TOPIC 2: COMMUNICATION MODELS USED IN EDUCATION

A Communication Model is a systematic representation of how the communication process takes

place. It is a simplified description of a communication process using diagrams or graphics done
consciously in a planned manner.
-Various models articulate theories of communication in terms of channels of communication,
originators of communication and receivers of communication. Communication models include:

Question/Problem: Using a general Educational Model of communication, describe effective

communication process in a school or classroom set up?
Answer/Solution:

A Simple Model of Educational Communication

Before defining communication, it is essential to consider why people communicate. If a teacher

ponders this query for a moment, a teacher will most certainly conclude that we most often
communicate intentionally to effect; we want a response. Human beings do not initiate
interpersonal communication unless they want something from the other person or persons. Of
course, unintentional communication frequently occurs, but the teaching process emphasizes
intentional communication.

Teachers seek responses from their students demonstrating learning, feedback used to evaluate
and adjust pedagogical communication. Students also use communication to receive responses
from teachers. They may want clarification, more explanation, or less work, but they want
something. Human communication is manipulation. Teacher understanding and mastery of
instructional communication will enable you to be just that: an influential and successful
educator (Baumgart and Halse, 1999). For purposes of communication in the classroom refers to
a source encoding messages sent through channels where they are decoded by a receiver which
supplies feedback. The entire process occurs in an environment filled with noise. An Educational
Communication Model as shown in figure 1.

SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER

ENVIRONMENT/
CONTEXT NOISE

FEEDBACK

Figure.1 Educational Communication Model

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The "source" in the model typically refers to the teacher or trainer, but students also generate
messages. A source is the origin of the message and, before actually teaching. Teachers must
prepare the goals and objectives for specific instruction and select carefully the measurable
outcomes by which student success can be determined. The teacher must clearly understand what
the student is expected to learn.

The "Encoding" refers to the ability to translate. Teachers arouse meaning in their students
through the creation of messages, both verbal and nonverbal. Once teachers determine the
specific goals for the instruction at hand, then they prepare messages designed to arouse the
appropriate meaning in the students necessary for the achievement of the goals. The encoding
process does not enable the teacher to transmit meaning to the students. Preferably, the teacher
transmits information, symbols that should result in student understanding. Misunderstood
messages fail to contribute to meeting the instructional goals. Therefore, the teacher's encoding
process must be adapted or translated to meet the students' needs, a formidable challenge in the
intercultural setting.

The "Message" component of the communication model consists of the verbal and nonverbal
behaviors intended to stimulate receiver meaning. While the teacher's verbal message receives
the most preparation and concern, a multitude of nonverbal cues also influences student learning.
Remember, Thailand is the "Land of Smile," and instruction must be conducted in a friendly
fashion. Smiles, a tone of voice, teacher dress, time, touch, eye contact, and use of space all
contribute heavily to the classroom communication environment.

The "Channel" designates the means through which messages travel from the source to the
receiver. In the classroom, the human senses form the basis for the channel. Teachers assign
reading, give lectures, and provide consulting. Each of these activities involves varying human
senses. Effective teachers include a multitude of acoustic devices to maintain student interest.
Multiple channels increase student involvement and contributions to the students' long-term
retention of instruction.

The "Decoding" portion of the model refers to the interpretation of messages received. Since we
do not transmit meaning, the primary hope is that the message encoded will be similar to the
message decoded. Of course, occasionally students decode unintended messages, usually
nonverbal cues. Effective teachers focus on intended messages and carefully create a
consciousness of the potential unintended cues capable of influencing students.

The "Receivers" consist of the audience for whom sources create messages, in your case the
students. Messages are seen and heard by students to interpret what they perceive the teacher
meant. Student receivers also evaluate messages regarding their meaning. Negatively evaluated
messages do not contribute to learning. An effective teacher focuses on the students' behavioral
responses to determine whether the instructional goal has been met.

The "Feedback" can be defined as the students' responses to the teacher's message. Since we
communicate with intent to effect, the feedback determines the degree to which the teacher
succeeds in teaching.

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The final component of the Educational communication model, "Noise," designates any
interference in the process. Noise is inevitable. Noise consists of not only sound but other
hindrances to the process. A loud stereo or sounds from a construction site make decoding
challenging, but fatigue, hunger, and daydreaming also interfere with effective communication.
One of our colleagues, for example, loathes teaching in the afternoon because students often
become lethargic after lunch. Teachers can contribute to noise by inadequate preparation leading
the students to believe that the material is unimportant or trivial. Once the instructional goals and
objectives are established, redundant messages sent through multiple channels assist in the
management of noise. Noise must be dealt with by increased teacher dynamism and enthusiasm
to overcome the distractions and makelearning possible. Redundant messages will assist you in
dealing with noise. Approach the topic under discussion from a variety of points of view with an
equal variety of messages (Knutson, 2004). All these happen within a specific
“Environment/Context” (Classroom/Laboratory/Library/learning field).

Conclusions

In summary, instructional communication involves a process where teachers (sources) establish

objectives (encoding), create messages to teach skills necessary to achieve objectives, send these
messages through proper channels to students (receivers) who provide feedback. Notice that the
instructional communication process is circular or transitive with participants behaving as
sources and receivers simultaneously. Assiduous observation of feedback, probably the most
crucial element of the model, contributes most heavily to successful instruction. Finally, all of
the instructional communication elements function in an environment bundled with noise,
distractions, and disturbances to understanding and meaning. While noise can never be
eliminated, it can be managed through redundant messages and dynamic teacher presentation
within a specific learning environment.

2.1. The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

This model was first published by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1948. Shannon was
an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an American scientist. They
were primarily interested in “machine translation”, and how early computers, radios and
televisions transmit information. Both of them joined together to write an article in “Bell
System Technical Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called
as “Shannon-Weaver model of communication.”
However, at first the model/theory was developed to improve Technical communication. Later
it was widely applied in the field of human Communication, and it remains hugely influential in
modern social sciences. It is the foundation of most current communication theories, and for
this reason, it is sometimes referred to as “the mother of all models.”
This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and
receiver. They also found factors which affect the communication process called “Noise”.

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The model deals with various concepts/elements like Information Source, Transmitter,
Noise, Channel, Message, Receiver, Channel, Information Destination, Encode and
Decode.

Sender: The originator of the message or information is the sender who is the person, group or
organization that first thinks of the message that they want to communicate.

Encoder: Is the transmitter which converts the message into signals. The encoder takes this
message and turns it into signals. In other words, this is the language we use to express our
thoughts. It could be written or spoken, or equally could be through signing or body
language. Even using gifs and emojis is a form of encoding.
-The sender’s messages are converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the
voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables.
Channel: The channel refers to how the message is sent. This could be sound through the air
waves in a spoken conversation, or binary data transmitted electronically in an email or text. Of
course, depending on the channel, the sender and receiver may need equipment such as phones,
computers, etc.
Decoder: Is the reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode. The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is
comfortable and understandable for receiver. Otherwise a receiver can’t receive the exact
message because barriers in between the sender and the receiver tend to affect the effective
communication. This could be a machine that does this electronically using binary data, or it
could be our brains, when we pick upon all the language and communication data, including
words, visuals, intonation and so on that form a communication transaction.
Receiver: Is the destination of the message from sender. Finally, the receiver has the message,
interpreted by their brain into something meaningful. Based on the decoded message the receiver
gives their feedback to sender. Of course, we all know that the process is not always that simple,
and there are often obstacles to communication. Therefore, the Shannon-Weaver model
introduces the concept of “noise.” If the message is distracted by noise (Communication
Barriers) it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver.

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Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may be distracted or be affected by physical noise like horn sounds,
thunder and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission
process which affects the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct
message. The model clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there is any problem that occurs in networks which
directly affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages.
Criticism of the Model
1. The Shannon-Weaver model is not perfect. As well as not focusing on differences in human
interpretation.
2. It has also been criticized for over-simplifying the process, and making communication
seem linear and one-way process. If it is like that, it will lose its strength. For example:
Audience or receiver who is listening a radio, reading the books or watching television is a
one-way communication because of the absence of feedback.
3. It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience
4. The model is only based on “Sender and Receiver.” Here the sender plays the primary role
and receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)
It also struggles to support modern multi-media communication with mass audiences
accessing information at different times.
Note: Although the model has the mentioned weaknesses, it has some strength because, its
fundamental principles are still relevant, and it has served as the building block for many other
modern models and theories of how we communicate. Understanding Noise will help to solve
the various problems in communication

2.2. Osgood- Schramm Model of Communication

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature

This model is also known as the Osgood-Schramm model of communication. Unlike other
communication models, this model is a circular or cyclical model that consists of all the essential
elements of communication.

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Osgood-Schramm’s Model of Communication was proposed in 1954 and had its origins in the
Shannon-weaver model. Initially, it was proposed by Charles Osgood. He initially proposed that
communication is not a linear model but a circular model. This model was later amended by W.
Schramm, who mentioned it in his book.
This model takes a classic approach to explain the flow of communication. It suggests
that communication is a two-way path with the message continually passing between the
sender and receiver.
The basis for this model is that the message should be understood between the sender and
receiver. For example, an art professor will not be able to explain past participle tense to a group
of students.
Elements of the Osgood-Schramm model of communication include; Encoder or Sender,
Decoder or Receiver, Interpreter, and message. This model states that communication is a
two-way highway, which means that information passes between the sender and receiver.
One part of this model states that the message passes from the sender to the receiver, but
similarly, when the receiver sends a message back to the sender, then role reversal takes place.
The sender becomes the receiver and vice versa.
This model states that two elements are required to send a message that is the sender and the
receiver, and both of them have to encode and decode the message. This is crucial for the
effectiveness and correct interpretation of the message.
Usually, when information reaches the recipient, he aims to comprehend what the sender is
trying to convey. If the receiver cannot comprehend or decode the message sent by the sender,
then the entire process of communication is of no use. Therefore decoding and encoding should
be considered as two crucial parameters for effective communication.
The model emphasizes that communication is not complete until the sender gets feedback from
the receiver. The earlier model of communications used to end when the information was sent to
the receiver.
They followed a unidirectional flow of communication. On the other hand, this model is based
on the bidirectional flow of communication in which the sender and receiver interchange their
roles. Osgood and Schramm firmly believed that communication is a two-way process.
In this model of communication, there is no fourth element, unlike Berlo’s Communication
model. The message starts from the sender; it is encrypted and then passed on to the receiver.
This receiver decodes the message and understands it. Then an appropriate reply is encoded by
the receiver, who then becomes the sender and sent back to the sender who is now the receiver.
NOTE: the sender becomes the receiver and vice versa.

Elements of Osgood- Schramm Model of Communication

1. Source
The sender is termed as the source of the message since he’s the one who composes and sends
the message to the receiver. The message must be clear and legible, understandable by the
receiver, and the sender has to take care of all of these things.
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The sender has to ensure that the information or the message that he is sending to the receiver is
relevant, essential, and precise. The message is usually encoded so that the recipient can decode
and understand the message later.
The source of the message is the originating element from which the communication begins, but
in the case of this model, it is the same place where communication ends. That is, the sender
becomes the receiver and vice versa.
2. Receiver
The receiver is also known as the decoder of the message. The receiver is the one to whom the
sender’s messages are sent. There are multiple factors to consider ensuring that the recipient
understands the message by decoding it.
It is also crucial that the receiver understands the source correctly, and both of them have
common factors such as language, culture, understanding, etc. Because if the sender is unable to
communicate in the receiver’s language, then the whole purpose of the messages is defeated.
Imagine a Japanese person and a Portuguese person trying to have a conversation when both do
not understand each other. There is not a lot that will pass between them unless they have a
translator or an interpreter.
Just like in coding, decoding is considered as a psychological process. The brain interprets the
message received by the receiver and records it to make meaning.
The process of communication can be termed as successful only if the receiver can understand
the sender.
3. Message
The message is the core content of the communication, and it can be a text, audio, video, or a
combination of all. The message is the communication that is passed from the sender to the
receiver.
It can also be verbal or non-verbal, depending on the sender and the receiver. However, the
message plays a crucial role in every communication model because it is the communication
itself that is to be transferred from the sender to the receiver.
Non-verbal expressions such as handshake, facial expressions, body language, and verbal content
such as text, audio, speech, message, pictures are used to communicate the message.
Sometimes an interpreter may be present to ensure that the respective receiver or the sender
correctly understands the message. The interpreter analyses and interprets the message for the
sender as well as the receiver.
If the interpreter misunderstands the message, then the wrong information will be sent to the
receiver, which will fail the communication model.
4. Feedback
It is a well-established fact that the recipient plays a significant role in communication models.
Feedback is when the receiver starts transmitting information based on the input which he has
received from the sender. This information is transmitted back to the sender. Therefore, the
sender in the earlier process becomes the receiver.
Feedback can also be seen as a message because it satisfies all the criteria of being a message. It
originates on one side and ends on the other side. Feedback may not be as descriptive as the
message itself but can include anything from a head nod in agreement to a speech.
Feedback is crucial to understand for the sender whether the receiver has understood the
information correctly. This improves the effectiveness of the communication.
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If the receiver is unable to comprehend the sender, the sender can make appropriate changes to
the communication and transmit it back to the receiver. Questions such as ‘Can you please
explain further?’ ‘Are there any doubts?’ will help you to get feedback from the receiver.
5. Semantic Noise
The semantic noise is interruptions that are caused in the process of communication. The noise
disrupts the message, failing the message, and the communication process.
The intended meaning with which the sender sends the messages may or may not be understood
by the receiver because of the presence of noise. Noise is responsible for diluting the message
and may also result in an alteration of the meaning of the message.
For example, the sender sent the message, which says that; “Buy one, get one free. Offer for a
limited time.” But the receiver only hears the first part of the message, which is “Buy one get one
free.” Therefore, he understands that the offer is for an indefinite time, although this was not the
sender’s intention. Hence this is called semantic noise.
Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult and people
get deviated from the actual message.

Strengths/Advantage of Osgood - Schramm Model of Communication

1. This is the first model of communication, which is not a linear model. Communication
process is assumed to be circular in nature. This does not assume that communication is a
unilateral process but considers it a bilateral process making it a circular model. This
model allows both the sender and receiver to compose and send it to the other party,
thereby allowing both to be in each other’s role.
2. The concept of noise is included in the communication model, which helps to understand
the problems which may occur during the decoding of the message by the sender.
3. Since there is a feedback in this model of communication, it makes it easier for the sender
to understand if the message has been received, interpreted, and comprehended by the
receiver or not. The sender can also check if the receiver understands the message as the
sender intended it.
1. It is a dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change
2. It shows why redundancy is an essential part
3. There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person

Criticism of Osgood - Schramm Model of Communication

1. The model is based on the assumption that encoding and decoding do not require any
external assistance and takes place independently and on its own. This is not the case in
the process of communication. Both encoding and decoding require assistance. If a text
message is sent to you, you cannot read it with a mobile phone.
2. This model cannot deal with complex communication processes and a communication
model that has different levels in it. It primarily considers that there are a sender and
receiver. In reality, there may be multiple senders or receivers, and communication can
be a multistep process that is not considered by this model.
3. This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding and
decoding.
Conclusion:

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Schramm’s model of communication has more practical usability than Berlo’s, or Shannon and
Weaver models.
This model can be considered as an amalgamation of classic elements as well as modern
elements like Semantic noise and feedback. It has more practical applications than previous
communication models.

2.3. Berlo’s SMCR (Source, Message, Channel, Receiver) Model of Communication

Berlo’s Model follows the SMCR Model. This model is not specific to any particular
communication. Berlo’s model includes a number of factors under each of the elements ie:
S - Sender; M - Message; C - Channel and R - Receiver

1. S – Sender
The person or the source from whom the message begins is the sender of the message. The
sender sends the message to the receiver who receives it and decodes it. The sender is a common
element in most of the communication models. The sender composes the message to be sent to
the receiver.
Factors Related to or Affecting the Sender (Characteristics of the Source that Lead to
Successful Communication):
(i) Communication skills
The sender’s or receiver’s communication skills are the ones that affect the communication
process. The quality of the message depends on the quality of the communication skills of the
sender.
You can’t get the right message if the message is not composed correctly. Also, if the receiver
does not have good communication skills, then he will not be able to comprehend the message
since communication is not only about talking but also about listening and understanding.
Also, other skills like listening, writing, reading, etc. depends on communication skills, and if
they are not good enough, then the process of communication will not be effective.
(ii) Attitude
The message of the communication is dependent on the attitude of the sender and receiver. The
entire tone of the message depends on the attitude of the sender as well as the receiver.

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Their attitude towards the message, the receiver, and even towards self, constructs the meaning
of the message. A message sent with a positive attitude will create a different meaning, while a
message sent with a negative attitude will have entirely different effects.
(iii) Knowledge
If the sender and receiver are familiar with the subject of the message then it will have a different
effect on the message but if either of them is not aware of the topic and do not have enough
knowledge, then the message may not be conveyed effectively and will be subject to error.
(iv) Social systems
There are many social systems between the sender and the receiver, which affects the message.
There may be values, laws, etc. which may affect the sender.
For example, if a sender is German and the receiver is Norwegian, then definitely the message
will not be conveyed. Not only because of the language barrier but also because of different
social systems.
(v) Culture
Different cultures will have different messages. Even one message can be interpreted in different
ways by different cultures. Something which is not offensive in one culture may be offensive in
another culture, and it is essential to know such subtleties before entering into multi-cultural
communication.

2. M – Message
The actual substance or the context of communication is called a message. It is something that is
transferred from the sender to the receiver and can be in any form like a text, video, or other
media.
Factors Related to or Affecting Message (Characteristics of the Message that Lead to
Successful Communication):

(i) Structure of the Message

The way a message is composed or structured affects the effectiveness of the message. This will
affect both the sender and the receiver equally. A message which is not structured correctly will
be not only incomprehensible but also be open to interpretations.
(ii) Content
The matter of the message is called the content. The content is present in every message, be it
audio, video, text, or combination of these elements. The receiver will appreciate excellent and
engaging content.
(iii) Treatment
How the message is relayed across to the receiver is called as treatment. Treatment affects the
feedback of the receiver. One should realize the importance of the communication message and
also is expected to know how to handle it.
(iv). Elements of the Message
Elements of the message which are non-verbal elements like tone, expressions, signs or gestures,
etc. A message could have multiple elements, like hand movements, gestures, expressions, etc.
(v) Code

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How the message is sent is called the code of the message. For, e.g., Audio, text, video, sound,
etc. consider it as a password. Enter the wrong code, and the account won’t open. Similarly, use
the wrong code, and it will disrupt the message.

3. C – Channel
Medium which is used to send the message, is known as a channel. There are multiple channels
in communication, depending on the message like the internet, radio, television, print, etc.
Berlo’s channels refer to the five human senses which can interpret the message encounter. The
channel is affected or somewhat dependent on these five senses when it comes to the
effectiveness of the message.

Five Senses Affecting the Channel that Lead to Successful Communication:

(i). Hearing
The message that we receive through hearing.
(ii). Seeing
The messages which are received by seeing, be it verbal or non-verbal
(iv). Touching
While verbal communication occurs with a proper medium like text or picture, non-verbal
communication primarily takes by a handshake, or a frown or happy look.
(v). Smelling
A lot of information such as fragrance, the freshness of the product can be known by smelling.
(vi). Tasting
Useful information such as the quality or taste of the product can be sent as a message via taste.

4. R – Receiver
-The receiver is at the other end of the communication process at the exact opposite end of the
sender. The receiver is the one who decodes and comprehends the message of the sender.
-It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message clearly because, even
though he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning clearly. For effective
communication to take place, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level. This
implies that for communication process to be effective, factors affecting the sender should be the
same as the factors affecting the receiver eg; Communication Skills, Attitude, Knowledge,
Social System and Culture,
-The receiver maybe a class listening to the teacher, people watching the T.V or people listening
to a audio e.g. radio.
-One person may act as a source of communication and sometimes as receiver e.g. telephone
conversation.
-In the classroom the teacher can also be a receiver because he will watch his pupils and when
their reaction appears as not understanding he reacts again he is also a source because he
possesses the information.
-For communication to be complete there has to be feedback hence characteristics of source
should be as those of a receiver.
-The receiver must have patience to listen, observe and feel the message.

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Factors/Characteristics of a Receiver that Lead to Successful Communication
The receiver must be willing to accept the communication process. He must not have any doubt
against the source or any bias against the message.
1. Communication Skills
2. The Attitude of the sender and the source is important If pupils have an attitude towards the
teacher they will not accept his message.
3. The Background Knowledge of the receiver i.e. how much does the receiver know about the
message. If the receiver has no information about the message the message fails to be received
effectively.
4. Social-Cultural Context It has significant influence on communication some gestures are
culturally biased and have to be understood within their cultural context.

Strengths/Advantages Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

1. The model is straight forward as compared to modern communication models. All the
primary factors which are a part of any communication process are taken into
consideration along with the factors which affect them.
2. This model is still being used in some cases of purer forms of communication, like
person-to-person communication.
3. This model forms a basis for higher communication models.

Limitations/Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

1. It does not mention the barriers to communication. There is no room for noise. The
primary source of interruption for the failure of any message is noise, and this model does
not consider noise or any other limitations in the process of communication. Most of the
messages are lost today because of noise, and hence marketers and advertisers should
consider this while communicating to the customers.
2. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown. Unlike a two-way
model of communication, there is a complete absence of feedback. Feedback is one of the
crucial aspects of every communication process, and it is essential especially in modern-
day communications and competitive markets.
3. It is a rather complex model.
4. It is a linear model of communication.
5. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen.
However, that rarely happens in everyday life.
6. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel of
communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing
etc.)
Conclusion
Thus, Berlo’s model of communication is a crucial concept to understand various elements of the
communication model along with the factors which affect them. It can be used for designing and
understanding basic communication processes.

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