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4.5: Diffraction Gratings

 Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Discuss the pattern obtained from diffraction gratings
• Explain diffraction grating effects

Analyzing the interference of light passing through two slits lays out the theoretical
framework of interference and gives us a historical insight into Thomas Young’s
experiments. However, most modern-day applications of slit interference use not just two
slits but many, approaching infinity for practical purposes. The key optical element is
called a diffraction grating, an important tool in optical analysis.
Diffraction Gratings: An Infinite Number of Slits
The analysis of multi-slit interference in Interference allows us to consider what
happens when the number of slits N approaches infinity. Recall that N − 2 secondary
maxima appear between the principal maxima. We can see there will be an infinite number
of secondary maxima that appear, and an infinite number of dark fringes between them.
This makes the spacing between the fringes, and therefore the width of the maxima,
infinitesimally small. Furthermore, because the intensity of the secondary maxima is
proportional to 1/N 2, it approaches zero so that the secondary maxima are no longer
seen. What remains are only the principal maxima, now very bright and very narrow (Figure
4.5.1).

Figure 4.5.1: (a) Intensity of light transmitted through a large number of slits.
When N approaches infinity, only the principal maxima remain as very bright and
very narrow lines. (b) A laser beam passed through a diffraction grating.
(credit b: modification of work by Sebastian Stapelberg)
In reality, the number of slits is not infinite, but it can be very large—large enough
to produce the equivalent effect. A prime example is an optical element called a
diffraction grating. A diffraction grating can be manufactured by carving glass with a
sharp tool in a large number of precisely positioned parallel lines, with untouched
regions acting like slits (Figure 4.5.2). This type of grating can be photographically
mass produced rather cheaply. Because there can be over 1000 lines per millimeter across
the grating, when a section as small as a few millimeters is illuminated by an incoming
ray, the number of illuminated slits is effectively infinite, providing for very sharp
principal maxima.

Figure 4.5.2: A diffraction grating can be manufactured by carving glass with a

sharp tool in a large number of precisely positioned parallel lines.
Diffraction gratings work both for transmission of light, as in Figure 4.5.3, and for
reflection of light, as on butterfly wings and the Australian opal in Figure 4.5.4a.
Natural diffraction gratings also occur in the feathers of certain birds such as the
hummingbird. Tiny, finger-like structures in regular patterns act as reflection gratings,
producing constructive interference that gives the feathers colors not solely due to
their pigmentation. This is called iridescence.

Figure 4.5.3: (a) Light passing through a diffraction grating is diffracted in a

pattern similar to a double slit, with bright regions at various angles. (b) The
pattern obtained for white light incident on a grating. The central maximum is
white, and the higher-order maxima disperse white light into a rainbow of
colors.
 Figure 4.5.4: (a) This Australian opal and (b) butterfly wings have rows of
reflectors that act like reflection gratings, reflecting different colors at
different angles. (credit a: modification of work by "Opals-On-Black"/Flickr;
credit b: modification of work by “whologwhy”/Flickr)
Applications of Diffraction Gratings
Where are diffraction gratings used in applications? Diffraction gratings are commonly
used for spectroscopic dispersion and analysis of light. What makes them particularly
useful is the fact that they form a sharper pattern than double slits do. That is, their
bright fringes are narrower and brighter while their dark regions are darker. Diffraction
gratings are key components of monochromators used, for example, in optical imaging of
particular wavelengths from biological or medical samples. A diffraction grating can be
chosen to specifically analyze a wavelength emitted by molecules in diseased cells in a
biopsy sample or to help excite strategic molecules in the sample with a selected
wavelength of light. Another vital use is in optical fiber technologies where fibers are
designed to provide optimum performance at specific wavelengths. A range of diffraction
gratings are available for selecting wavelengths for such use.

 Example 4.5.1
: Calculating Typical Diffraction Grating Effects

Diffraction gratings with 10,000 lines per centimeter are readily available. Suppose
you have one, and you send a beam of white light through it to a screen 2.00 m away.
a. Find the angles for the first-order diffraction of the shortest and longest
wavelengths of visible light (380 and 760 nm, respectively).
b. What is the distance between the ends of the rainbow of visible light produced on
the screen for first-order interference? (Figure 4.5.5).
c.
 Figure 4.5.5: (a) The diffraction grating considered in this example produces
a rainbow of colors on a screen a distance x = 2.00 mfrom the grating. The
distances along the screen are measured perpendicular to the x-direction.
In other words, the rainbow pattern extends out of the page.
(b) In a bird’s-eye view, the rainbow pattern can be seen on a table where the
equipment is placed.
Strategy
Once a value for the diffraction grating’s slit spacing d has been determined, the
angles for the sharp lines can be found using the equation

d sin θ = mλ

for m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

Since there are 10,000 lines per centimeter, each line is separated by 1/10,000 of a
centimeter. Once we know the angles, we an find the distances along the screen by
using simple trigonometry.
Solution
1. The distance between slits is d = (1 cm)/10, 000 = 1.00 × 10−4cmor 1.00 × 10−6m. Let us
call the two angles θV for violet (380 nm) and θR for red (760 nm). Solving the
equation d sin θV = mλ for sin θV,
mλV
sin θV = ,
d
where m = 1 for the first-order and λV = 380 nm = 3.80 × 10−7m. Substituting these
values gives
3.80 × 10−7m
sin θV = = 0.380.
1.00 × 10−6m
Thus the angle θV is

θV = sin−10.380 = 22.33°.

Similarly,
7.60 × 10−7m
sin θR = = 0.760.
1.00 × 10−6m
 Thus the angle θR is

θR = sin−10.760 = 49.46°.

Notice that in both equations, we reported the results of these intermediate

calculations to four significant figures to use with the calculation in part (b).
2. The distances on the screen are labeled yV and yR in Figure 4.5.5. Notice that
tan θ = y/x. We can solve for yV and yR. That is,

yV = x tan θV = (2.00 m)(tan 22.33°) = 0.815 m

and

yR = x tan θR = (2.00 m)(tan 49.46°) = 2.338 m.

The distance between them is therefore

yR− yV = 1.523 m

Significance
The large distance between the red and violet ends of the rainbow produced from the
white light indicates the potential this diffraction grating has as a spectroscopic
tool. The more it can spread out the wavelengths (greater dispersion), the more detail
can be seen in a spectrum. This depends on the quality of the diffraction grating—it
must be very precisely made in addition to having closely spaced lines.

 Exercise 4.5.1

If the line spacing of a diffraction grating d is not precisely known, we can use a
light source with a well-determined wavelength to measure it. Suppose the first-order
constructive fringe of the Hβ emission line of hydrogen (λ = 656.3 nm) is measured at
11.36° using a spectrometer with a diffraction grating. What is the line spacing of
this grating?

Answer
3.332 × 10−6m or 300 lines per millimeter

Take the same simulation we used for double-slit diffraction and try increasing the
number of slits from N = 2 to N = 3, 4, 5, . . .. The primary peaks become sharper, and the
secondary peaks become less and less pronounced. By the time you reach the maximum number
of N = 20, the system is behaving much like a diffraction grating.

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