Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan

Emergency Preparedness
What is Emergency?
A major emergency can be defined as an accident/incident that has potential to cause serious
injuries or loss of life. It may cause extensive damage to property, serious disruption both in
production and working of factories and may adversely effect the environment.
Types of Emergencies
● Onsite Emergency - If an accident/incident takes place in a factory, its effects are
confined to the factory, its effects are confined to the factory premises, involving only the
persons working in the factory and the property inside the factory it is called as Onsite
Emergency
● Offsite Emergency - If the accident is such that its effects inside the factory, are
uncontrollable and it may spread outside the factory premises, it is called as Offsite
emergency
Why Emergency Plan?
● To take prompt corrective actions to save lives and suffering/injuries
● To protect plant machines, equipments, and buildings etc.
● To protect loss of materials
● To protect and minimize property losses
● To resume normal situation or operation within minimum possible time
Emergency Planning - Each factory or industrial unit should prepare a written emergency plan
incorporating details of action to be taken in case of any major accident/disaster occurring inside
the factory. The plan should cover all types of major accidents/occurrences and identify the risk
involved in the plant. Mock drills on the plan should be carried out periodically to make the plan
foolproof and persons are made fully prepared to fight against any incident in the plant.
Assembly Points - A safe place far away from the plant should be pre-determined as an
assembly point where in case emergency personnel evacuated from the affected areas are to
be assembled. The plant workers, contract workers and visitors should assemble in the
assembly point in case of emergency and the time office clerk should take their attendance so
as to assess the missing persons during emergency.
Key Personnel for onsite emergency
1. Works Main Controller
2. Works Incident Controller
3. Other Key Officers - Communication Officer, Security and Fire Officer, Telephone
Operators, Medical, Personnel/Administrative Officer, Essential Work Team Leaders
Alarm System: Alarm Systems vary and will depend on the size of the works area - simple fire
bell, hand operated siren - break open type, fire alarm etc. Automatic alarm may be needed for
highly hazardous nature of plant
Siren for Emergency - The emergency siren should be audible to a distance of 5KM radius.
The emergency siren should be used only in case of emergency.
Escape Route - The escape route from each and every plant should be clearly marked. The
escape route is the shortest route to reach out of the plant area to the open area, which leads to
the assembly point. This route should be indicated on the layout plan attached to the On-Site
Emergency Plan.
Evacuation - All non-essential staff should be evacuated from the emergency site. As soon as
the emergency siren rings the workers have to shut down the plant and move to the assembly
point. The plant shut down procedure in case of emergency should be prepared and kept ready
and responsible persons should be nominated for the purpose
Mock drills - Mock drills on emergency planning should be conducted once in 6 months and a
sequence of events should be recorded for the improvement of the exercise. Exercises on
Onsite Emergency Planning should be monitored by Factory Inspectorate and the high officials
of the organization and the plan is reviewed every year.
Emergency Facilities - The following facilities should be provided in any factory to tackle any
emergency at any time.
1. Fire protection and fire fighting facilities
2. Emergency lighting and standby power
3. Emergency equipment and rescue equipment - Breathing apparatus with compressed air
cylinder, Fire proximity, Ladders, Water Gel Blanket, Low Temperature Suit, First Aid Kit,
Stretchers, Torches.
4. Safety Equipment - Respirators, Gum Boots, Safety, Hand Gloves, Goggles and face
shield, Toxic gas measuring instruments, Explosive Meter, Oxygen measuring
instruments, Wind Direction Indicator
Off Site Emergency Plan - The main objectives of the off-site emergency plan are
1. To saves lives and injuries
2. To prevent or reduce property losses and
3. To provide for quick resumption of normal situation or operation
The Off-Site Emergency Plan shall be prepared by the District Magistrate in consultation with
the factory management and Government Agencies . The plan contains up-to-date details of
outside emergency services and resources such as Fire Services, Hospitals, Police etc. with
telephone. The district authorities are to be included in the plan area
1. Police Department
2. Revenue Department
3. Fire Brigade
4. Medical Department
5. Municipality
6. Gram Panchayat
7. Railway Department
8. Telephone Department
9. Factory Department
10. Electricity Department
11. Pollution Control Department
12. Explosive Department
13. Press and Media

Risk Assessment - Hazardous factories and their hazard identification, other hazard prone
areas, specific risks, transportation risk, storage risks, pollution risks by air and water pollution,
catastrophic risks such as disasters, natural calamities, earthquakes, landslide, storm, high
wind, flood, scarcity, heavy rain, lightening, massive infection, heavy fire, heavy explosion,
heavy spill, toxic exposure, environmental deterioration etc; risks from social disturbances, risks
from the past accidents must be considered while carrying out risk assessment for a particular
area from which the off-site emergency plan is to be prepared.

Risk Communication and Public Awareness

On the basis of risk assessment the risk communication activity should also take place to the
stakeholders - local residents, NGOs etc. Awareness about do’s and don’ts through leaflets,
mass media etc. should be carried out regularly. The training and capacity building of local
populations should be carried out as per the requirements. These activities should be done
regularly under CSR.

Unit 2: Safety Storage, Handling, Loading, Unloading, and Transportation of

Chemicals

Chemical Compatibility Considerations

● Chemical Compatibility is a measure of how stable a substance is when mixed with
another substance. If two substances can mix together and undergo a chemical reaction,
they are considered Compatible
● Chemical Compatibility Guidelines
1. Accidental Breakage
2. Container Failure
3. Fires and Earthquakes
4. Mixing of gases or vapors from poorly closed containers
5. Mistakenly storing incompatibles together because of improperly isolated
containers
● Chemical Compatibility Test
1. Chemical Compatibility Test for Wastes and Membrane Liners was “intended to
determine the effects of chemicals in a surface impoundment, waste pile, or
landfill on the physical properties of a flexible membrane liner intended to contain
them
2. Material Compatibility refers to a material’s resistance to corrosion, rust or stains
when it comes in contact with a chemical
● Why incompatible chemicals are stored separately
1. Storing incompatible chemicals together could create a hazardous reaction such
as the production of toxic gas, accelerated corrosion, or an exothermic reaction
which could result in an explosion and/or fire
2. Non metallic materials have better resistance to HCL Acid than metallic
materials. Rubber-lined vessels are commonly used for hydrochloric acid
storage. Polypropylene, PVC, PTFE, FEP, PFA, ECTFE, PVDF, and FRP can be
used as long as recommended temperature limits are followed
3. Example - Bleach and Ammonia, both commonly used as cleaners, can undergo
a dangerous chemical reaction when combined with each other. Even though
 each of them has a similar use, care must be taken not to allow these chemicals
to mix
Blanketing of Tanks
● The main purpose of blanketing is to prevent formation of flammable mixture, but it also
prevents product oxidation or moisture absorption
● There is a nitrogen N2 line with a pressure control device at the tank top to admit
nitrogen and maintain a pressure of 100 mm WC
● If the pressure rises, it is vented to atmosphere through flame arrestor and breather
valve
● In case of pressure drop and non-availability of N2 for some reason, the breather valve
admits atmospheric air to avoid dangerous crumpling of the tank.
● Tanks may also be provided with an emergency pressure vent
● Also referred to as nitrogen padding, is a process where gaseous nitrogen is introduced
into an empty or partially filled storage tank or container. The nitrogen will prevent the
onset of chemical reactions that may cause explosions, oxidation, or other unwanted
effects
Transfer of Chemicals by Pipelines within and outside the installation
● Pipelines can be
● Pipelines for carrying chemicals are preferably installed in trenches or tunnels
● Pipelines for carrying flammable should not be installed in tunnel
● Overhead pipeline should be isolated so that they will not drop on anyone underneath
● Above ground pipeline should have crossovers at required places and protected against
loads, scathe, and mal use
Design Layout outside the plant
● Pipelines carrying certain chemicals may be installed in trenches or tunnels by providing
proper slopes and keeping sufficient elbow room for easy maintenance operation
● Overhead pipe rack clearance where the piping system cross above the roadways
overhead clearance must allow easy movement of vehicles, heavy equipment such as
cranes with minimum danger of collision and clearance is 5.5 m to 6 m from the ground
level
● Pipe alloys must not pass through dyked areas, a fire in the dyked areas can rupture
pipes causing serious problems with potential leaks in the dyke
Inplant Piping
● Pipe alloys should not run over the aisles
● Corrosive chemical lines to be installed towards the walls
● Flange joints and valve glands are protected against accidental spray by providing
deflection
● Expansion of Pipes-Steam Pipe must always be arranged free to expand longitudinally
due to change in their temperature
● High Pressure Steam Pipe should have provision for expansion about 40-60 ft. for
straight run and Low Pressure Steam Pipe about 80-100 ft.
Pigging
● A pig or pipeline inspection gauge in the pipeline industry is a tool that is sent down a
pipeline and propelled generally by the pressure of the product in the pipeline itself
 ● The original pigs were made from straw wrapped in wire and used for cleaning pipelines
● They made a squealing noise while traveling through a pipe, sounding to some like a pig
squealing
● Four main uses for Pigs
1. Internal cleaning of pipelines
2. Physical separation between different liquids being transported in pipelines
3. Inspection of the condition of pipeline walls - also known as In-Line Inspection
Tool
4. Capturing and recording geometric information relating to pipelines
Safety in Storage of Chemicals
● Segregation - Store Chemicals based on compatibility(eg. Acids separate from bases,
flammable separate from oxidizers). Store incompatible chemicals separately.
● Ventilation - Storage areas should be well-ventilated to prevent the buildup of toxic or
flammable vapors.
● Labeling - Ensure all containers are properly labeled with chemical names, hazard
symbols, and safety instructions. Material Safety Data Sheet should be readily available
● Containment - Use secondary containment (drip trays, bund walls) to handle spills or
leaks.
● Temperature Control - Maintain appropriate temperatures to avoid reactions (e.g store
flammables in cool areas). Some chemicals may require refrigeration, while others
should be kept away from heat sources

Safe Handling of Chemicals

● PPEs: Workers must use appropriate PPE (gloves, goggles, aprons) and respirators
depending on the chemical hazard level
● Training : Employees should be properly trained on how to handle chemicals, including
chemicals, including safe pouring techniques, use of contaminant tools, and emergency
procedures.
● Safe Transfer: When transferring chemicals between containers, use of pumps or closed
systems to minimize the risks of spills. Avoid direct contact with the chemicals

Unloading of Chemicals
● Inspection - Inspect the chemical delivery chemical, delivery vehicle and containers for
leaks, damage or signs of contaminant before unloading
● Secure area: The unloading area should be restricted to authorized personnel and
equipped with proper spill containment measures
● Grounding - Ground the chemical container and receiving tank during unloading to
prevent static discharge, especially for flammable chemicals
● Safety Valves and Nozzles - Ensure that all valves, hoses, and couplings used during
the unloading process are compatible and functioning properly
● Emergency Preparedness: Have spills kits, fire extinguishers, and emergency shutoff
valves accessible near the unloading area

Loading of Chemicals -
 ● Proper Containers - Use certified containers for chemical transportation, ensuring they
are appropriately sized and have proper closures to prevent leaks during transit
● Weight Limits - Ensure that the amount of chemical loaded does not exceed the
container or vehicle maximum weight capacity
● Labeling - Confirm that all labels are legible and complaint with transportation
regulations, specifying the chemical type, hazard class, and emergency contact details
● Secure Loading - Secure the load within the transport vehicle to prevent shifting during
transit, which can cause spills or accidents

Transportation of Chemicals
● Proper Containers - Use containers that meet regulatory requirements
● Labeling and Documentation: Chemicals must be labeled as per regulations and driver
must carry proper documentation (shipping manifests, emergency contacts)
● Training for Drivers - Drivers must be trained in handling hazardous materials,
emergency procedures, and CMVR guidelines
● Securement - Ensure containers are securely fastened to prevent or leakage during
transit.
● Route Planning - Plan safe routes, avoiding densely populated areas and terrain if
possible
Dangerous Placard
● Used on freight containers, unit load devices, transport vehicles or rail cars which
contain non-bulk packagings with 2 or more categories of hazardous materials
● A DANGEROUS Placard may not be used, when 2205 lbs (1000kg) aggregate gross wt.
or more than one category of material is loaded at one loading facility
Transport Container Safety
● Design should ensure enough strength to withstand normal and abnormal road shocks
● Material of construction should be resistant to the contents under all possible
temperature and pressure conditions
● Minimum wall thickness t = 0.125 (Di/T)^0.5 where Di = Internal Diameter in inches and
T = Tensile Strength (Tons/in2)
● Test pressure well above the maximum working pressure
● Filling Ratio should be decided on the basis of the thermal cubical expansion between
the filling temperature and the reference temperature
● Safety Valve or rupture disc for venting
● Proper arrangement for grounding and bonding of the vehicle while filling and
discharging
HAZCHEM Code - Also known as Emergency Action Code gives vital information to fire brigade
and other emergency services on the action to be taken to combat spillage, leakage or fire in an
emergency involving a hazardous substances, For motor spirit with UN number 1203, the
HAZCHEM code is 3YE, 3 - Foam only, Y - Can be violently E- reactive or explosive. Breathing
apparatus plus protective gloves to be used in case of fire.
CAS Number - Chemical Abstract Service - A number assigned by American Chemical Society.
The number is unique to each number
UN Number - A four digit number representing a particular chemical or group of chemicals.
These numbers are assigned by the United Nations.
Material Safety Data Sheet - Document that contains information on potential health effects of
Exposure to chemicals, or other potentially dangerous substances, and on safe working
procedures when handling chemicals products. Essential Starting point for the development of a
complete health and safety program. It contains hazard evaluations on the use, storage,
handling and emergency procedures related to that material.
Reading the MSDS
● Identity: The chemical name, trade name and manufacturers, name, address and
emergency phone number can be found here.
1. Ingredients: Includes(Substance, % content, CAS Number, Classification)
2. Hazards Identification - Dangers for humans and the environment such as: Most
important hazards and Specific hazards
● First Aid gives instructions on what to do in case of eye contact, skin contact, inhalation
or ingestion
● Accidental Release Measures - Personal precautions, Environmental Precautions,
Methods for cleaning
● Handling and Storage
● Exposure Controls and Personal Protection
● Information on Proper PPE to use, how to store and temperature limits
Statutory Requirements
● Section 41 b of FA 1948
● Section 41 h of FA 1948
● Rule 17 of MSIHC 1989 (Schedule 9)
● MSDS must be available to employees for potentially harmful substances handled in the
workplace
Hazards Parameters
1. Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which a liquid and its vapors found in equilibrium
2. Threshold Limit Value - Recommended limit for chemical substances exposures, similar
to the PEL but most often more restrictive than the PEL
3. TWA - Time Weighted Average (normally worked out for an 8 hour working day)
4. STEL - Short Term Exposure Limit (15 minute limit)
5. Auto-Ignition Temperature: Lowest Temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in
normal atmosphere without an external sources of ignition, such as a flame or spark
6. LFL - Lower end of the concentration range over which a flammable mixture of gas or
vapor in air can be ignited at a given temperature and pressure
7. UFL - Highest Concentration of a gas or vapor in air capable of producing a flash of fire
in presence of an ignition source (arch, flame, heat)
8. LEL - Lower Explosive Limit - Lowest Concentration of a gas or vapor in air that is
capable of producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat)
9. UEL - Upper Explosive Limit - Highest Concentration of a gas or vapor in air capable of
producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arch, flame, heat)
 Unit 3: Process Safety Management

Definition - PSM is the proactive identification, evaluation and mitigation or prevention of

chemical releases that could occur as a result of failures in processes, procedures, or
equipment.
Purpose - Prevents Catastrophic Releases of Highly Hazardous Chemicals. Minimize
Consequences of such releases to employees and the community
29 CFR 1910.119 OSHA’s PSM Standard
14 Elements of PSM Standard
1. Employee Participation: Engaging employees ensures their knowledge and experience
contribute to safety practices. This involves involving workers in hazard analyses and
decision-making processes, fostering ownership of safety programs. Transparent
communication encourages a safety-first culture.
2. Process Safety Information (PSI): Accurate documentation of chemical properties,
equipment specifications, and operating procedures is essential. PSI serves as the
foundation for identifying hazards and evaluating risks. It must be accessible to
employees and regularly updated to reflect changes.
3. Process Hazard Analysis (PHA): A systematic assessment identifies potential hazards
and risks in processes. PHAs use tools like HAZOP or FMEA to evaluate failure
scenarios and their consequences. The outcome aids in prioritizing control measures to
mitigate risks.
4. Operating Procedures: Detailed, clear instructions ensure safe operation under normal
and emergency conditions. These procedures outline steps for startup, shutdown, and
handling deviations. Regular training ensures all staff understand and adhere to these
guidelines.
5. Training: Comprehensive training equips employees with the skills to handle processes
safely. Regular refreshers keep knowledge up to date and address evolving safety
challenges. Testing and certification validate employees' readiness for their roles.
6. Contractor Management: Contractors working on-site must be familiar with the facility's
safety policies. Employers must verify contractor qualifications and provide them with
hazard information. Monitoring ensures compliance with safety expectations.
7. Pre-Startup Safety Review (PSSR): Before commissioning new or modified systems,
PSSR ensures safety readiness. It confirms compliance with design specifications,
verifies PSI availability, and ensures employees are trained. This reduces risks during
startup.
8. Mechanical Integrity: Proper maintenance of equipment ensures reliability and minimizes
failure risks. Regular inspections and testing identify wear or damage. Documentation of
maintenance activities ensures accountability and compliance.
9. Hot Work Permit: A controlled process for high-risk tasks like welding minimizes ignition
risks. Permits specify precautions, such as isolating flammable materials and using
fire-resistant blankets. Authorization ensures oversight and safety compliance.
10. Management of Change (MOC): Any change to processes, equipment, or materials must
undergo a safety review. MOC evaluates the impact on risks and updates PSI and
procedures accordingly. This ensures that changes do not introduce new hazards.
 11. Incident Investigation: Root cause analysis of incidents, near-misses, and accidents
identifies contributing factors. Findings inform corrective actions to prevent recurrence.
Sharing lessons learned enhances overall safety awareness.
12. Emergency Planning and Response: Preparedness ensures swift, effective responses to
incidents. Emergency plans outline roles, evacuation routes, and communication
protocols. Regular drills test the plan's effectiveness and improve readiness.
13. Compliance Audits: Periodic reviews verify adherence to PSM standards. Audits identify
gaps in implementation and recommend corrective actions. Documentation of findings
ensures accountability and continuous improvement.
14. Trade Secrets: While protecting intellectual property, employers must still provide
safety-critical information to employees and contractors. Balancing confidentiality with
safety ensures informed decision-making without compromising security.

Case Studies

Bhopal Gas Tragedy (December 2-3, 1984)

● Location - Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

● Incident - A gas leak from the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant. The highly
toxic gas methyl isocyanate was released into the atmosphere
● Cause - A combination of equipment failure, human error, poor safety standards, and
insufficient maintenance led to water entering a storage tank containing MIC, which
triggered a runaway exothermic reaction. This led to the release of approximately 40
metric tons of MIC
● Consequences
1. Immediate death toll estimated between 2000-3000 people within a few hours
2. Over 500000 people were exposed to the toxic gas, with long term effects
including respiratory problems, eye irritation, reproductive health issues, and
cancers.
3. The death toll over the years is believed to have risen to 15000-20000 due to
related illnesses
4. Environmental Contamination continues in and around the site, as the soil and
water were polluted by the chemicals released.

Flixborough Disaster (June 1, 1974)

● Location - Flixborough, Lincolnshire, England

● Incident - The plant was producing Cyclohexane, a chemical used in production of
Nylon. A temporary bypass was installed around a leaking reactor but it was poorly
designed and inadequately tested
● Cause - The bypass ruptured, releasing 40 tons of Cyclohexane vapor into the air. This
vapor ignited, causing a massive explosion.
● Consequences
1. 28 workers were killed, and 36 others were injured
 2. The explosion devastated the plant, completely destroying the main control room
and six reactor units.
3. The blast had a significant radius, causing damage buildings and homes several
miles away.

Mexico City Explosion ( November 19, 1984)

● Location - San Juanico, near Mexico City, Mexico

● Incident - The Pemex LPG storage facility has 6 large storage tanks, and 48 smaller
tanks containing highly flammable liquefied gas. A gas leak led to a fire, which caused a
BLEVE as the tanks ruptured under intense heat
● Cause - A gas leak in one of the storage tanks, which led to ignition and subsequent
explosions. The exact sources of the leak remains unclear, but it could have been due to
poor maintenance or a failure in safety protocols
● Consequences
1. The explosion resulted in 500-600 deaths, although the official count varies
2. More than 7000 people were injured, and thousands of homes in the nearby
communities were destroyed.
3. Firefighters took over 16 hours to extinguish the fires, and parts of the facility and
surrounding areas were obliterated.

Seveso Disasters (July 10, 1976)

● Location - Seveso, Lombardy, Italy

● Incident - The plant, owned by the company ICMESA, was producing chemicals used for
herbicides and disinfectants. A runaway chemical reaction in one of the reactors led to
the release of 2,3,7,8 - tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), a highly toxic form of dioxin
● Cause - The plant’s reactor overheated, causing a safety valve to release a cloud of
chemicals, including dioxin, into the atmosphere. The plant’s cooling system had
malfunctioned, and the plant operators were unaware of the potential for a dioxin release
● Consequence
1. Thousands of animals, including livestock and pets, died due to exposure to the
toxic cloud and 77000 animals were killed as part of the contamination control
efforts.
2. Approximately 600 people suffered from chloracne, a skin disease caused by
dioxin exposure.
3. More than 37000 people were affected, with the local population evacuated due
to toxic contamination.
4. Long term health effects, including cancer and reproductive issues, were feared
among the exposed population, though epidemiological studies continue to
evaluate these effects

Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)

An Overview
A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a structured, systematic approach to identifying
potential hazards and operational issues in processes. Developed in the chemical industry,
HAZOP is now widely used in various sectors, including oil and gas, pharmaceuticals, and
manufacturing, to ensure safety and efficiency. Its primary objective is to evaluate risks
associated with deviations in design, process, or operation and propose corrective actions.

Key Principles of HAZOP

The HAZOP study is based on a team-based approach, involving professionals with diverse
expertise, such as engineers, operators, and safety specialists. The process begins by dividing
the system into smaller components, called "nodes," such as equipment, pipelines, or sections
of a process. For each node, the team identifies potential deviations from the design intent using
guide words like "High," "Low," "No," or "Reverse." These guide words help frame discussions
about abnormal scenarios, such as excessive pressure, insufficient flow, or reverse chemical
reactions.

The HAZOP Process

The study involves several stages:
● Preparation: Collecting relevant documentation, such as P&ID (Piping and
Instrumentation Diagrams), process flow diagrams, and safety data sheets.
● Node Selection: Breaking down the system into manageable sections for detailed
analysis.
● Guideword Application: Using guide words to identify deviations and their potential
causes.
● Risk Assessment: Evaluating the likelihood and consequences of each identified hazard.
● Recommendations:Suggesting measures to mitigate risks, such as redesigning
equipment, adding alarms, or modifying operating procedures.

Benefits of HAZOP
HAZOP is highly effective in identifying both safety hazards and operability issues. It ensures
thorough risk assessment by fostering collaboration among diverse team members. The
systematic methodology also enhances process reliability and minimizes downtime due to
unexpected failures. Moreover, implementing HAZOP recommendations helps organizations
comply with regulatory standards, reducing legal and financial liabilities.

Limitations and Challenges

Despite its benefits, HAZOP has some limitations. The process can be time-consuming and
resource-intensive, particularly for complex systems. Its success heavily depends on the
expertise and participation of the team members. Furthermore, focusing too narrowly on
guidewords may overlook broader system-wide risks.

HIRA

Introduction
Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (HIRA) is a systematic approach used to identify
potential workplace hazards, evaluate the associated risks, and implement control measures to
mitigate them. It plays a crucial role in ensuring workplace safety, compliance with regulations,
and fostering a proactive safety culture. HIRA is applicable across industries, from
manufacturing and construction to healthcare and transportation.

Key Components of HIRA

● Hazard Identification: The first step is to identify hazards that could potentially harm
employees, equipment, or the environment. Hazards may be physical (machinery,
noise), chemical (toxic substances), biological (pathogens), or ergonomic (improper
posture). This process involves site inspections, analysis of work activities, and
consultation with workers.
● Risk Assessment: Once hazards are identified, the risks associated with them are
evaluated based on two factors:
1. Likelihood of the hazard causing harm.
2. Severity of the consequences if the hazard materializes.

● Control Measures:After assessing risks, control measures are developed and

implemented. These follow the hierarchy of controls, which prioritizes:
1. Elimination: Removing the hazard entirely.
2. Substitution: Replacing the hazard with a less dangerous alternative.
3. Engineering Controls: Isolating the hazard through design modifications.
4. Administrative Controls: Establishing procedures, training, and policies.
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):Using protective gear as a last line of
defense.

● Review and Monitoring: HIRA is not a one-time activity but an ongoing process. Regular
reviews and updates ensure that new hazards are addressed and existing controls
remain effective. Monitoring involves periodic inspections, audits, and feedback from
employees.

Importance of HIRA
HIRA helps organizations identify potential risks before they lead to accidents or injuries. By
prioritizing hazards based on their risk level, resources can be allocated effectively to mitigate
significant risks. Furthermore, HIRA supports compliance with occupational health and safety
regulations, reducing legal and financial liabilities. It also boosts employee confidence and
morale by demonstrating the organization's commitment to their safety.

Challenges in HIRA
Despite its benefits, HIRA poses challenges such as:
● Limited participation or communication among employees.
● Difficulty in identifying hidden or less obvious hazards.
 ● Time and resource constraints for conducting thorough assessments.
Overcoming these challenges requires management commitment, employee involvement, and
continuous training.

Limiting oxygen concentration

Limiting oxygen concentration

The limitation of oxygen concentration refers to the specific level of oxygen required for safe and
effective operation in various environments, particularly in industrial and confined space
settings.

1. Too low oxygen levels can lead to asphyxiation, dizziness, confusion, and loss of
consciousness, which are hazardous to health.
2. Too high oxygen levels can increase the risk of fire and explosion since oxygen supports
combustion. Even materials that are not flammable in normal atmospheric conditions can
catch fire in an oxygen-enriched environment.
Thus, maintaining an oxygen concentration between 19.5% and 23.5% is considered safe for
most work environments, with levels outside this range posing significant health and safety
risks.

P and ID(Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams)

Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID) are detailed graphical representations of the piping
systems, process equipment, and instrumentation used in industrial plants. They provide a
comprehensive overview of the system’s layout, including:

● Piping: Shows the flow paths for liquids, gases, and other materials.
● Instruments: Displays control and monitoring devices like valves, sensors, and gauges.
● Process Equipment: Illustrates tanks, reactors, compressors, and other machinery.
● Control Systems: Highlights connections for automation, control loops, and safety
systems.

P&IDs are essential for designing, operating, and maintaining processes, serving as a key tool
for engineers, operators, and safety personnel to understand, troubleshoot, and optimize
systems.

JSA

Job Safety Analysis (JSA) is a systematic process used to identify hazards associated with
specific job tasks and implement control measures to minimize risks. It involves breaking down
a job into its individual steps and evaluating potential hazards at each stage.

Key Steps in JSA:

 1. Job Selection: Choose the job or task to analyze based on risk levels or frequency of
occurrence.
2. Task Breakdown: Divide the job into smaller steps, detailing each action performed.
3. Hazard Identification: Identify potential hazards associated with each step, such as
physical, chemical, or ergonomic risks.
4. Risk Assessment: Evaluate the severity and likelihood of each identified hazard.
5. Control Measures: Propose actions to eliminate or reduce risks, such as using personal
protective equipment (PPE), engineering controls, or altering procedures.
6. Review and Implementation: Ensure that workers are trained on the JSA, and the control
measures are put into practice.

JSA helps improve safety by proactively addressing hazards before they cause incidents,
ensuring a safer work environment.

LOPA (Layer of Protection Analysis)

● Semi-quantitative risk assessment tool for analyzing and assessing the risks of the
scenarios with higher consequences of concern
● Risk - Function of likelihood and severity
● LOPA - Order of magnitude estimates for determining the likelihood
● The severity is typically assessed qualitatively in reference to the company Risk Matrix
Definitions
● LOPA - Determine the required Safety Integrity Level (SIL) in a Safety Instrumented
Function (SIF)
● LOPA is applied to the scenario-based risk assessment
● LOPA is applied to a single initiating event and a single consequence pair

LOPA Terminologies

● Initiating Event
1. Failure that starts the sequence of events that, if not interrupted by the successful
operation of a protection layer results in a hazardous outcome
- The initiating events can due to failure, instrumentation failure, human
failure and external events
- Initiating Event Frequency refers to the frequency of occurrence of the
initiating event
● Independent Protection Layers (IPLs)
1. Control measures that can prevent the initiating events from propagating to a
hazardous outcome without being adversely affected by either the initiating event
or by the action of any other IPLs
- Every IPL must be independent from the initiating event and other IPLs in
the same scenario
- The IPLs must be effective to address the consequences of concern
- The IPLs must be auditable
● Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD) - Failure Probability of an IPL to function and
give the necessary protection when it is called upon to act.
● Enabling Conditions - Operating Conditions that are necessary for the initiating event to
propagate into the hazard outcome - The enabling conditions do not cause the incident
to occur but must be present or active for the initiating event to propagate
 ● Conditional Modifiers - Probabilities of conditions that must be prevented for the
hazardous outcome to occur. (Care must be exercised when taking a credit on these
factors)

LOPA Work Process

● Risk Tolerance - Establish the company risk tolerance criteria

● Hazard Identification
1. Identify the hazards and consequences of concern
2. Establish the boundaries for the consequences of concern
● Initiating Event - Identifying the Initiating Events and the initiating event frequencies
● Assess Severity - Assess the severity in reference to the company Risk Matrix definitions
or based on the consequence analysis results
● Assess likelihood
1. Identify the IPLs and their PFDs
2. Ensure the IPLs are independent, effective and auditable
3. Assess the likelihood by multiplying the IEF, PFDs of the IPLs, probabilities of the
enabling conditions and conditional modifiers
● Assess the Risk
1. Assess whether the risks meets the risk tolerance criteria
2. If not, identify and suggest additional IPLs for implementation

Instrumentation for Safe and Efficient Plant Operation

● Instrumentation in industrial plants refers to devices and systems used to monitor,

control, and ensure the safe and efficient operation of processes. These instruments are
crucial in maintaining plant safety, optimizing performance, and complying with
regulations.
● Key Types of Instrumentation:
1. Measurement Instruments:
2. Pressure Gauges*: Monitor system pressure to prevent overpressure conditions.
3. Flow Meters: Measure the flow rate of liquids, gases, or steam to ensure proper
process conditions.
4. Temperature Sensors*: Track process temperatures to maintain safe operating
ranges.
5. Level Sensors*: Detect the level of materials in tanks and silos to prevent
overfilling or material shortages.
● Control Instruments
1. Valves and Actuators*: Regulate flow and pressure in pipelines.
2. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): Automate control tasks and ensure
precision.
3. Distributed Control Systems (DCS): Provide centralized control and data
integration.
● Safety Instruments
1. Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD): Automatically halt operations during
unsafe conditions.
2. Gas Detectors*: Identify hazardous gas leaks.
 3. Fire and Smoke Detection Systems*: Provide early warnings of fire hazards.

Safety Integrity Level (SIL)

● The Safety Integrity Level (SIL) is a measure of the reliability of safety instrumented
systems (SIS) designed to reduce risks in industrial processes. It quantifies the likelihood
that a system will perform its intended safety function when required.
● SIL Levels:
1. SIL 1: Low risk reduction (failure on demand: 10^-1 to 10^-2).
2. SIL 2: Moderate risk reduction (failure on demand: 10^-2 to 10^-3).
3. SIL 3: High risk reduction (failure on demand: 10^-3 to 10^-4).
4. SIL 4: Very high risk reduction (failure on demand: 10^-4 to 10^-5).
● Factors Determining SIL:
1. Risk Assessment: Identifies the potential hazards and their severity.
2. Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD)*: Assesses the likelihood of system
failure during an emergency.
3. System Architecture: Includes redundancy, diagnostics, and fail-safe design.
● Importance:
1. Ensures that safety systems are reliable and appropriate for the risk level.
2. Reduces the potential for catastrophic failures.

Safety Instrumented Functions (SIF)

● A Safety Instrumented Function (SIF) is a specific action performed by a Safety

Instrumented System (SIS) to achieve or maintain a safe state of a process.
● Components of SIF:
1. Sensors: Detect abnormal conditions (e.g., pressure spikes, high temperature).
2. Logic Solver: Processes sensor inputs and decides on the necessary actions.
Examples: PLCs, DCS, or standalone safety controllers.
3. Final Elements:Actuate a safety response, such as shutting down a valve or
stopping a motor. Examples of SIF: Shutting off a fuel supply to a burner in case
of flame failure. Activating a relief valve if pressure exceeds a critical threshold.
Isolating a hazardous chemical storage area upon leak detection.
● Relationship between SIF and SIL: Each SIF is designed to achieve a certain SIL based
on the required risk reduction. The performance of SIFs is validated through rigorous
testing, analysis, and maintenance.

Accelerating Rate Calorimetry (ARC)

● Technique used to study the thermal behavior of chemical substances, particularly in

evaluating runaway reaction risks. It identifies the thermal stability of materials and the
onset of exothermic reactions under adiabatic (no heat exchange) conditions
● Key Features
1. Adiabatic Conditions - Mimics real world scenarios where heat generated cannot
dissipate, leading to potential runaway reactions
 2. Applications
- Determining the onset temperature of decomposition
- Measuring pressure and temperature rise rates
- Evaluating thermal stability of chemicals and mixtures
3. Importance
- Helps design safer chemical processes
- Prevents thermal hazards in storage, transport, and processing

Differential Scanning Calorimeter

● Thermal analysis technique used to measure heat flows associated with physical and
chemical changes in materials as a function of temperature
● Key Features
1. How it Works
- Measures heat absorbed or released during phase transition or chemical
reactions
- Compares the heat flow to a reference material
2. Applications
- Determining melting points, glass transition temperatures, and reaction
enthalpy
- Evaluating compatibility of materials in formulations
- Assessing thermal stability
3. Advantages
- High sensitivity and precision
- Widely used in polymers, pharmaceuticals, and chemical safety studies.

Maximum Temperature of Synthetic Reaction (MTSR)

● Highest temperature a reaction system can reach due to exothermic reactions if the
cooling system fails
● Importance
1. Process Safety - Determines whether the reaction can be safely managed with
existing equipment
2. Calculation - Derived from reaction kinetics, heat generation rate, and available
cooling capacity
3. Impact - A higher MTSR indicates a higher risk of runaway reactions, requiring
stricter control measures

Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)

● Lowest energy required to ignite a combustible material(gas, vapor, or dust) under

specified conditions
● Key Points
1. Material Properties - Chemical composition and particle size
2. Environment Conditions - Temperature, pressure, and oxygen concentration
3. Importance
- Helps classify hazardous areas
 - Aids in designing equipment to prevent ignition(e.g. Intrinsically safe
systems

Minimum Explosive Concentration

● Lowest Concentration of a combustible substance in air (or another oxidant) that can
form an explosive atmosphere
● Key Points
1. Determination - Dependent on factors like temperature, pressure and particle
size
2. Applications
- Setting safety limits in industrial processes
- Designing ventilation and explosion prevention systems
3. Importance
- Ensure safe handling of flammable materials
- Prevents explosions by maintaining concentrations below the MEC

UNIT 4: Safety in Plant Operations and Maintenance

Pre-Startup Checks
● Review operating procedures and safety protocols.
● Ensure all personnel are trained and aware of their roles.
● Conduct a thorough walk-through to identify potential hazards.
● Check equipment and systems for proper function and maintenance.
● Verify that all safety devices and interlocks are functioning correctly.
Startup Procedure
● Follow the established startup sequence to avoid equipment damage or malfunction.
● Gradually bring systems online, monitoring for abnormal conditions.
● Check for leaks, unusual noises, or vibrations.
● Verify that all safety systems, such as fire suppression and emergency shutdown, are
functional.
● Monitor process conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates.
Shutdown Procedure
● Follow the established shutdown sequence to ensure a safe and controlled shutdown.
● Gradually bring systems offline, monitoring for abnormal conditions.
● Secure equipment and systems to prevent unauthorized startup.
● Verify that all safety systems, such as fire suppression and emergency shutdown, are
functional.
● Monitor process conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates, to ensure a
safe shutdown.
Post-Shutdown Checks
● Conduct a thorough walk-through to identify potential hazards.
● Verify that all equipment and systems are properly secured.
● Check for any signs of damage or malfunction.
● Review shutdown procedures to identify areas for improvement.
Additional Safety Considerations:
● Ensure proper ventilation and atmospheric monitoring.
● Use personal protective equipment (PPE) as required.
● Follow established lockout/tagout procedures.
● Verify that all electrical systems are properly de-energized.
● Ensure that all emergency response plans are in place and easily accessible.
Pipeline Color Coding
● Piping should be identified on regular basis for safe operation and when outsiders call
for services
● During emergencies it should be achieved by colour schemes, tags and stenciled the
name of sp. substances if carrying on the line
● Use 2379-1963 color code for identification of pipelines, colour coding consists of ground
colour and bands superimposed on it.
● Ground Color

Substance Color

Water Sea Green

Steam Silver Grey

Combustible Liquid Light Brown

Acids, alkalies Dark Violet

Air Sky Blue

Gases Canary Yellow

● Colour Brands
1. The bands are superimposed on the ground color to distinguish
2. Application - When color brands are superimposed on the ground color the
ground color should extend sufficiently on both side to avoid confusion
3. Ex-pipe contain drinking water-ground colour(sea green) - 1st color band(french
blue) - 2nd band (signal red)
4. Relative proportional width of the 1st band to the 2nd band should be 4;1\
5. Minimum width of the narrowest color band is 25mm.

Pipe of Covering(mm) Size of Legent

20-30 10

Above 30-50 20

Above 50-80 30
 Above 80-150 40

Safety Precautions for Working on Pipelines

● Lockout/Tagout: Ensure that the pipeline is properly locked out and tagged to prevent
accidental startup or release of contents.
● Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Wear PPE such as hard hats, safety glasses,
gloves, and steel-toed boots to protect against physical hazards.
● Confined Space Entry: Follow procedures for confined space entry, including
atmospheric testing and ventilation, to prevent exposure to hazardous atmospheres.
● Hot Work Permits: Obtain hot work permits and follow procedures for hot work, such as
welding and cutting, to prevent fires and explosions.
● Pipeline Isolation: Ensure that the pipeline is properly isolated from other systems and
equipment to prevent accidental release of contents.
Safety in Preventive and Emergency Maintenance Work
● Pre-Job Briefings: Conduct pre-job briefings to review the scope of work, potential
hazards, and safety procedures.
● Job Hazard Analysis: Conduct job hazard analysis to identify potential hazards and
develop strategies to mitigate them.
● Emergency Response Planning: Develop and implement emergency response plans,
including procedures for evacuation, fire response, and medical emergencies.
● Regular Maintenance: Perform regular maintenance tasks, such as inspections and
testing, to identify and address potential hazards before they become major issues.
● Training and Competence: Ensure that personnel are properly trained and competent to
perform maintenance tasks safely and effectively.
Pressure Relief and Breather Valves
● Regular Inspection: Regularly inspect pressure relief and breather valves to ensure they
are functioning properly and are free from damage or corrosion.
● Testing and Certification: Test and certify pressure relief and breather valves at regular
intervals to ensure they meet design specifications and industry standards.
● Proper Installation: Ensure that pressure relief and breather valves are properly installed
and configured to ensure correct operation and prevent accidental release of contents.
● Labeling and Signage: Label and sign pressure relief and breather valves to provide
clear identification and warning of potential hazards.
Flame Arrestor
● Regular Inspection: Regularly inspect flame arrestors to ensure they are functioning
properly and are free from damage or corrosion.
● Testing and Certification: Test and certify flame arrestors at regular intervals to ensure
they meet design specifications and industry standards.
● Proper Installation: Ensure that flame arrestors are properly installed and configured to
ensure correct operation and prevent accidental ignition of flammable mixtures.
● Labeling and Signage: Label and sign flame arrestors to provide clear identification and
warning of potential hazards.
Safety in Startup and Shutdown of Plant
 ● Pre-Startup Checks: Conduct pre-startup checks to ensure that all equipment and
systems are properly configured and functioning correctly.
● Startup Sequence: Follow established startup sequences to ensure that equipment and
systems are started in a safe and controlled manner.
● Monitoring and Control: Monitor and control plant operations during startup and
shutdown to prevent accidents and ensure safe operation.
● Emergency Shutdown Procedures: Establish and implement emergency shutdown
procedures to quickly and safely shut down the plant in case of an emergency.
● Post-Shutdown Checks: Conduct post-shutdown checks to ensure that all equipment
and systems are properly secured and functioning correctly.
A Flare System
● Arrangement of piping and specialised equipment that, collects hydrocarbon releases
from relief valves and manual vents and disposes of them by combustion at a remote
and safe location
● Flaring is undertaken as a way to remove dangerous gases with lower harm to the
environment. It is used in safety regulating pressure in chemical plants, as well as
handling natural gas release in wells. Alternatives, such as piping the gas to a plant or
on-site capture and use, are of great interest.
● Flaring is the process of disposing of unwanted flammable gases and vapors by
combustion into the open atmosphere.
● Flares are generally categorized into two ways
● Three types of flares are used in the hydrocarbon and petrochemical industries:
Single-point flares can be designed without smoke suppression, or with steam or
air-assisted smoke-suppression equipment.

UNIT 5: Fire and Explosions: Safety Measures

What is Industrial Fire?
● An industrial fire is a type of industrial disaster involving a configuration which occurs in
an industrial setting
● Occur in facilities where there is a lot of flammable material present like petroleum,
petroleum products as petrochemicals, or natural gas.
● Processing flammable materials like hydrocarbons in units at high temperature and/or
high pressure makes the hazards more severe
● Facilities with such combustible material include oil refineries, tank farms, natural gas
processing plants, and chemical plants, particularly petrochemical plants and these
plants have their own fire departments for firefighting
● Dust or powder are vulnerable to combustion and their ignition can cause dust
explosions. Severe industrial fires involved multiple injuries, loss of life, costly financial
loss, and or damage to the surrounding community or environment
Dispersion Modeling
● Atmospheric dispersion modeling represents an essential tool to assess the
consequences of accidental fires by simulating the release of hazardous substances,
thus quantifying the ground level concentration of the emitted pollutants
Chemistry of Fire
Oxygen, Heat, and Fuel are frequently referred to as the Fire Triangle. Add in the fourth
element, the chemical reaction, and you actually have a fire tetrahedron. The important thing to
remember is: take any of these four things away, and you will not have a fire or the fire will be
extinguished
Fire Tetrahedron
A tetrahedron is best described as a pyramid, which is solid with four plane faces. All the four
elements essentially must be present for the occurrence of fire i.e. oxygen, heat, fuel and
chemical chain reaction. If you remove any of the essential elements, the fire will be
extinguished.
Class of Fires
1. Class A : Fires Involve Common Combustibles such as Wood, Paper, Cloth, Rubber,
Trash, and Plastics (Agent - ABC Dry Chemical, Water, Foam)
2. Class B: Fires involve flammable liquids, solvents, oil, gasoline, paints, lacquers, and
other oil-based products. (Agents - ABC dry chemical, Carbon Dioxide, Foam)
3. Class C: Fires involve energized electrical equipment such as wiring, controls, motors,
machinery, or appliances (Agents - ABC Dry Chemical, Carbon Dioxide
4. Class D: Fires involve combustible such as magnesium, lithium and titanium (Agent - Dry
Powder)
5. Electrical Fire: Electrical Fires are not treated as a class of their own, since any fire
involving, or started by, electrical equipment must, in fact, fall into one of the categories.
The normal procedure for dealing with an electrical fire is cut off electricity and use an
extinguishing media app
6. Class K: Fires involve combustible cooking media such as oils and grease commonly
found in commercial ( Agent - Wet Chemical)
Deflagration
● In a deflagration the flammable mixture burns at subsonic speeds
● For hydrocarbon air mixtures the deflagration velocity is typically of the order of 300 m/s
● The peak pressure caused by the deflagration of a hydrocarbon air mixture is around 8
bar
● A deflagration may turn into a detonation, particularly when traveling down a long pipe
- When a transition from deflagration to detonation is occurring, the detonation
velocity can temporarily exceed the steady-state detonation velocity in so-called
over-driven conditions. Propagating reactions in which the energy transfer from
the reaction zone to the un-reacted zone is accomplished through ordinary
transport processes such as heat and mass transfer
- Low Explosives
- Slow burning
- Explosion driven by heat transfer
Detonation
● Flame front travels as a shock wave followed closely by a combustion wave which
releases the energy to sustain the shock wave and travels more than sonic speed.
● For hydrocarbon air mixture the detonation velocity is 2000-3000 m/s
● A detonation generates greater pressures and is more destructive than deflagration
 - The peak pressure caused by the detonation of a hydrocarbon air mixture is
around 20 bar. Propagating reactions in which energy is transferred from the
reaction zone to the un-reacted zone on a reactive shock wave. The velocity of
the shock wave always exceeds sonic velocity in the reactant.
- High explosives
- Explosions breaks the sound barrier
- Shock waves
BLEVE
● A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion is an explosion caused by the rupture of a
vessel containing a pressurized liquid that has reached temperature above its BP
● Because of rising BP of a liquid with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can
remain liquid as long as the vessel is intact.
● If the gas is combustible, as is the case with hydrocarbons and alcohols, further damage
can be caused by an ensuring fire
● Three key elements causing a BLEVE
● Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal,
atmospheric pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids,
such as CO2, Propane, and other similar industrial gases having BP far below the room
temperature when at atmospheric pressure.
● If the pressurized vessel, containing liquid at high temperatures ruptures, the pressure
which prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic, where the
vessel is immediately incapable of holding any pressure at all, then there suddenly exists
a large mass of liquid which is at very high temperature and very low pressure. This
causes a portion of liquid to instantaneously boil, which in turn causes an extremely
rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures, pressures and the substances involved,
that expansion may be so rapid that it can be classified as explosion, fully capable of
inflicting severe damage on its surroundings
VCE
● Vapor Cloud Expansion results from the ignition of a flammable mixture of vapor, gas,
aerosol, or mist, in which the flame speeds accelerate to sufficiently high velocities to
produce significant overpressure.
● The most dangerous and destructive explosions in the chemical process industries are
vapor cloud expansion
● Any process containing quantities of liquefied gases, volatile superheated liquid, or high
pressure gases is a good candidate for a VCE
● From a safety standpoint, the best approach is to prevent the release of material
● A large cloud of combustible material is very dangerous and almost impossible to
control, despite any safety systems installed to prevent ignition.
A Flare System
● Arrangement of piping and specialised equipment that, collects hydrocarbon releases
from relief valves and manual vents and disposes of them by combustion at a remote
and safe location
● Flaring is undertaken as a way to remove dangerous gases with lower harm to the
environment. It is used in safety regulating pressure in chemical plants, as well as
 handling natural gas release in wells. Alternatives, such as piping the gas to a plant or
on-site capture and use, are of great interest.
● Flaring is the process of disposing of unwanted flammable gases and vapors by
combustion into the open atmosphere.
● Flares are generally categorized into two ways
● Three types of flares are used in the hydrocarbon and petrochemical industries:
Single-point flares can be designed without smoke suppression, or with steam or
air-assisted smoke-suppression equipment.
Dust Explosion
● A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air
● Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in coal mines, grain elevators, and other industrial
environments.
Dust Explosion Pentagon
● Fuel to burn (Combustible Dust)
● Oxygen to Sustain Fire (Air)
● Heat from any Ignition Source (Spark)
● A high concentration of dust dispersed into air (dispersion)
● Confinement of dust within a structure.
Factors Affecting Dust Explosions
● Combustible nature of the dust - Like presence of combustible dust like iron, aluminium,
magnesium, zinc, and agricultural, chemical dusts, carbonaceous, plastic dusts
● Size of the particles - As the dust becomes finer, the contact with solid particles and air
become intimate and easily combustible like highly flammable gas. Ease of ignition
increases. Finer particle dispersed more easily and remain in suspension for a longer
time
● Concentration - Only when concentration is within explosive range ignition occurs. A fine
particle may ignite unless other particles are close enough reaction can’t continue
● Temperature - Dust cloud at elevated high temperatures is more susceptible to ignition
● Moisture Presence - Acts as coolant. Heat from a particle is absorbed for evaporation of
water, This acts as an inert gas. Causes particles to cling together thereby forming larger
masses less tendency to ignite
● Presence of inert solid particles - Incombustible inhibits reaction.
Fire and Explosion Safety Measures
● Hazard Identification - Regularly conduct risks assessments to identify potential fire and
explosion hazards in the workplace
● Proper Storage - Store flammable and combustible materials in designated areas with
appropriate containment and ventilation
● Housekeeping: Maintain clean workplaces to minimize the accumulation of combustible
materials, such as dust and waste
● Ignition Sources Control - Eliminate or control sources of ignition in areas where
flammable materials are present
● PPE - Ensure workers wear appropriate PPE, including flame - resistant clothing when
working with or near hazardous materials
 ● Training and Drills - Regularly train employees on fire safety protocols and conduct fire
drills to ensure preparedness
Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers
● Water based (Class A): For ordinary combustibles (wood, paper, etc.)
● Foam based (Class A&B): For flammable liquids and general materials
● Dry Chemical Powder(DCP, Class A, B & C): Effective on flammable liquids, gases, and
electrical fires
● Carbon Dioxide(CO2, Class B&C): For flammable liquids and electrical fires
● Wet Chemical(Class F): For kitchen fires involving grease and oils
● Clean Agent(Class A, B and C): Eco-friendly gas-based extinguishers for sensitive
equipment
Installation Guidelines
● Should be installed in easily accessible locations (eg. Exits)
● Mount Height
- Up to 4 kg - Max height 1.5 m from the floor
- More than 4 kg - Max height 1 m from the floor
● Spacing - No person should need to travel more than 15 m to access an extinguisher
Periodic Inspection and Maintenance
● Inspection Frequency: Monthly
● Checks: Proper mounting, pressure gauge reading, nozzle blockage, and overall
condition
● Hydrostatic testing: Every 3-5 years, depending on type and manufacturer
Operation Guidelines
● Follow the PASS Technique
1. Pull the Pin
2. Aim at the base of the fire
3. Squeeze the handle
4. Sweep from side to side
Replacement of Halon with safer substitutes
● FM-200: Clean agent for sensitive equipment
● NOVEC 1230: Environmentally friendly and non-toxic
● Inert gases (e.g., Argon,, Nitrogen blends): For fire suppression without residue
Fire Hydrant System
● Components: Water Storage tank, Pump Sets. Pipes, valves and hydrant valves
● Operation: Delivers high pressure water for manual fire-fighting using hoses and nozzles
● Applications: Industrial plants, high-rise buildings, and warehouse
Fire Monitor
● High-Capacity Nozzles used to deliver water or foam over long distances
● Operated manually or automatically
● Common in petrochemical plants and storage terminals
Sprinkler System
● Types:
1. Wet Pipe: Always filled with water
2. Dry Pipe: Contains pressurized air or gas
 3. Pre-action: Requires a trigger before water release
● Installation: Ceiling mounted for uniform coverage
● Activation: Automatically activated by heat-sensitive bulbs or fusible links
Deluge Systems
● Delivers a large volume of water through open sprinklers or nozzles
● Activated by a fire detection system, flooding the area quickly
● Ideal for high-risk areas like chemical plants or oil refineries
Carbon Dioxide Flooding System
● Uses CO2 to displace oxygen, smothering the fire
● Ideal for electrical rooms, server rooms and enclosed spaces
● Advantages: Non-conductive and residue free
● Precaution: Avoid use in occupied areas due to asphyxiation risk
Foam pourer system
● Produces a blanket of foam to suppress flammable liquids fires
● Types of Foam: AFFF(Aqueous Film-Forming Foam), AR-AFFF (Alcohol-Resistance
● Commonly used in fuel storage tanks and airport facilities.

Fire Protection

Objective: To contain the spread of fire

Types
1. Active Fire Protection System
2. Passive Fire Protection System
Design of Building
As per National Building Code, Part-IV (2016)
- This Part of the Code deals with safety from fire. It specifies the destruction of fire zones,
restrictions on construction of buildings in each fire zone, classification of buildings
based on occupancy, types of building construction according to the fire resistance of the
structural and non-structural components and other restrictions and requirements
necessary to minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes, or panic before the
buildings can be evacuated. The code recognizes that safety of life is more than a matter
of means of exit and accordingly deals with various matters which are considered
essential to the safety of life.
Occupancy Load Factor (SQ.M/PERSON)
1. Group A - Residential (12.50)
2. Group B - Educational (4.0)
3. Group C - Institutional (Indoor patient area: 15 and Outdoor patient area: 10)
4. Group D - Assembly
- Concentrated without fixed seating (0.65)
- Less concentrated without fixed seating (1.4)
- Fixed sitting based on number of persons multiplied by 1.2
- Dining and Restaurant with Seating and Table (1.8)
5. Group E - Business (10.0)
6. Group F - Mercantile
 - Street floor and sale basement (3)
- Upper Sales Floor (6)
- Storage/Warehouse receiving (20)
7. Group G - Industrial (10.0)
8. Group H - Storage (30.0)
9. Group J - Hazardous (10.0)
Fire Resistance
● Property of an element of building construction and is a measure of its ability to satisfy
for a stated period, some or all of the following criteria
1. Load bearing capacity - The ability of a load bearing element to withstand fire
exposure without any loss of structural stability
2. Integrity - Resistance to penetration of flame and hot gases
3. Insulation - Resistance to temperature rise on the unexposed face up to a
maximum of 180 degree celsius at any single point and average temperature of
140 degree celsius.
Fire Doors
● Fire Doors are designed to withstand fire, heat, and smoke for a period of 20 minutes to
3 hours.
● Corridor laboratory doors should have a 60 minute rating
● Fire Doors required to
1. Be Self Closing - Fire doors should have a door closure that pulls doors
completely shut after the door has been opened
2. Have Positive Latching: A positive latch locks a door in place so can open swing
open freely
● Why it is called Firewall
1. The term firewall originally referred to a wall intended to confine a fire within a
line of adjacent buildings
2. Later uses refer to similar structures, such as the metal sheet separating the
engine compartment of a vehicle or aircraft from the passenger compartment
Fire Load
● Described Fire load as being equal to the mass in kilograms of all material in that space,
multiplied by the value of these materials in calories (kilojoules per kg), divided by the
area of space in square
● Fire Load = (combustibles in kg)*Calorific Value in kcal/kg/Floor area in square meters.
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
● Smoke detectors - Use photoelectric or ionization smoke detectors for early fire detection
● Heat Detectors - kitchen and dusty environments
● Manual Pull Stations - Install accessible manual pull stations for immediate alarm
activation in case of a fire
● Alarm Systems - Integrate visual and auditory alarms to alert occupants in case of fire,
ensuring they are loud enough to be heard in noisy environments
● Monitoring Systems - Connect fire alarm systems to a monitoring service to notify
emergency services automatically
Fire Extinguishing Systems
● Fire Extinguishers - Place portable fire extinguishers throughout the facility, properly
labeled for different classes of fire (A, B, C)
● Fire Hose Reels - Install fire hose reels in strategic locations for immediate access to
water for extinguishing fires.
● Sprinkler Systems - Implement automatic sprinkler systems that activate in the presence
of heat, providing quick suppression of fires
● Fire Blankets - Use fire blankets for small fires, particularly in kitchens or areas where
flammable materials are used
● Fire Suppression Systems - For specific hazard (eg. Chemical fires), install specialized
suppressions systems (e.g foam systems or clean agent systems)
Dow Fire and Explosion Index (FEI)
● Dow FEI - Ranking system that gives a relative index to the risk of individual process
units due to potential fires and explosions
● Primary Purpose
1. Serves as a guide for the selection of fire and explosion protection methods
2. It assists in determining the spacing between adjacent process units within the
ISBL
3. Guide for insurance agencies to set insurance rates
4. Ranks individual process units where special safety attention can be focused
● Who usually performs the FEI
1. Senior process engineer acquainted with details of the project, is assigned the
task
2. Occasionally, different groups tackle the assignment and results are compared
for consensus building
● General Process Hazards
1. Exothermic Reactions
2. Endothermic Reactions
3. Material Handling and Transfer
4. Enclosed or indoor process units
5. Access
6. Drainage and Spill Controls
● Special Process Hazards
1. Toxic materials
2. Sub-atmospheric pressure
3. Operating in or near flammable range
4. Dust explosion
5. Pressure
6. Low temperature
7. Quantity of flammable/unstable material
8. Corrosion and erosion
9. Leakage - joints and packing
10. Use of Fired Equipment
11. Hot Oil Heat Exchanger System
 12. Rotating equipment
● Process Control Credit Factors
1. Emergency Power
2. Cooling
3. Explosion Control
4. Emergency Shutdown
5. Computer Control
6. Inert gas
7. Operating Instruction Procedures
8. Reactive Chemical Review
9. Process Hazard Analysis
● Material Isolation Credit Factors
1. Remote Control Valves
2. Dump or blow down factor
3. Drainage
4. Interlocks
● Fire Protection Credit Factors
1. Leak Detection
2. Structural Steel
3. Fire Water Supply
4. Special Systems
5. Sprinkler Systems
6. Water curtains
7. Foam
8. Hand Extinguishers
● Dow Fire and Explosion Index

FEI Category Equipments

1-60 Light LPG unit reflux drum

61-96 Moderate LPG amine tester

97-127 Intermediate -

125-158 Heavy

159 onwards Severe LPG sphere

Types of Automatic Fire Detectors

● Heat Detectors
1. Fixed Detectors
a) Alarm when the sensing element reaches a certain set point
b) Two Common Models: 135 and 200-degrees F range
 c) Fixed element is generally a non-restorable type, and when activated,
must be replaced
2. Rate-of-Rise Detectors
a) Respond when the rate of temperature increases is greater than an
allowable limit(15 degrees in 60 secs.)(placement in a stable
environment) (e.g. ovens, heating vents, etc.)
b) Rate of Rise Element is restorable when conditions return to normal
3. Rate Compensation will respond regardless of the rate of temperature rise
● Ionization Smoke Detectors
1. Contain a small amount of radioactive material encapsulated in a metal chamber.
Ionizing radiation develops a low, but steady electrical current. Smoke particles
entering the chamber disrupt the current and trigger the detector’s alarm
2. Ion detectors react more quickly to fast flaming fires that give off little smoke
● Photoelectric Smoke Detectors: Light Scattering Type
1. Uses a Light-Emitting Diode that sends a beam of light into a dark chamber - a
photodiode sits on the other side of a partition within the chamber
2. Smoke particles entering the chamber deflect some of the light rays into the
photocell. The photocell generates a current exposed to light, and if the current
reaches a certain level, the detector alarms
● Photoelectric Smoke Detectors: Light Obscuration Type
1. In a projected Beam Detector, alarms are generated by diffusing the projected
light beam by a specified percentage of obscuration
2. Total Beam Blockage generally results in a trouble signal
● Duct Detectors
1. Photoelectric detector mounted in housing outside the ductwork that has probes
that extend into the duct to sample the air inside the duct.
2. Primarily used as a smoke control device to control the flow of air in ductwork
● VESDA - Self Aspirating Smoke Detector
1. Build in Pump
2. Sampling of air at set frequency from various location
3. Aids in Quick Detection
● Open Path Smoke Detectors
1. Optical Beam Smoke Detectors are used to provide wide area smoke detection.
It also enables coverage of a large area, at minimal cost
2. Optical Beam Smoke Detectors are also ideally suited for situations that might
include high ceilings, dusty and dirty environments that experience temperature
extremes
● Video Smoke/Fire Detector
1. The AlarmEye VID system is a smoke/flame detection system. The system can
act as an independent fire detector in which both the video processing and alarm
algorithm execution are performed at the detector. It can also be used as a
centralized detection system in which up to eight video cameras are connected
together and processed in a single computer unit
 2. The AlarmEye detectors used in the test series were independent fire detectors.
Each detector consists of a one color camera, one IR camera, one IR light
source, image capture and pre-processing and digital signal processor.

Unit 6: Pressure System Hazards and Controls

Pressure System Hazards:

● Overpressure: When pressure exceeds the design limits of a pressure vessel, leading to
rupture or explosion.
● Underpressure: Insufficient pressure in vacuum systems can cause collapse or loss of
process control.
● Mechanical Failure: Structural damage due to pressure fatigue or wear, causing leaks or
system failure.
● Corrosion/Degradation: Exposure to chemicals, temperature extremes, or moisture can
lead to corrosion or material degradation over time.

Assessment of Reliability of Pressure Vessels and Their Testing

● Reliability Assessment: Conducts structural integrity assessments through stress

analysis, corrosion monitoring, and fatigue analysis.
● Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Techniques such as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and
magnetic particle testing assess material integrity without damaging the vessel.
● Hydrostatic Testing: Involves filling the vessel with water to check for leaks or
weaknesses under high pressure, simulating normal operating conditions.

Inspection Techniques for Plants and Reaction Vessels

1. Visual Inspection: Identifying surface corrosion, leaks, or mechanical damage.

2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT): Detects material thickness, corrosion, and hidden defects in
pressure vessels.
3. Radiographic Testing (RT): Uses X-rays or gamma rays to inspect the internal structure
of vessels for cracks or weld defects.
4. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI): Detects surface and near-surface flaws in
ferromagnetic materials.
5. Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT): Identifies surface cracks by applying a dye to the vessel
and inspecting for penetrant residue.
6. Vibration Monitoring: Used for detecting abnormal vibrations or mechanical failures in
rotating equipment.

Checklist for Routine Inspection

● General Condition: Check for rust, corrosion, and leaks on vessel surfaces.
 ● Pressure Relief Devices: Ensure proper functionality of relief valves and pressure
gauges.
● Seals and Gaskets: Inspect for wear or degradation in seals, flanges, and joints.
● Temperature and Pressure: Verify that operating temperatures and pressures are within
safe limits.
● Cleaning and Debris: Ensure no debris or blockages obstruct pressure release or safety
devices.
● Documentation: Review inspection records and test results for compliance with
standards.

Checklist for Specific Maintenance

● Corrosion Protection: Inspect and repair protective coatings or linings.

● Weld Inspections: Check welds for cracks, porosity, or other defects using NDT
methods.
● Replacement of Components: Replace seals, gaskets, or valves showing signs of wear.
● Testing Pressure Relief Systems: Test and recalibrate pressure relief valves.
● Inspection of Safety Systems: Verify that emergency shut-off valves, sensors, and
alarms are operational.
● Structural Integrity: Check the pressure vessel's framework for signs of deformation or
stress.

Regular inspections and testing ensure the safety and reliability of pressure systems and
vessels, preventing accidents and extending the life of the equipment.

Principles of a Pressure System

● A pressure system is any equipment or system containing gas or liquid at pressures
significantly above or below atmospheric pressure.
● Key Principles
1. Containment - Material and components must withstand the internal pressure
2. Control - Pressure regulators, relief valves, and automatic shutdown systems
maintain safe operating limits
3. Monitoring - Gauges, sensors, and alarms provide real time pressure and
temperature data
4. Maintenance - Regular inspections and testing prevent failures
Pressure
● Pressure is force exerted per unit area expressed in units like Pascals (Pa), bar or psi
● Types of Pressure
1. Absolute Pressure: Includes atmospheric
2. Gauge Pressure: Excludes atmospheric pressure(Commonly used in industries)
3. Differential Pressure: Difference between two pressure points
Hazards of Steam
● Thermal Burns: Direct contact with steam causes severe burns due to high temperature
 ● Overpressure Hazards: Steam can cause equipment to rupture if pressure builds beyond
safe limits
● Condensation-Induced Water Hammer - Rapid condensation in steam systems
generates shock waves, damaging pipes and fittings
● Explosion Risk - If a steam pipe or vessel ruptures, the sudden release of energy can
lead to catastrophic explosions
Mechanism of Steam Explosion
● A steam explosion occurs when water comes into contact with a high temperature
surface or molten material, leading to rapid vaporization
● Stages of a Steam Explosion
1. Contact and Flashing - Water rapidly turns into steam upon contact with high
heat
2. Pressure Rise - The sudden steam generation increases pressure
3. Mechanical Failure - If containment fails, it results in an explosion
● Common Causes
1. Introducing water into molten metals
2. Sudden cooling of overheated systems
3. Structural failure of steam engines
Properties of LPG
● LPG is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily propane and butane, stored as a
liquid under pressure
● Properties
1. Density- Heavier than air, tends to settle in low-lying areas
2. Flammability - Forms explosive mixtures with air in specific concentrations (LEL:
2%)
3. Volatility: Rapidly vaporizes when released causing cooling (Can lead to frostbite)
4. Energy Coolant - High calorific value, making it a common fuel

Liquefaction of Gases for Bulk Storage under Pressure

● LIquefaction involves compressing and cooling gases to store them in liquid form,
reducing volume and facilitating bulk storage and transport
● Process
1. Compression - Gas is pressurized to transition to the liquid phase
2. Cooling - Cryogenic systems or ambient cooling reduce temperature for
liquefaction
3. Storage - Liquefied gasses are stored in pressurized tanks designed to handle
low temperatures and high pressure
Pressure System
● A pressure system comprises components like vessels, pipelines, and valves that
contain pressurized gases or liquids
● Components
1. Pressure Vessel - Designed to store or process pressurized substances
2. Pipelines - Transport Pressurized Fluids
3. Relief Devices - Prevent overpressure by releasing excess pressure
Failure of Pressure Systems
● Failures in pressure systems can result from mechanical, operational,or design issues
● Causes
1. Corrosion - Weakens system integrity over time
2. Fatigue - Repeated pressure cycles cause material degradation
3. Improper Maintenance - Lack of regular inspections and repairs
4. Overpressure - Excessive internal pressure leads to rupture
5. Human Error- Incorrect operation or mishandling of equipment
Hazards of Overpressure and Over Temperature in Pressure Systems
● Overpressure Hazards
1. Rupture - Exceeding design pressure can cause catastrophic failure
2. Projectile Risk - Fragments from ruptured systems pose physical hazards
3. Loss of Containment - Release of toxic or flammable substances
● Over Temperature Hazards
1. Material Degradation - High Temperature reduce the strength of materials,
leading to failure.
2. Thermal Expansion - Increased Temperature causes expansion, stressing the
system
3. Runaway Reactions - In chemical process, over temperature can trigger
uncontrolled reactions

Safety Measures for Pressure Systems

1. Pressure Relief Devices - Install relief valves and rupture disks
2. Temperature Control - Use insulation and cooling systems to maintain safe temperatures
3. Regular inspection - Conduct periodic checks for leaks, corrosion, and mechanical wear
4. Training - Ensure operators understand system limits and emergency protocols
5. Design Standards - Follow recognized standards like ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code

Corrosion

● Corrosion is the gradual deterioration of a material, usually metal, due to chemical

reactions with its environment. The most common form is rusting in iron and steel,
which occurs when they react with oxygen and moisture. Corrosion can also be caused
by exposure to chemicals, acids, or salts. It weakens the material over time, leading to
structural failure if not controlled.
● Common Causes:
1. Environmental Factors:
- Moisture
- Oxygen
- Temperature
- Acidity/Alkalinity - Highly acidic or alkaline environments increase metal
degradation
 2. Material Properties - Composition and surcface confition(eg. Scratches or cracks)
affect corrosion susceptibility
3. Electrochemical reactions - Presence of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte
creates a galvanic cell, leading to localized corrosion
4. Chemical Exposure - Contact with corrosive chemicals, such as chlorides or
sulfates, accelerates degradation
● Control Measures:
1. Protective coatings (paints, galvanizing).
2. Cathodic protection (using sacrificial anodes).
3. Corrosion-resistant materials.

Erosion

● Erosion is the mechanical wearing or removal of material due to the impact of particles,
liquids, or gases. It is often seen in pipes, turbines, or machinery exposed to
high-velocity fluids or abrasive particles. Unlike corrosion, erosion is caused by physical
processes rather than chemical reactions.
● Common Causes:
1. High-velocity fluids or gases carrying abrasive particles.
2. Cavitation (formation of bubbles in liquid due to pressure changes).
● Control Measures:
1. Using harder, wear-resistant materials (e.g., carbide coatings).
2. Maintaining proper flow velocities and reducing turbulence.
3. Using filters or strainers to remove abrasive particles from fluids.

Protection Against Corrosion

● Cathodic Protection of Underground Tanks/Pipelines
1. Cathodic Protection is a technique used to prevent corrosion by converting the
protected metal into the cathode of an electrochemical cell
2. How it works
a) Corrosion occurs at the anode; by making the structure a cathode, it is
protected from oxidation
b) This is achieved through external current or sacrificial anodes
3. Types
a) Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
- An external power source provides current to counteract corrosion
- Used for large pipelines or storage tanks
b) Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
- Relies on a more reactive metal(sacrificial anode) to corrode
instead of the structure
● Sacrificial Anode
1. Principle - A sacrificial anode is a metal with a lower electrochemical potential
than the protected structure. Commonly used materials include zinc, magnesium,
and aluminium .
2. Application
 a) Attached to the surface of underground tanks or pipelines
b) The sacrificial anode corrodes, protecting the main structure from
degradation
3. Advantages
a) Simple and cost-effective for small-scale systems
b) Does not require an external power source
● Protective Cladding and Lining
1. Cladding
a) A protective layer of a corrosion-resistant metal is bonded to the surface
of the base material
b) Applications - Pressure vessels, pipelines, and chemical tanks
2. Lining
a) Non-metallic coatings like rubber, plastic, or epoxy are applied to surfaces
b) Applications - Internal Protection for Storage Tanks, Pipelines, and
Concrete structures
3. Advantages
a) Durable and resistant to various corrosive agents
b) Cost-effective compared to constructing entirely with corrosion-resistant
materials.
Combination Strategies
● Use cathodic protection along with protective coatings for enhanced durability
● Combine sacrificial anodes with corrosion inhibitors to prolong anode life
● Design systems with corrosion-resistant materials in critical areas
Monitoring and Maintenance
● Inspection - Regular checks for corrosion, wear and coating damage
● Testing - Measure cathodic protection potential using reference electrodes
● Replacement - Replace sacrificial anodes and repair coatings when necessary