Reviewer in Science

AY: 2021 – 2022

Lesson 12.1 bacterial generation inherited the newly acquired

pathogenic ability. Griffith concluded that there was
DNA Structure some chemical component, which he called the
"transforming factor," in the bodies of the
The experiments of Gregor Mendel established the pathogenic bacteria that led to a heritable change in
basic principles of heredity. These principles gave the live nonpathogenic bacteria. His study set the
rise to more questions that led to several significant stage for the discovery of the identity of the
researches. Upon the turn of the twentieth century, transforming factor. Today, it is known that in the
with the advent of biochemistry and molecular transformation experiment first conducted by
biology, the chemical nature of the gene was slowly Griffith, nucleic acids transferred from one bacterial
elucidated. Today, it is known that the genetic strain transformed the other bacterial strain, proving
material is found in chromosomes. that nucleic acid is the genetic material.

The Discovery of DNA as the Genetic Material

Avery's DNA Experiment
Griffith's Transformation Experiment
In 1944, Canadian biologist Oswald Avery and his
The discovery of DNA can be traced back to the co-scientists at the Rockefeller Institute in New
study made by a British medical officer in 1928. York decided to replicate the experiment of Griffith.
Frederick Griffith studied two strains of a They wanted to determine which molecule in the
bacterium, a harmless strain (rough strain or R heat-killed bacteria from the experiment is
strain) and a pathogenic strain (smooth strain or S responsible for the transformation. They reasoned
strain), that causes pneumonia. Mice injected with out that if they are able to find the molecule, they
the S strain died from pneumonic infection within a will be successful in finding the chemical nature of
few days, while mice injected with the R strain the genetic material.
continued to live. In his next set of experiments, They extracted a mixture from the heat-killed
Griffith killed the S strain by heat injection and the bacteria and treated it with enzymes to destroy other
mice survived. He also mixed the bacterial remains components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and
of the S strain with the living R strain. It was proteins (including the RNA). After the experiment,
revealed that the living bacterial cells were they found out that transformation still occurred,
"transformed" into a lethal form. He further leading them to conclude that none of those
observed that all the descendants of the next components are responsible for the transformation.
They repeated the experiment but used enzymes
that would break the DNA instead. In this
experiment, transformation occurred. This showed
that DNA is responsible for storing and transmitting
genetic information from one generation of an
organism to the next.

The Hershey-Chase Blender Experiment

In 1952, two American biologists, Alfred Hershey

and Martha Chase, also performed a series of
experiments using an ordinary kitchen blender in
identifying DNA as the genetic material. Their
experiment involved the use of a virus T2 that
infected the bacterium Escherichia coli. T2 is a
bacteriophage (also called phage), a virus that The Elucidation of the DNA Structure
infects only bacteria. It injects its host with a
component of its body to reprogram the host to The series of experiments after Hershey and Chase
produce more viruses. Hershey and Chase had no focused on the structure of DNA and what it looked
idea which component was responsible for the like. Several scientists laid the foundation before
mechanism, so they devised an experiment using Watson and Crick unveiled the structure of DNA.
radioactive isotopes to find out. They used two
Levene's Nucleotides
experimental setups: one contains bacteriophages
whose DNA were stained with radioactive In the 1920s, American biochemist Phoebus Levene
phosphorus, and the other contains phages whose analyzed the components of DNA. He established
protein coating were stained with radioactive sulfur. the fact that DNA is composed of four nitrogenous
The phages from both setups were then allowed to bases (cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine), a
infect E. coli. Hershey and Chase observed that the deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group. He also
radioactive phosphorus transferred to the cytoplasm laid the groundwork for the building block of DNA
of the bacteria. This led to the conclusion that known as a nucleotide, which consists of a base
DNA-not protein-was the genetic material that attached to a sugar, and a phosphate molecule.
carried the instructions to the host cell to produce However, he was not able to establish the correct
more viruses. proportions of the bases, which he assumed at the
time to be equal.
Chargaff Rules image useful in the creation of the three-
dimensional structure of DNA.
In the late 1940s, Austrian biochemist Erwin
Chargaff analyzed the proportion of the nitrogenous The Watson-Crick DNA Model: A Double Helix
bases in the DNA of various species. He found that
each species has a unique percentages of each type On April 25, 1953, an article in the scientific
of nucleotide. The total of nitrogenous bases in a journal Nature titled "Molecular Structure of
human cell, for example, is 31 percent adenine, 31 Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic
percent thymine, 19 percent guanine, and 19 percent Acid" was published. The two-page article was
cytosine. What is common among species is that the authored by American biologist James Watson and
amount of adenine (A) is always equal to the English physicist Francis Crick. This was the first
amount of thymine (T), and the amount of guanine published article that described the structure of the
(G) is always equal to the amount of cytosine (C). DNA as a double helix. Considered a "pearl" of
With these data, he established the Chargaff Rules science, the article contained the answers to how the
for the pairing of nitrogenous bases: genetic information inside the nucleus of cells was
stored and passed from one generation to the next.
1. DNA contains A, T, G, and C in proportions that The article was considered a giant scientific leap
vary from species to species. and a turning point in the development and rapid
progress of molecular biology and genetics.
2. Within the species, the amount of base pairs are
equal-that is, A = T and G = C. The structure of DNA proposed by Watson and
Crick was the amalgamations of numerous findings
Rosalind Franklin's X-Ray Diffraction from various scientists. The model was based on the
Rosalind Franklin, a researcher from King's College x-ray diffraction image taken by Rosalind Franklin
in London, studied the structure of DNA using a and Raymond Gosling in 1952. The pairing of the
technique known as x-ray crystallography. In DNA bases, where adenine pairs with thymine and
November 1951, Franklin delivered a lecture to a cytosine pairs with guanine, were based on Chargaff
group of scientists, including biologist James experiments. The presence of in vivo (inside the
Watson, on the two forms of DNA which she living body) double-helix DNA structure was
referred to as Type A (dry form) and Type B (wet reported by Maurice Wilkins in the same issue of
form). In her lecture, she mentioned that phosphate Nature in 1953. In recognition of the tremendous
units in a DNA are located in the external part of impact of the elucidation of the double-helix
the molecule, a model that likewise appeared in the structure of DNA, James Watson, Francis Crick,
DNA model of Watson and Crick in 1953. Photo 51 and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize
is an x-ray diffraction photograph of DNA taken by in Physiology or Medicine in 1962.
Franklin in 1952. In the experiment, a minute The structure of the DNA molecule as described by
amount of hydrated DNA was exposed to an x-ray Watson and Crick showed that the two strands that
beam for more than 60 hours, which resulted in the make up a DNA molecule are wound around each
scattering of its component molecules to produce an other, forming a double spiral molécule resembling
a twisted ladder. The backbone of the helix consists
of alternating sugars and phosphates, while the steps
of the ladder are made up of nitrogenous base pairs.
According to the Watson-Crick model, the different
nitrogenous bases form specific pairs, such that only
A pairs with T, while C pairs with G. As a result of
this specific pairing, the double-stranded DNA
molecule forms a uniform structure within the entire
length of a long helix. Hydrogen bonds connect the
nitrogenous base pairs together, making the double Lesson 12.2
helix highly stable. There are three hydrogen bonds The Nucleic Acids and Their Connection with
between C and G, and two hydrogen bonds between Inheritance
A and T.
Have you ever wondered why you are so complex?
Despite the advances in modern genetics and Your body is able to function in growth, cell repair,
molecular biology, the major features of the or development even without your conscious effort.
Watson-Crick DNA model remain the same and are How does the body know when to perform such
still valid even today. The key features of the DNA bodily activities? The answer lies in specific sets of
model include the following: instructions inside your DNA.
1. The helix turns clockwise (a right-handed double Every human body cell contains 23 pairs of
helix). chromosomes or a total of 46 chromosomes. A
2. The backbones of the helix are in opposing single chromosome contains many genes joined
directions (antiparallel chains). the helix. together like beads on a string. The genes are
packed in bundles of these chromosomes. Body
3. Nitrogenous bases are flat structures inside cells contain about 20000 to 25 000 genes. A gene,
as shown in figure 12-8, is a distinct portion of the
4. Bases are 3.4 angstrom units apart. DNA responsible for an inherited trait. Genes are
5. Adenine pairs with thymine using two hydrogen coded instructions for everything that must happen
bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine using three in the body, including how an individual functions
hydrogen bonds (base complementarity). and how a person looks. Normally, one gene
controls one character, but some characters are
6. There are 10 bases every 360° turn. coded by more than one gene.

7. There are 34 angstrom units in every complete Nucleic acids are organic compounds that function
turn. as storage of genetic information, which is
transmitted from one generation to the next in all
8. The double-helix diameter is 20 angstroms.
living organisms. It is the physical carrier of
9. DNA follows a semiconservative mode of inheritance that is passed from parents to offspring.
replication. Nucleic acids also function in protein synthesis as
they carry the code needed in the formation of
specific proteins. There are two types of nucleic
acids found in living organisms: deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Both types
are made up of basic building blocks called
mucleotides. A nucleotide is made up of a five-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. The nitrogenous bases are either double-
ringed purines (guanine and adenine) or single
ringed pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil).
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

(C5H10O4) (C5H10O5)

Strand Double- Single-stranded

stranded

Nitrogenous Adenine Adenine

bases
James Watson and Francis Crick described, the Thymine Uracil
structure of DNA as a double helix of repeating
nucleotides that are made up of a sugar Cytosine Cytosine
(deoxyribose), a nitrogenous base that is either a Guanine Guanine
purine (adenine and guanine) or a pyrimidine
(thymine and cytosine), and a phosphate group. The Location Mostly in the Mostly in the
pairing of nitrogenous bases is so specific that only nucleus but cytoplasm but
adenine pairs with thymine, while only cytosine may also be may also be
pairs with guanine. Thus, a gene refers to a specific found in found in the
sequence of nitrogenous bases that codes for a cytoplasm and nucleus
specific protein. DNA can be compared to a mitochondria
blueprint of guidelines that the body must follow to
exist and function properly. RNA, on the other Function Blueprint of Assists
hand, helps to carry out the blueprint's guidelines. biological carrying out
RNA is able to perform a variety of functions and guidelines that DNA’s
thus, is more diverse. DNA is able to carry complex living blueprint
information for longer periods of time and is thus organisms must guidelines
more stable. follow to exist
and function
Key features of DNA as genetic material: properly

DNA is STORED. - Organized into genes and

packaged in chromosomes

DNA is REPLICATED - Duplicates genetic

information with high fidelity

to affect phenotypes

DNA is DIVERSIFIED - Ability to mutate to

produce variation and drive evolution
Lesson 12.3 function properly. The complementarity of the
nitrogenous bases makes it possible for the DNA to
The Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics copy itself. One way to imagine the process of
Recall that a gene is a portion of the DNA. replication is to examine a cell prior to cell division.
Specifically, a gene's function is to control the During the G, stage of interphase, every
production of proteins inside the cells of organisms. chromosome in a cell is composed of one
As seen in figure 12-12, a gene is made up of a chromatid. Only during the next phase of
series of bases arranged in a specific order. In interphase, the S phase, is the sister chromatid
reality, a single gene may contain about several synthesized, resulting in chromosomes composed of
hundreds to millions of nitrogenous bases. The two chromatids or sister chromatids. The S phase,
order of the nitrogenous bases in a specific gene is or synthesis stage, is the process of replication.
the genetic code that gives instructions on what During replication, the two DNA strands connected
protein will be produced. by hydrogen bonds separate from each other. Each
In genetics language, the material found inside the old strand of the parent DNA is then used as a
nucleus which makes up an organism's complete set template for the building of a new strand in the
of genes called genotype must be expressed as an daughter DNA. This process is called a
observable characteristic or phenotype. This means semiconservative replication because one of the
proteins (phenotype) are produced using the complementing strands is conserved in either
language coded in the DNA (genotype). The daughter DNA.
process is summarized in the "central dogma of
molecular genetics." The flow of genetic
information is from DNA to messenger RNA
(mRNA) to protein.

Replication consists of three steps: unwinding, base

pairing, and joining. Replication begins when an
enzyme, DNA helicase, breaks the hydrogen bonds
between the nucleotides. This divides the DNA into
two single strands. As the helix unwinds, new
The series of processes involved in the production nucleotides are added to the parent strands by the
of proteins is called protein synthesis. It involves enzyme DNA primase. The DNA polymerase, then
the processes of replication, transcription, and continues to add more complementary base pairs
translation. such that A binds only to 7, and C only to G. DNA
Replication: How DNA Copies Itself polymerase does proofreading to avoid any
mistakes. At the end of the replication process, the
Cells need to make identical copies of their genetic enzyme DNA ligase seals any breaks in the new
material for growth and repair. Replication happens DNA strand. Both DNA polymerase and DNA
before cell division because each new cell is ligase also repair the DNA strands when damaged
required to have an exact copy of the parent cell's by harmful radiation or toxic chemicals.
DNA. Without replication, the new cell may not
In summary, replication is needed to ensure that all Translation: Making the Protein
the body cells carry the same genetic material and
that instructions are copied exactly for the next Translation is the last stage in gene expression,
generation. leads to the formation of protein. Specifically,
translation is the involved when genetic information
Transcription: Making Working Copies of the is used to create acids and the corresponding
Genes proteins. Inside the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches
to a ribosome to provide the code for the specific
An architect protects the original blueprint of a protein that will be made. The three-base code in
building in a safe place by only giving copies of the the mRNA is called a codon. During the process,
blueprint to his on-site workers. Similarly, the DNA the ribosomes move along the mRNA strand where
instructions are kept inside a safe place: the nucleus. the codons will be read and translated. The tRNA
Since the DNA does not leave the nucleus, it only attaches to the mRNA inside the ribosome. Acting
sends copies of the blueprint of particular genes out as an interpreter, the bases on the tRNA, called
of the nucleus to direct the assembly of a particular anticodon, read and translate the message by pairing
protein. It is the RNA's job to make blueprint copies up an equivalent three-letter code to the codons of
of the DNA's instructions. Three kinds of RNA are the mRNA. As the codon is read, tRNA brings the
involved in the process of protein synthesis, appropriate amino acid to the Each amino acid is
namely, the messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal represented by certain codons.
RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (TRNA).

In transcription, the mRNA copies specific

instructions from the DNA in the nucleus so that it
can bring the information to the cytoplasm for the
next step. Transcription begins inside the nucleus
when the DNA unzips between its base pairs. A
portion of the DNA serves as a template for mRNA
formation. The enzyme RNA polymerase initiates
the DNA transcription, ensures that the right
sequences are transcribed, and produces a
complementary strand. To form the RNA strand,
mRNA bases pair up with the existing DNA bases.
This process is similar to replication in that cytosine
pairs with guanine. But uracil, and not thymine,
pairs up with adenine. The mRNA leaves the
nucleus with the copy of the genetic instructions
and enters the cytoplasm. The universal language that translates the gene and
the amino acid is the genetic code, which matches
the three-letter combination of the four nitrogenous
bases to its equivalent amino acid. For example, the
codon GUA (with an anticodon CAU) will code for
the amino acid valine. A. codon (mRNA) is
complementary to the anticodon (tRNA).
The amino acids are then joined by peptide bonds to Based on Chromosome Number
form proteins. The protein chain grows as more
amino acids are attached. A change in chromosome number may be a
euploidy (whole genome) or an aneuploidy (a
In humans, only 20 amino acids are produced. change in number of chromosomes). Examples of
Further processing will happen before the protein aneuploids are the following:
becomes functional. After these processes, the
protein is used by the body for the various structural Klinefelter syndrome (2n = 47, 44 autosomes +
and physiological functions. These proteins will XXY) Turner syndrome (2n = 45, 44 autosomes +
then interact with other proteins and molecules in X)
the cells in order to create an observable
metafemale (2n = 47, 44 autosomes + XXX)
characteristic called phenotype (e.g., eye color, skin
color, hair type). Down syndrome or trisomy 21 (2n = 47).

Lesson 12.4 Aneuploidy is often caused by a phenomenon called

nondisjunction or the inability of the homologous
Genetic Mutations
sex chromosomes to segregate during meiosis.
Many diseases or abnormalities caused by defects in
Based on Chromosome Structure
the genetic material can be traced. Changes in the
chromosome of organisms that are inheritable and Changes involving chromosome structure may be in
are permanent are called mutations, or the form of deletion (loss of a segment). duplication
chromosomal aberrations. Different types of (a chromosome pair in excess of the normal
mutations can result in changes in the quantity or amount), inversion (rotation of a chromosome
quality of genes or chromosomes, and may or may segment), or translocation (transfer of a
not affect the phenotype of an organism. They may
also involve a change in the structure of
chromosomes or in DNA sequence. Mutations can
happen spontaneously or can be caused by
mutagens or mutagenic agents.
chromosome part to a nonhomologous Lesson 12.5
chromosome).
GENETIC DISORDERS
Based on Nucleotide Sequence
Genetic disorders are diseases caused by DNA
Changes involving DNA sequence could involve mutations and may be classified as heritable or
deletion or insertion of one nucleotide pair nonheritable. Heritable genetic disorders are due to
(microlesion or point mutation) or deletion or mutations found in the germ line (sex cells used in
insertion of a number of nucleotides in the DNA sexual reproduction) and are thus passed down from
sequence (framesbift mutation). A change of a parent to offspring. In contrast, nonheritable genetic
purine to a pyrimidine, or vice versa, is called disorders are caused by mutations in the DNA of a
transverse mutation. Sickle cell anemia (figure 12- person. A genetic disease may result from a single
21) is caused by a point mutation, resulting in the mutation in a gene, called a single-gene disorder.
replacement of the amino acid, glutamic acid, with More often, however, genetic disorders may be
valine. complex, multifactorial, or polygenic (the effect of
multiple genes in combination with lifestyle and
environmental factors). Below are some examples
of genetic disorders:

 Tay-Sachs disease or bexosaminidase A

deficiency is a rare and highly fatal autosomal
recessive genetic disorder characterized by the
progressive deterioration of nerve cells in the
brain and spinal cord. The disease is caused by a
defect in the HEXA gene that produces
hexosaminidase-A (Hex-A), an enzyme that
Mutations vary on the type of cell affected. Somatic
prevents the abnormal accumulation of a fatty
mutation in body cells affect only the part of the
substance called GM2 ganglioside in the nerve
genetic sequence of one defective cell and the
cells. Excessive accumulation of GM2 causes
succeeding daughter cells. This type of mutation is
damage to the cells. People with Tay Sachs
not passed on to the next generation. Sex cells
disease experience muscle weakness, speech
mutation, which involves the sex cells or germ cells,
problems, and impaired cognitive and motor
can be passed on to the organism's offspring and
functions. Symptoms may manifest in early
will be present in every cell of the offspring's body.
childhood.
 Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is a hereditary single-
gene disorder of the blood caused by a point
mutation in the specific chain (3-globin) of the
hemoglobin gene. The mutation occurs in
chromosome 11 when the hydrophobic amino
Not all mutations are bad for organisms. In fact, acid valine replaces the hydrophilic glutamic
some mutations could even lead to the evolution of acid. This causes the normally disk-shaped red
organisms. It may also cause variations in organism blood cells to become sickle- or crescent-
which lead to diversity. Other beneficial mutations shaped, which tend to block the blood flow in
include sickle cells' resistance to malaria, antibiotic
resistance in bacteria, resistance to atherosclerosis,
and immunity to HIV.
 the blood vessels. Symptoms of the disease hyperactivity, aggression, tantrums, and
include periodic episodes of pain in the arms, repetitive movements.
legs, chest, and abdomen, and recurrent  Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a
infections. recessive X-linked disease characterized by
 Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal degeneration of muscle cells, which may
recessive metabolic disorder that results from eventually result in death. This disorder is due
mutations in a gene located on chromosome 12 to a mutation in the dystrophin gene located on
that codes for the protein phenylalanine the X chromosome. The gene codes for the
hydroxylase (PAH), which breaks down the protein dystrophin, which connects the
amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine. High cytoskeleton of a muscle fiber to the
levels of phenylalanine can damage the neurons surrounding extracellular matrix through the cell
in the brain. PKU patients appear normal at membrane.
birth but may show intellectual disability after
several months. If left untreated, the disease Lesson 12.6
causes stunted growth, epilepsy, and behavioral Genetic Manipulations
problems. Other symptoms include skin rash
and a mouselike body odor. The term biotechnology was coined from the
 Hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency) and words "biology" and "technology" in the 1970s,
Hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency) are when the first genetically engineered bacteria
hereditary genetic disorders where blood- reported. In a broader biotechnology to the
clotting ability is impaired due to the mutation large-scale industrial use of biological processes
of genes found in X. People with either of the of microorganisms and cultured eukaryotic cells
two types of hemophilia bleed longer when in to produce substances or to provide services
wounded than unaffected people do. They may to humankind. Modifications of plant and
also bleed internally because of damage to the animal characteristics can also be classified as
organs and tissues, which can cause death. biotechnology.
 Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a disorder that results
from the abnormal transport of chloride and Prior to manipulating the organisms at the
sodium across an epithelium, leading to thick, molecular level, humans have been producing
viscous secretions that may clog the lungs, domestic animals and plants with desirable
pancreas, liver, and intestines. CF is caused by characteristics through selective breeding. By
mutations in the gene cystic fibrosis taking advantage of naturally occurring genetic
transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) variations in organisms, humans have been able
in chromosome 7. This life-threatening disease to pass these desired traits to the next
is characterized by persistent cough with generation. Hybridization, a process that merges
phlegm, frequent chest and lung infections, the best traits of different organisms, has aided
weight loss, difficulty in bowel movement, and humans for a long time. Inbreeding is also one
unusually salty-tasting sweat. of the techniques that breeders used to maintain
 Cri-du-chat syndrome, also known as "cat's the continuous transmission of desired traits
cry syndrome," is a rare genetic disorder along the generic line, particularly observed in
characterized by deletion of a certain portion of domesticated animals.
chromosome 5. Cri-du-chat syndrome is often
characterized by low birth weight and poor Recombinant DNA
growth; severe cognitive, speech, and motor
delays; and behavioral problems such as
Since then, biotechnology has often been enzyme, DNA ligase. The resulting recombinant
associated with genetic engineering, specifically DNA is then inserted into a host bacteria. This
in the development of genetically engineered process is called transformation. On the other
microorganisms. With the advancement of hand, when the recombinant DNA is inserted
knowledge about the DNA, geneticists have into a eukaryotic cell, the process is called
developed ways to produce organisms with transfection. A host cell containing a foreign
desired traits. Recombinant DNA technology is gene is called a transgenic cell. With the
a form of genetic engineering that allows genes advancement of genetic engineering, almost all
from one organism to be transferred into the types of cells (prokaryotes and eukaryotes) may
DNA of another organism. More and more be inserted with foreign genes to produce
variations of the technique enable scientists to transgenic organisms. A tobacco plant
produce more sophisticated solutions to transfected with a green fluorescent protein
problems that can be addressed by manipulating (GFP) from a jellyfish or a mouse transfected
the DNA of an organism. with a human growth hormone is an example of
a transgenic organism.
How are changes made in the DNA level?
Molecular biologists must use their knowledge Biotechnology in Your Food
of the DNA structure and its functions to
manipulate the DNA molecules including Explain Improvement of crop quality and yield
extracting the DNA from cells, cutting them to has been the major goal of farmers since people
smaller segments, identifying the sequence started to cultivate plants. Biotechnology in the
responsible for the trait, making unlimited area of plant research has been revolutionized
copies, and bringing them together with a over the past few decades in response to this
different segment forming a hybrid. The goal. Scientists have explored various ways of
genetic modification to give food crops
product of recombined fragments of DNA desirable characteristics such as resistance to
sequences from two or more different organisms insecticides and drought; improved taste,
is called recombinant DNA. texture, size, and color of fruits and vegetables;
and improved protein content in grain crops.
When a gene of interest coding for an important
gene product (protein) has been identified Genetically modified (GM) foods are crop
through a series of genetic analyses, that gene plants created for human or animal consumption
may be a candidate for recombinant DNA by employing the latest genetic engineering
production. A gene coding for a human methodologies. Among the GM foods
hormone is first identified and isolated from a successfully produced are the Flavr Savr tomato
human cell using a process called polymerase with a better taste; seedless watermelon,
chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a DNA tomatoes, and cantaloupes with modified
sequence and the enzyme DNA polymerase to ripening characteristics; protein-enriched
produce thousands of copies of a certain gene, potatoes; and corn enriched with lysine and
such as the human hormone gene. The amplified tryptophan. In addition, corn and cotton plants
genes are then cut using restriction enzymes with resistance to insects and other pests have
such as EcoRI to produce sticky ends on both also been produced. Today, there are over 40
the 3' and 5' regions. The gene with sticky ends plant varieties approved by the United States
will be recombined with a plasmid (circular Department of Agriculture (USDA) for
DNA isolated from bacteria) using. another commercialization. Moreover, according to
International Service for the Acquisition of companies use genetic engineering
Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), there are methodologies to produce medically important
90 plant varieties approved by the Philippine proteins in bacteria and other cells. The
Department of Agriculture. recombinant proteins that are commercially
available include proteins called anticoagulants,
Despite the potential benefits that humankind which are used to dissolve blood clots; insulin to
can derive from GM foods, there are those who treat diabetic patients; and vaccines to prevent
oppose their production and consumption. diseases.
Potential unknown environmental hazards are
often the argument against GM foods. Applications of genetic engineering in the
medical field are not limited to the production of
Biotechnology in Your Medicines medicines. The development of diagnostic
reagents and methodologies to accurately
Biotechnology has also been explored in the determine the disorder of a patient are also
medical field, specifically in the production of biotechnology. Many of the present forms of
drugs for treating different diseases. Many diagnosis involve the use of recombinant
human disorders are caused by the failure of the proteins and monoclonal antibodies. HIV,
body to produce critical proteins essential for tuberculosis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases are
proper functioning of the body. Biotechnology some of the diseases that can be determined
introduces a new approach called biopharming with the use of diagnostic reagents.
or molecular farming, in which plants and
animals are genetically modified to produce Gene therapy is another application of genetic
pharmaceutical compounds. Proteins resulting modification, which involves the identification
from manipulations in the DNA (recombinant and repair of mutated genes that cause diseases.
proteins) can be produced in large quantities and Gene therapy is done by putting a healthy copy
in highly purified forms. The types of animal of a gene into the cells of a person with a
biopharming currently being researched include defective or mutated gene. Although it is not
cows, sheep, and goats modified to produce the widely practiced at present, gene therapy is
substance in their milk, as well as chickens believed to be the common mode of treating
modified to produce the substances in their diseases in the near future.
eggs. Most biopharmed products have yet to
become commercial. Many are in various stages Biotechnology inside Your Body
of the research, development, and approval
process. Biochips are minute computers that were first
seen in science fiction movies to monitor the
In 2006, GTC Biotherapeutics Inc. became the movement of individuals and to serve as an
first company to be given permission to identification system. Today, they are used in a
commercialize the drug ATryn (made in the variety of applications. Biochips produced by
body of a transgenic animal) when it received Senseonics Inc. are implanted under the skin of
marketing authorization from the European diabetic patients to monitor their blood glucose
Medicines Agency (EMA). ATryn is a levels. This device eliminates the need for blood
recombinant form of human antithrombin extraction of patients who undergo blood
produced in transgenic goats. It is used in testing. With this biochip, diabetics will know
patients with congenital deficiency in blood instantly if they need to take insulin
clotting. Today, hundreds of pharmaceutical supplements.
 substances can be good alternatives to
Another biochip, the Activa implant, being traditional methods of pest control.
developed by Medtronic Inc., is focused on
turning off brain signals that cause uncontrolled Biofertilizers are genetically modified
body movements associated with diseases such microorganisms that are grown symbiotically
as Parkinson's disease. The current treatment of with crops. Soybeans and other leguminous
the disease involves the administration of brain plants naturally produce their own nitrogen
messengers called dopamine to contro! body fertilizer through nitrogen fixation, a process
movement. Dopamine works but its effect wears made possible by nitrogen-fixing bacteria that
off in time. The biochip aims to reversibly shut live symbiotically with the roots of the plants.
off the thalamus, the part of the brain that causes Through genetic engineering, these bacteria can
the uncontrolled body movement. be modified to live with other plants as well,
thereby making many crops nearly self-
Fig. 12-26. Professor Kevin Warwick of the that sufficient in obtaining nitrogen.
will mimic the action of photoreceptors, the
light-sensing University of Reading, UK shows Biotechnology in Our Environment
a human biochip similar to the one implanted (Bioremediation)
under cells of the eyes. These biochips aim to
help patients with retinitis his arm to track his Bioremediation generally refers to the use of
whereabouts in a pigmentosa (degenerative eye natural and recombinant microorganisms to
retinal disease) and other diseases building. break down toxic and hazardous substances in
the environment. It is applied in the treatment
Other implantable biochips being developed and disposal of wastes, which are major
include devices related to impaired vision to problems associated with industrialization.
gain back their eyesight. A biochip called Microbiologists identify and modify
Clarion manufactured by Advanced Bionics microorganisms with the fastest and most
works as a bionic ear in deaf children. A efficient capability to degrade waste materials.
microphone and speech processor outside the These microorganisms are allowed to grow in
body picks up sounds, which are then large quantities and then applied to waste sites
transmitted to the implant to stimulate the nerve or landfills for degradation purposes.
endings in the middle ear. Oil-eating bacteria are essential microbes used
to clean up oil spills, chlorinated chemicals, and
Biotechnology in Agriculture leaks from storage tanks. Through genetic
engineering, custom-made microbes can be
Modern methods of farming entail the use of produced. Genes responsible for the degradation
synthetic fertilizers and insecticides to increase of a specific oil can be isolated and inserted into
crop yield. However, these substances are the genome of other bacteria to produce a clone
hazardous to humans and animals and may with the same waste-degrading capacity.
cause chemical pollution.
PDF GALING SA MOD:
Genetic engineering makes the induced
mutation of bacteria possible to produce
chemicals called allelopathic agents, which can
serve as biopesticides and bioherbicides. These
- GOODLUCK PO!! <33333