BME 324

BIOMEDICAL SENSORS
AND TRANSDUCER

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Assoc. Prof. Gökhan ERTAŞ

Dept. of Biomedical Engineering

TEMPERATURE
Extremely important to human physiology:
 Low temperature can indicate onset of problems
(eg. Stroke)

 High temperature can indicate infection.

 Temperature sensitive enzymes and proteins can be

destroyed by adverse temperatures !

< 24°C Death usually occurs

~ 32°C Hallucinations, complete confusion, extreme sleepiness
(subject may think they are hot) Medical emergency

37°C Normal internal body temperature (36-37.5°C)

~ 41°C Vomiting, severe headache, fast heart rate and sometimes

breathlessness Medical emergency
2/40
> 44°C Death certainly occurs.

1
HUMAN BODY TEMPERATURE
Different parts of the body have different
temperatures:
 Rectal and vaginal measurements, or measurements
taken directly inside the body cavity, are typically
slightly higher than oral measurements.

 Oral measurements are somewhat higher than skin

temperature.

Temperature;
 in the anus (rectal), vagina, or in the ear is ~37.5°C

 in the mouth (oral) is ~36.8°C

 under the armpit (skin) is ~36.5°C 3/40

TEMPERATURE SENSORS
1. Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
The material is a metal
Positive temperature coefficients
(ie. metal resistance increases with
increase in temperature) Thermoresistive
Sensors
2. Thermistors (Thermally
Sensitive Resistor)
The material is a semiconductor
Negative/Positive temperature
coefficients

3. Thermocouples Thermoelectric
Two dissimilar conductors in contact Sensors 4/40

2
Comparison of RTD, Thermocouple and Thermistor

5/40

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are made of
metals whose resistance increases as temperature increases.

The RTD element is made from a pure material:

platinum, nickel or copper.

Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire

wrapped around a ceramic or glass core.

The element is usually

quite fragile, so it is
often placed inside a
sheathed probe to
protect it.
6/40

3
RTD RESISTANCE
The empirical relationship between the RTD resistance
R, nominal resistance Ro (its resistance at 0oC) and
temperature T in oC is

7/40

RTD RESISTANCE
Within a limited temperature range, R increases
linearly with temperature:

Platinum has the most linear resistance–temperature

characteristic making it preferable in most applications over the
temperature range between 0°C and +40°C.

 Its R0 is typically 100Ω.

 Its α1 is typically 0.00385/°C.

8/40
so @ 10°C, the platinum RTD will have 103.85Ω resistance!

4
EXAMPLE
A Platinum RTD has linear resistance–temperature
characteristic over the temperature range between 0°C
and +45°C. If its R0 = 100Ω and its α1 = 0.00385/°C,
Draw the resistance vs temperature graph for the
temperature range given.
From the graph determine the sensitivity of the RTD.
If the resistance of the RTD is 113Ω, find the
temperature measured.

9/40

WIRE CONFIGURATION of RTDs

RL The resistance of the copper wire connecting the

sensor to the electronics

The copper wires may become very long, and therefore

RL may become significant against the small resistance
values of the sensor itself.

When the copper wires are cut to short then RL ≈ 0.

10/40

5
RTD and WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Change in resistance of RTD is very small with respect
to the temperature!
Therefore, Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to
measure the RTD value.
Considering the wires of the RTD is very short (ie. RL≈0),
the circuits obtained would be as seen below.

11/40

2-WIRE RTD and WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Determine the resistance value of the RTD, RG in
terms of the output voltage, Vo of the Wheatstone
bridge seen below. (Assume R1 = R2 = R3 = R)

R1 R3

Vs
R2 RG

12/40

6
RTD and CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE

When RL is not ignored, it is preferable to use a

constant current source to feed the resistance
Temperature Detectors (RTD).

In this case, RTD would face to the same supply

voltage independent of the value of RL.

Constant
Current
Source

13/40

RTD and CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE

The opamp should be good quality. All the resistors should be

0.1% tolerance.

Any deviation in the values of these components will adversely

and considerably affect the generated current, thus the voltage 14/40
drop on the RTD to be measured.

7
CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
Find the current provided to the RTD in the
constant current source circuit seen below.
(Assume β of the transistor, Q1 is 100)

15/40

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE ENTIRE ANALOGUE

CIRCUITRY REQUIRED
In order to ensure a clear signal reaches the ADC, the employment
of a low-pass filter is sometimes a good addition to the circuit.

The filter can range from the simple RC low-pass filter to more
complicated active filter topologies designed for high gain.

16/40

8
HOW TO to Make a Homemade RTD

A temperature sensor
unit can be designed
by using an ordinary
"heater element"
like a heater coil.

17/40

THERMISTORS
Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”) are
semiconductors made of ceramic materials whose
resistance changes as temperature changes.

18/40

9
THERMISTORS
Advantages:
1) Can be made very small (~500um diameter)

2) Large sensitivity to temperature (3-4% / ºC)

3) Excellent long-term stability

Disadvantages:
1) Nonlinearity

2) Self-heating (keep current low to avoid)

Above specific current, current flow generates heat that

make the temperature of the thermistor above the ambient
temperature! 19/40

THERMISTORS
Change in resistance character divides the
thermistor into two types, depending in the way it
responds to the temperature:
1. Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor
(PTC):

Exhibits an increase in electrical resistance when

subjected to an increase in temperature.

2. Negative Temperature Coefficient thermistor

(NTC):

Exhibits a decrease in electrical resistance when

subjected to an increase in temperature.

NTC Thermistors have been heavily used in

biomedical applications! 20/40

10
NTC THERMISTORS RESISTANCE
The empirical relationship between the thermistor
resistance Rt and absolute temperature T in kelvin(K) is

 β : Material constant for thermistor in K (=2500~5000K,

usually about 4000K)

 T0 : Standard reference temperature in K (usually 298.15K)

 T : Ambient temperature in K.

 Ro: Nominal resistance at T0.

For biomedical applications, Ro may be

2252, 3000, 5000 or 10000Ω at T0 =25oC. 21/40

NTC THERMISTORS RESISTANCE

Material constant, β
determines the
resistance–temperature
characteristic curve of the
thermistor!

 It is not possible to
make a linear
approximation to the
curve over even a small
temperature range and
hence the thermistor is
very definitely a non-
linear sensor. 22/40

11
EXAMPLE
Find the resistance of an NTC thermistor with
Ro=2252Ω (at T0=25oC) and β=4000K if the thermistor
experiences 39oC temperature.

From the question:

T0= 25oC  T0 = 25oC + 273.15 = 298.15K and Ro=2252Ω

T = 39oC  T = 39oC + 273.15 = 312.15K

R39 = 2252Ω * e4000*(298.15-312.15) / (312.15*298.15)

≈ 1233.81Ω
23/40

EXAMPLE
An NTC thermistor with Ro=2252Ω (at T0=25oC) and
β=4000K has been used to perform temperature
measurements from a rat. If the measured resistance is
2000Ω then determine the temperature, T.

From the question: T0= 25oC  T0 = 25oC + 273.15 = 298.15K

Ro=2252Ω and Rt=2000Ω and β=4000K

Rt = Ro e [β(T0-T)/TT0]
ln(Rt/Ro)= β(T0-T)/TT0
T = βT0 / [T0ln(Rt/Ro) + β]

T = 4000*298.15 / [298.15*ln(2000 / 2252) + 4000] =300.81K

24/40
T = 300.81K – 273.15 = 27.66oC

12
HOW TO MONITOR TEMPERATURE?
Using a Wheatstone bridge arrangement connected to a
differential amplifier.

 Rf 
Vo1  V1   
 R
 1 
V1
 R3   R f 
V2 Vo 2    V2 1  
 R2  R3   R1 

Vo  Vo1  Vo2

25/40

HOW TO CONTROL A HEATER?

External devices such as heaters and motors
normally take a larger current than the output
of an op-amp can supply.

 To control the external

devices, a transistor is
connected to the
output of the op-amp
as a power amplifier.

26/40

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 27/40

THERMOCOUPLES
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors in
contact, which produce a voltage when heated.

 The size of the voltage is dependent on the difference of

temperature of the junction to other parts of the circuit.

 Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature

sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to
convert a temperature gradient into electricity.

Advantages: Fast response, small size

and ease of fabrication.

Disadvantages: Short life, small output

voltage, low sensitivity and need for a
reference temperature. 28/40

14
THERMOCOUPLES
When any two different metals are connected together,
an electromotive force (emf) , which is a function of
the temperature, is generated at the junction between
the metals.

1
Assuming T = T1 – T2  E  aT  bT 2  ....
2 29/40

THERMOELECTRIC SENSITIVITY
Thermoelectric sensitivity  (or the Seebeck coefficient)
is computed by taking the derivative of E:

1 dE
E  aT  bT 2       a  bT    
2 dT

 depends on the thermocouple type (ie. Type of the

metals used)

30/40

15
TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES

31/40

LINEARITY of EMF GENERATED

In common, emf generated is

1
E  aT  bT 2    
2
It is clear that this equation
is quite non-linear !

But for small changes in

temperature:
E  T 32/40

16
What happens when a voltmeter is connected across a
copper-constantan (Type T) thermocouple?

33/40

J3 is a copper-to-copper junction, it
creates no thermal EMF (V3 = 0)
J2 is a copper-to-constantan junction
which will add an EMF (V2)
J1 is a copper-to-constantan junction
which will add an EMF (V1)

V = V1 – V2 =  (TJ1 – TJ2)

To find the temperature at J1,

we have to first find the
temperature at J2. 34/40

17
REFERENCE JUNCTION
One way to determine the temperature at J2 is to
physically put the junction into an ice bath, forcing its
temperature to be 0°C and establishing J2 as the
Reference Junction.

V = V1 – V2 =  (TJ1 – TJ2)

Since TJ2 = 0°C

V =  TJ1 35/40

THE ISOTHERMAL BLOCK

A more convenient approach is cold junction
compensation.
 Reference junction is placed on an isotermal block.
 The temperature on this junction is continuously measured
using a temperature sensor.

V =  ( TJ1 – TREF)
36/40

18
Example
A temperature sensing circuit has been designed using
LM35 (analogue temperature sensor) and K-type
thermocouple to measure temperatures between 0 and
250oC).
 LM35 outputs 10mV/oC and seedback coefficient of the
thermocouple is 41μV/oC
 The thermocouple produces 0 - 10.151mV for 0 - 250oC
 The output of the circuit should be between 0 - 2.5V

Determine the
values of R2 and R4.

37/40

At the cold junction, LM35 should introduce an opposing cold

junction coefficient of -41μV/oC with R1 and R2:

38/40

19
 Vt

For 0 - 250oC;

 Thermocouple produces 0 - 10.151mV (i.e. Vt)

 The output of the circuit, Vo is asked to be 0 - 2.5V !

Op-amp Gain = 1 + (R4 / R3)  Non-inverting Amplifier

We need a gain of 246.3.

39/40
Therefore, 246.3 = 1 + (R4 / 5kΩ)  R4 = 1.23MΩ

40/40

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