appears green

but has no green pigment. Explain
in terms of di�raction.

�. It is possible that there is no mini-

mum in the interference pattern of
a single slit. Explain wh. Is the
same true of double slits and di�-
�raction gratings?

PROBLEM & EXERCIE

�. A di�raction grating has 2000

lines per centimeter. At what angle
will the �rst-order maximum be for
520-nm-wavelength green light?

�. Find the angle for the third-order

maximum for 580-nm-wavelength
ellow light falling on a di�raction
grating having 1500 lines per cen-
 timeter.

�. How man lines per centimeter

are there on a di�raction grating
that gives a �rst-order maximum
for 470-nm blue light at an angle
of 25.0º?

�. What is the distance between

lines on a di�raction grating that
produces a second-order maxi-
mum for 760-nm red light at an
angle of 60.0º?

�. Calculate the wavelength of light

that has its second-order maxi-
mum at 45.0º when falling on a
di�raction grating that has 5000
lines per centimeter.

�. An electric current through hdro-

gen gas produces several distinct
wavelengths of visible light. What
are the wavelengths of the hdro-
gen spectrum, if the form �rst-
order maxima at angles of 24.2º,
 25.7º, 29.1º, and 41.0º when pro-
jected on a di�raction grating hav-
ing 10,000 lines per centimeter?

�. (a) What do the four angles in the

above problem become if a 5000-
line-per-centimeter di�raction
grating is used? (b) Using this grat-
ing, what would the angles be for
the second-order maxima? (c)
Discuss the relationship between
integral reductions in lines per
centimeter and the new angles of
various order maxima.

�. What is the maximum number of

lines per centimeter a di�raction
grating can have and produce a
complete �rst-order spectrum for
visible light?

�. The ellow light from a sodium va-

por lamp seems to be of pure
wavelength, but it produces two
�rst-order maxima at 36.093º and
 36.129º when projected on a
10,000 line per centimeter di�rac-
tion grating. What are the two
wavelengths to an accurac of 0.1
nm?

��. What is the spacing between

structures in a feather that acts as
a re�ection grating, given that
the produce a �rst-order maxi-
mum for 525-nm light at a 30.0º
angle?

��. tructures on a bird feather act

like a re�ection grating having
8000 lines per centimeter. What is
the angle of the �rst-order maxi-
mum for 600-nm light?

��. An opal such as that shown in

Figure 2 acts like a re�ection grat-
ing with rows separated b about
8 μm. If the opal is illuminated nor-
mall, (a) at what angle will red
light be seen and (b) at what angle
 will blue light be seen?

��. At what angle does a di�raction

grating produces a second-order
maximum for light having a �rst-
order maximum at 20.0º?

��. how that a di�raction grating

cannot produce a second-order
maximum for a given wavelength
of light unless the �rst-order maxi-
mum is at an angle less than
30.0º.

��. If a di�raction grating produces a

�rst-order maximum for the short-
est wavelength of visible light at
30.0º, at what angle will the �rst-
order maximum be for the longest
wavelength of visible light?

��. (a) Find the maximum number of

lines per centimeter a di�raction
grating can have and produce a
maximum for the smallest wave-
length of visible light. (b) Would
 such a grating be useful for ultravi-
olet spectra? (c) For infrared spec-
tra?

��. (a) how that a 30,000-line-per-

centimeter grating will not pro-
duce a maximum for visible light.
(b) What is the longest wavelength
for which it does produce a �rst-
order maximum? (c) What is the
greatest number of lines per cen-
timeter a di�raction grating can
have and produce a complete
second-order spectrum for visible
light?

��. A He–Ne laser beam is re�ected

from the surface of a CD onto a
wall. The brightest spot is the re-
�ected beam at an angle equal to
the angle of incidence. However,
fringes are also observed. If the
wall is 1.50 m from the CD, and the
�rst fringe is 0.600 m from the
 central maximum, what is the
spacing of grooves on the CD?

��. The analsis shown in the �gure

below also applies to di�raction
gratings with lines separated b a
distance d. What is the distance
between fringes produced b a
di�raction grating having 125 lines
per centimeter for 600-nm light, if
the screen is 1.50 m awa?

Figure 6. The distance between

adjacent fringes is
Δy = xλ
d
, assuming the slit separation d is large
compared with λ.

��. Unreasonable Results. Red light

 of wavelength of 700 nm falls on a
double slit separated b 400 nm.
(a) At what angle is the �rst-order
maximum in the di�raction pat-
tern? (b) What is unreasonable
about this result? (c) Which as-
sumptions are unreasonable or in-
consistent?

��. Unreasonable Results. (a) What

visible wavelength has its fourth-
order maximum at an angle of
25.0º when projected on a
25,000-line-per-centimeter di�rac-
tion grating? (b) What is unreason-
able about this result? (c) Which
assumptions are unreasonable or
inconsistent?

��. Construct Your Own

Problem. Consider a spectrome-
ter based on a di�raction grating.
Construct a problem in which ou
calculate the distance between
 two wavelengths of electromag-
netic radiation in our spectrome-
ter. Among the things to be con-
sidered are the wavelengths ou
wish to be able to distinguish, the
number of lines per meter on the
di�raction grating, and the dis-
tance from the grating to the
screen or detector. Discuss the
practicalit of the device in terms
of being able to discern between
wavelengths of interest.

Glossar

constructive interference for a di�raction grat-

ing: occurs when the condition d sin θ = mλ
(form = 0,1,–1,2,–2, . . .) is satis�ed, where d is
the distance between slits in the grating, λ is
the wavelength of light, and m is the order of
the maximum
di�raction grating: a large number of evenl
spaced parallel slits

ELECTED OLUTION TO PROBLEM & EXERCIE

1. 5.97º

3. 8.99 × 103

5. 707 nm

7. (a) 11.8º,12.5º,14.1º,19.2º; (b)

24.2º,25.7º,29.1º,41.0º; (c) Decreasing the
number of lines per centimeter b a fac-
tor of x means that the angle for the x-
order maximum is the same as the origi-
nal angle for the �rst-order maximum.

9. 589.1 nm and 589.6 nm

11. 28.7º

13. 43.2º

15. 90.0º

17. (a) The longest wavelength is 333.3

nm, which is not visible; (b) 333 nm
 (UV); (c) 6.58 × 103 cm

19. 1.13 × 10−2 m

21. (a) 42.3 nm; (b) Not a visible wave-

length. The number of slits in this di�rac-
tion grating is too large. Etching in inte-
grated circuits can be done to a resolu-
tion of 50 nm, so slit separations of
400 nm are at the limit of what we can do
toda. This line spacing is too small to
produce di�raction of light.

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