RADAR CROSS SECTION

Robert W. Borek
Principal Engineer
SPARTA, Inc.
Lancaster, CA 93535
US

19A.0 INTRODUCTION

The material in this Section Will provide the novice Flight Test Engineer
(FTE) with a brief overview of the radar cross section (RCS) concept. Brief
details of radar range descriptions, operations, target calibrations, and data
reduction are included. It is noted that these range operations concentrate
on the "static" test range rather than the much more sophisticated "dynamic"
test range. The dynamic test range is what the FTE Will probably work with.

Radar reflectivity measurement has developed over the last two decades from a
relatively simple endeavor involving the measurement of target RCS amplitude
statistics to involving wide band, coherent systems that tan measure high
resolution images of targets as well as, in many cases, the polarization and
phasing properties. This rapid growth in RCS technology has occurred because
of the increased "se of radar in today's commercial and military systems. In
general, the goal for commercial systems is to enhance radar reflectivity,
whereas the military goal is to reduce radar reflectivity. AlSO,
classification and identification are important for milita-y purposes because
in adverse weather radar may be the only system that may be capable of
separating enemy targets from friendly ones.

This Section Will discuss the fundamentals of RCS. Since the flight test
techniques associated with RCS measurements are very similar to those of
antenna pattern measurements, both Will be presented at the same time in
Section 19B Antenna Radiation Pattern Measurements.

19A.l THE RADAR CROSS SECTION CONCEPT

The measurement of the RCS of targets, both simple and complex, is a difficult
and challenging electromagnetic problem that has existed since radar was
invented. Although the principles of electromagnetic theory are well
developed, the application of those principles for predicting RCS often result
in complex and extensive computations. Thus, there is always the need to test
theory or verify predictions and these actions cari usually be accomplished by
test range measurements.

Stated in fundamental terms, the RCS of a target is the projected area of an

elactrically largo and perfectly conducting metal sphere that would scatter
the same power in the same direction as that of the target. The term
electrically large is meant to mean a sphere at least several wavelengths in
diameter producing a projected area of na', where a is the radius of the
sphere. The echoes of most targets vary considerably with changing aspect
angle and frequency but the echo of a large sphere changes very little.
Although not a rigorous concept, using a sphere does generate the idea.

When a target is illuminated by an electromagnetic wave, energy is dispersed

in a11 directions. The spatial distribution of this energy depends on the
size, shape and composition of the target, and on the frequency and nature of
the incident wave. This distribution of energy is called ncattering, and the
target itself is often referred to as a mcatterer.

Bistatic mcattering is the name given to the situation when the scattering
direction is not back toward the source of the radiation, thus forward

Paper pubhshed by AGARD as part of AGARDoSraph 300 Flighr Test Techniques Suies - Volume 14.
Seprember 1995, enrirkd “lnrroducrion b Flighr Test Engineering”.
19A-2

azattering occurs when the bistatic angle is 180 degrees. It is called

monoatatic scattsring when the receiver and the source are located at the same
point, as is the case for a single radar. [19A-11

Probably as an outgrowth of antenna research and design, this spatial

distribution of scattered energy or scattered power is characterized by a
crocs section, a fictitious area property of the target. An antenna is often
regarded as having an "aperture of effective area" which extracts energy from
a passing radio wave. The power available at the terminal* of the receiving
antenna cari be represented as the product of the incident power density and an
effective area exposed to that power. [19A-21 The power reflected or
scattered by a radar target cari be expressed as the product of an effective
area and an incident power density. In general, that area is called the
acattering cross maction. For directions other than back toward the radar, it
is called the bistatic cros11 section, and when the direction is back toward
the radar, it is called the back acattering croc= section or the radar cross
.Ysction. In the pioncer days of radar research, the term echo car.(~was con-mon
and occasionally researchers defined 'effective areas" that could be
identified with the geometry of a flat plate. [19A-31

In general, the target cari be considered to consist of many individual

'scatterers'. These scatterers cari be added vectorially to give the total
scattered field. Since the scattered fields depend on the attitude at which
the target is presented to the incident wave, the scattering cross section
fluctuates. Therefore, it cari be seen that the scattering cross section is
not a constant, but is strongly dependent on the angular properties of the
target and the direction from which the target is viewed.

19A.l.l The Radar Ranga Equation

The radar range equation provides a very useful mathematical relationship for
assessing both the need for and the effectiveness of efforts to alter radar
target cross section. In its varias forms, the radar range equation accounts
for:
. Radar system parameters
. Target parameters
. Background effects (clutter, noise, interference, and jamming)
- Propagation effects (reflection, refraction, and diffraction)
. Propagation medium (absorption and scatter) [19A-41
The radar range equation shows that the received power is a direct function of
the transmitted power, the gains of the transmitting and receiving
transmitters, the frequency (wavelength), and the RCS, and is indirectly
proportional to the fourth power of the distance from the target to the
receiving antenna. [19A-SI

A thorough knowledge of the radar range equation and its implications are
quite important to the understanding of RCS and RCS alteration. Luckily, the
fundamental form of the equation is based on simple geometric principles. The
parameters show that the maximum free space detection range varies as the
fourth root of the RCS. Thus, a factor of 16 reduction in RCS Will be
required to halve the maximum detection range, and a factor of 10,000
reduction in RCS Will be required to tut the detection range by a factor of
tel-l.

For detection in clutter or multipath, the relationship between RCS and

maximum detection range becomes more complicated.

19A.l.P Urne of ths Decibel

The RCS variables often consist of many orders of magnitude; transmitted

powers may be in megawatts and received power may be in picowatts. Because of
 19A-3

the wide range of variables involved, parameters are conveniently converted to

logarithmic values. Typically, transmitted power, antenna gain, and RCS
values are provided in dB. (RCS values are often expressed in dBsm - decibels
relative to a square meter - where dBsm is a direct function of the logaritbm
to the base ten of the RCS of a target expressed in square meters.) A
comparison of the square meter and dBsm is shows in Figure 19A-1. Wavelength
and range are usually given in linear units and must be converted to dB.
(Regardless of whether they are dBm, dB, dBsm, "dB"s may be arithmetically
added.)

19A.2 TYPES OP RCS MEASUREMENTS

The purpose of an RCS measurement range is to collect radar target scattering

data. Usually, the range user requires far-field data, corresponding to the
case where the target is located far enough from the instrumentation radar
that the incident phase fronts are acceptably flat. Many times this dictates
the "se of an outdoor range. However, depending on the target and the nature
of the research program many tests are conducted indoors in an anechoic
chamber. Whether outdoors or indoors, an RCS measurements facility must bave,
as a minimum, these five features:
* An instrumentation radar capable of launching and receiving a microwave
signal of sufficient intensity,
. Recording instruments, either analog or digital or both, for saving the
information
. A controllable target rotator or turn table
* A low background signal environment, including "invisible" target support
structures, to minimize contamination of the desired signais
- A test target suitable for the measurements.

After the decision has been made to conduct a measurement program, a suitable
facility must be found. Negotiations usually involve the specification of a
set of test conditions and a test matrix, and the prospective range Will
submit a bid. This bid should be carefully evaluated to ensure that the
facility cari actually produce the data required and to determine if the range
is able to offer a differing set of test conditions that could produce the
desired data in a more cost effective fashion based "pon the experience of the
facility personnel.

Free-flight measurements of air vehicles are accomplished primarily to

ascertain the RCS, determine the contributions of 'dynamic" components such as
engines and control surfaces, validate and/or define problems with the ground
measurements, and determine RCS under combat conditions such as maneuvering
flight and the modification to RCS at the time of chaff release.

A complex target, such as an aircraft, contains several dozen significant

scattering centers and dozens of other less significant scatterers. BeCaUSe
of this multiplicity of scatterers, the net RCS pattern exhibits a rapid
scintillation with aspect angle due to the mutual interference as the various
contributors go in and out of phase with each other. Tbe larger the target in
terms of wave-length, the more rapid these scintillations become. Major
sources of nose-on reflections on a commercial transport are the flat bulkhead
on which the weather radar is mounted, the large cockpit cavity, and the
interaction between the engine fan faces and the very short, wide engine inlet
ducts.

19A.2.1 Tha Fe-field Req"irement

The forma1 definition of RCS states that the distance r between the target and
the radar must become infinite. The reason for this is to eliminate any
distance dependence in the RCS characteristics. The limiting process
essentially requires that the target be illuminated by a plane wave, yet in
19A-4

practical measurement situations the wave is almost always somewhat spherical,

due to finite separation. The question then is: how "spherical" cari the
incident waveform be and yet be a reasonably good approximation of a plane
"a"e? One way to resolve this question is to assume the radar to be a point
source and examine the deviation of the incident phase fronts from Perfect
uniformity over an aperture having the same width as the target.

In some cases the radar sensitivity is net good enough for the target to be
measured in the farfield distance, and a shorter range may bave to be selected
to ensure adequate received signal strengths.

19A.2.2 Meaalremsnts

The effects of measuring rather complex targets at less than the standard
farfield distance are often difficult to recognize. At high frequencies, each
feature of the target scatters energy more or less independent of other target
features. These features are significantly smaller than the overall target.
These features, which may be tail fins, engine intakes, nose tips, or external
stores, could each be in the farfield with respect to its own size, although
the overall composite target may not be. Thus, the amplitude of the
scattering from each feature, as well as the locations of peaks and nulls in
its own pattern, are less sensitive to the measurement range. The primary
effect of a near-field measurement in this case is the slight shifting of the
lobes and 11~11s of the composite pattern as compared with the true far-field
pattern. This being the case, measurements performed at less than the
farfield distance cari often be justified.

Further, high accuracy in RCS measurements is often unnecessary. Quite often,

users of test data require only median values, which are statistically
representative of the signal return over an angle window that is moved across
the RCS pattern. Therefore, the end use of the data should be considered when
deciding how important nearfield effects may be.

19A.2.3 The Type of pattern tut

One of the decisions required of the test range user is whether to specify
spherical or conical "cuts" (patterns). A tut refers to the RCS pattern
recorded for a complete revolution of the target. Whether or not this tut is
spherical or a cane trajectory depends on the tilt angle of the axis of
rotation.

With the target mounted on a support column in a level flight attitude and in
a nose-on viewing position, the radar line-of-sight remains in the target yaw
plane as the turntable is rotated through 360 degrees. If the axis of
rotation is now tilted toward the radar, the radar line-of-sight maintains a
constant angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a result, the line-
of-sight traces out a cane centered on the yaw axis as the target is rotated.
This is the conical tut. Reference 19A-6 provides several figures that
illustrate the geometry of these types of patterns.

The conical tut is usually the favored method of target rotation for RCS
measurements because more data caribe obtained in much less time at less cost:
even though the spherical tut cari obtain high-elevation angles not possible
with the conical tut. However, the test engineer should discuss this issue
with the range personnel to ensure that he gets usable data.

19A.2.4 RCS and Radar Frequency Bands

Generally, radars fa11 within the frequency bands shown in Table 19A-1. These
bands include frequencies that range from 3 MHz to 300 GHz with the majority
of them using microwave frequency bands designated as L, S, C, X and %. It
is interesting to observe that with the development of "stealth" technology
the radars that use the UHF and VHF bands bave somewhat reversed the tend
toward the use of higher frequency radar systems. Vehicles with 10" RCS
values Will generally show an RCS response proportional to the radar
wavelength squared. This wavelength dependence, driven by the target shaping
that must be used if very low RCS values are to be obtained, has renewed the
interest in these lower frequency radars. These frequency band distinctions
are important when establishing a flight test program. In fact, it is this
very distinction that usually dictates what frequencies to use for a given
test program. That is. the target RCS Will be evaluated at those radar
frequencies most generally used by the adversary.

The IEEE Standard 521-1976, Table 19A-I(a), illustrates that the standard
radar bands are not consistent with the electronic countermeasures (ECM)
frequency band designations listed in AFR 55-4, Table 19A-I(b). [19A-7, 19A-
81 Thus, anyone requiring the use of radar absorber material, for example,
must be frequency specific rather than use an overall Band designator. Notice
the difference in the L-Band frequency ranges, radar vs ECM.

19A.3 THE RCS TEST RUWE

The RCS range provides a valuable tool for testing the performance of various
design approaches or simply accruing a database for targets, target
conditions, and various absorber materials.

RCS ranges bave their advantages and disadvantages and they exist in a variety
of shapes and sizes. Early RCS measurement facilities were indoor anechoic
chambers, although currently, a large number of both indoor and outdoor ranges
are in operation throughout the United States.
- Indoor ranges suffer limitations in the size of the targets that cari be
measured, whereas outdoor ranges suffer down time problems due to weather
conditions. Although the indoor ranges offer protection against the weather
and intruders, outdoor ranges cari often measure full-scale targets under far-
field conditions.
. Probably the single most important disadvantage of outdoor measurements is
the lona-term effects of weather. Measurements cannot be made in the rain
because-of moisture collection on targets and target support columns and the
backscatter from raindrops in the measurement zone. When rain is not a
problem the wind usually is.
. Outdoor measurement ranges are subject to overhead observation by aircraft
and/or satellite, an important problem when working with sensitive targets.
Although the test sites are usually located in controlled airspace areas and
satellite schedules are accurately known, the problems of continually removing
the target to prevent observation severely limits measurement time. Night
operations do very little to prevent observation due to light amplification
techniques.
. A problem common to both indoor and outdoor ranges is how to expose the
target to the incident radar beam on an 'invisible' target support. Certainly
there are no invisible target support mechanisms, but recent improvements in
absorber material bave produced acceptable configurations.

19A.3.1 0utdoor Ransem

Outdoor ranges generally use pulsed radar instrumentation, whereas indoor

ranges use continuous wave and frequency modulationlcontinuous wave systems.
The measured patterns are essentially the same in both cases, provided that
the puise width of the outdoor system is long enough to bracket the target.

The instrumentation for an outdoor range is relatively simple for conventional

RCS measurements, but cari be much more complex if coherent data (i.e.,
measurement of the relative phase of the signal return in addition to the
19~.6

amplitude) are required. For diagnostic isolation of flare spots for example,
a chirped puise must be used. The quality, quantity, and complexity of radar
instrumentation varies considerably from range to range. For detailed
information on this subject refer to Skolnik's "Radar Handbook". [19A-91

Most of the world's large outdoor ranges (non-dynamic) are located in the
United States. The oldest dates back to the '60s and the newest was completed
in the early '90s. A11 are static RCS ranges, i.e., the test target is
exposed to the instrumentation radar on a controllable support fixture.
Although the target may be rotated in aspect during measurements, it remains
static in that it never leaves the ground and the radar points to it in a
fixed direction. The contrat is the dynamic test range, and targets may fly
courses several miles long. This requires that the instrumentation radars
track the target in both angle and range.

An example of a modem free-flight range is the dynamic RCS measurement

capability that exists at the US Naval Air Warfare Center at Patuxent River,
Maryland. This capability exists within the Chesapeake Test Range and
utilizes that range to provide time-space position information, aircraft
telemetry data, and the electronic warfare measurements, such as RCS and jam-
+x-signal ratios, a11 operating in a real-time environment. The RCS
measurement system operates on a pulse transmission, time delay, amplitude
measurement concept. The system is capable of obtaining dynamic in-flight RCS
measurements of single, multiple, or extended targets including aircraft,
chaff, and jammers. The system collects up to eight simultaneous measurements
on a puise-to-puise bais. This latter feature allows single flight data
acquisition at multiple frequency/polarization combinations, and allows proper
determination of target scattering Probability Density Functions. From this
radar performance data, calculations of an aircraft's mission effectiveness
and survivability cari be determined.
Future enhancements to the dynamic range include a high resolution imagery
(inverse synthetic aperture radar) to be used to coherently measure RCS. The
system Will allo" dynamic air vehicle measurements such as Doppler signature,
jet engine modulation, and propeller/rotor modulation. Measurements could
also be performed to locate scattering centers and changes in RCS due to
maintenance practices or environmental factors. These coherent measurements
cari then be used to provide a baseline for data comparison to measurements
performed by other RCS facilities.

There are a number of rather complex items that affect measurements, such as:
- Ground Plane Effect. The proximity of the ground to the antenna and the
target is hard to avoid and one solution is to exploit .the ground reflections.
The exploitation requires precise knowledge of the reflecting surface and in
many cases asphalt or concrete is used although a carefully graded and level
soi1 is quite satisfactory. (Sec reference 19A-10 for the detailed geometry).
* Antenna Considerations. Whether or not the ground plane effect is used in
RCS measurements, one of the first things to decide is the antenna sire. The
antenna beamwidth must be broad enough to adequately illuminate the target,
implying that there is an upper limit to the antenna size that may be used.
On the other hand, system sensitivity imposes a lower limit on the size.
. G-round Reflections, Clutter and Multipath. The reflection from the ground
depends on the type of soil, its dampness, and its roughness. The surface
roughness diffuses energy in a11 directions with the diffusion being greater
for greater roughness. The diffused energy reduces the amount of energy
reflected in the specular direction, thus the ground plane enhancement becomes
less significant the rougher the ground. Vegetation cari increase the apparent
roughness and absorb some of the incident energy. [19A-101
These items should be discussed with the range engineering staff in order to
understand their impact on the test data.
 IYA~7

19A.3.a 1mloor Rang*9

Although a large building is required to house an indoor range, much less
ground area is required than for an outdoor range. HOW*V*r, the indoor range
does bave its problems such a* undesired reflected signal* from chamber walls.
TO a lesser extent facility screen rooms are often required to meet radio
frequency interference (RFI) and security requirements which in turn lead to
lighting, heating, and cooling complications.

Often, even though the convenience, economy, and security of an indoor test
range are preferred, most targets are just too big. For example, a target as
small as 1.5 meters (5 feet) should be measured at a range of not less than
154.0 meters (about 500 feet) for a test frequency of 10 GHz if the far-field
criterion is to be satisfied. Thus, even the largest indoor ranges may fa11
short of being useful even for small targets.

The compact indoor range represents a successful approach to significantly

increasing target size for a given chamber six. In fact, compact ranges cari
now provide *orne farfield equivalent measurements that aven the largest
outdoor ranges cannot. Tbe compact range concept is based on the premise that
devices tan be constructed which Will collimate (i.e., make straight) a
spherical or cylindrical wav* to produce a plane wave. Two different types of
collimators are available: lenses and reflectors. Within certain limitations
these devices straighten out the incident phase fronts making it possible to
conduct measurements indoors with a fraction of the distance normally
required. [19A-11, 19A-12, 19A-131

The EM1 Electronics, Limited, has developed a radar modeling capability at the
UK National Radio Modeling Facility. Emphasis at this facility is on the
development of instrumentation systems and the collection and interpretation
of radar scattering data at frequencies up to 2 GHz. Virtually a11 of the
measurements and testing are performed on *cale models from missiles and
artillery shells to ships and aircraft. The EM1 Electronics, Limited, has
also developed state of the art components such as RF sources and detection
systems. Al1 measurements are conducted indoors. As of 1978, nine different
radar systems were operable in conjunction with seven different mode1 support
systems. Unlike most indoor facilities, this one makes limited use of radar
absorbing material and relies instead on range gating to eliminate background
reflections. [19A-141

Once experimenters learned the importance of reducing extraneous reflections,

truc anechoic chambers were constructed. At first these chambers were
rectangular, simply because the room was this shape to start with. Later, the
concept of a tapered chamber "as introduced to suppress the specular wall
reflections. The taper effectively removes the sidewall regions where
specular reflections cari occur. This tapered concept was first described by
Emerson and Sefton, and King et al. [19A-15, 19A-161 Tapered chambers are
auperior to rectangular chambers for RCS measurements, especially if the
measurements must be made at low frequencies for which high gain antennas (to
reduce sidewall illumination) cannot be used. At millimeter wavelengths (one-
eighth inch at 93 Ghz), the sharp tips on the pyramidal absorbing material
must be maintained, otherwise the effectiveness of the design is degraded.
Further, at these frequencies the absorber must not be painted.

19A.4 DATA COLLECTION, RELKlCTION, AND PRESENTATION [19A-171

19A.l.S Data Collection

Raw data collectad for a typical test program are obtained from perhaps
several targets or target configurations for spherical or conical cuts,
frequencies, and polarizations. Each raw data set is in the form of data
I9A-X

pairs (angle, KS), typically obtained every 0.1 to 0.5 degrees. Data
reduction includes not only each raw data set, but also summa ries for each
target in the test matrix.

191.4.2 Data Rsduction

Data reduction takes many forms, and the discussion of these techniques is
covered quite well elsewhere. [19A-18, 19A-191 HOWeVer, it is of some
interest to discuss how data are smoothed. Typically, most targets bave a
large number of scattering elements, and it is apparent from the RCS pattern
that even relatively few elements produce rapid scintillation as the aspect
angle changes. At the higher frequencies, the individual lobes in the pattern
may be as close as 0.1 degree and a measured pattern Will consist of what
appears as a band of ink and a specialist may be interested in this data.
Program personnel need better data characterization. In general, averages,
medians, and standard deviations of individu4 test runs are more meaningful
to test personnel.

In forming an average or median, it must be decided how many contiguous data

points Will be used. Because the RCS pattern is usually sampled at a fixed
angular rate, the decision amounts to selecting an angular "window" over which
the averaging Will be performed. This window cari vary from 0.1 to 10 degrees
depending on the RCS fluctuations.

After the selection of the angular window has been made, a "slide" must be
chosen. The slide is the amount by which the window Will be indexed across
the RCS pattern. The slide is never greater than the width of the window
since this Will result in gaps in the pattern over which no averaging is made,
although the slide cari be as large as the window. Smaller slides make for
finer patterns, but require more processing time. Slides of 1 or 2 degrees
are average and slides set to the window width are often chosen to generate
preliminary 'quick-look" data. Each data ru11 may take one of several forms:
smoothed data over a specified window and slide for (three) percentile levels;
sector data over (three) specified angular regions for median, mean, and
standard deviation in dB; mean and standard deviation in square meter; and
probability density functions and cumulative distribution function for each of
the sectors.

19A.4.3 Data Presentation

The most common format for RCS data is the polar and rectangular presentation.
The polar plot has the advantage of illustrating a 'physical feel" to
scattering as the target plot is viewed throughout the complete ,azimuths of
recorded data. Further, the polar plot emphasizes the dynamic variations in
RCS values. The rectangular plot does not lend a physical feel to the
scattering process. Its major virtue is that it is casier to pick off or read
selected values regardless of level as low values are not compressed.

when pattern overlays are done, polar plots bave fewer parameters to keep
constant than rectangular plots. Polar plots need to keep only radial length
and decade scale constant compared to rectangular plots that bave two sets of
axes to compare, abscissa and ordinate lengths, and respective decade scales.
With rectangular plots it is also initially important to verify that the
"start and stop" dBsm values are the same to ensure accuracy of the complete
rotation.

AnotheE innovation is the global range plot. For this plot, the frequency
data for an aspect angle are converted by fast Fourier transform to color-
coded amplitude data. The typical one-tenth degree data are transformed and
plotted and a representation of the test vehicle is put in the tenter of the
plot SO that its tenter of rotation matches the plot tenter. Tbis allows the
vertex of the curvature of the colored data lines to be the location of the
scatterer of the vehicle.

The test matrix sununary may have the following forms:

- A matrix showing run nimber, pitch, roll, frequency, polarization,operator
comments, and the front sector median, mean, and standard deviation
. A data file for use in plotting a target response as a function of the test
matrix variables such as RCS vs pitch angle, frequency, polarization, and roll
angle.

The RCS of an airborne target is typically of interest over a limited sector

or cane in space for which a threat is possible. For aircraft, this threat
sector is a forward-opening cane in the yaw and pitch planes of the target.
Targets cari be characterized over a given threat sector by median data or RCS
distribution function which include medians, averages, and standard
deviations. The average median is defined as the average over the test matrix
(frequency, polarization, pitch, and roll) of each sector median.

19A.5 CONCLUDING Rw

The subject of RCS, its concept, objective usefulness, and how it is measured
has been briefly discussed. The intent is to provide a nominal understanding
of this measurement design tool for the novice flight test engineer who on
occasion is responsible for implementing full scale RCS flight test
measurements. Since the flight test techniques associated with RCS
measurements are very similar to those of antenna pattern measurements, both
Will be discussed at the same time in Section 19B Antenna Radiation Patterns.

The novice engineer must fully understand that he cannot solely rely on the
RCS data obtained from static ranges, but rather should utilize in-flight
(dynamic range) information whenever it is available.

REFERENCES

19A-1. Knott, E.F., "Radar Cross Section", Artech House, Inc., 1985, p.155.

19A-2. Kraus, J.D., "Antennas", McGraw-Hill, 1950, p. 41.

19A-3. Stratton, J.A., "Electromagnetic Theory", McGraw-Hill, 1941, p. 281.

19A-4. Bechtel, M.E., 'Applications of Geometric Diffraction Theorv to

Scattering from Cones and_Disks", IEEE Transactions. Antennas Pro&.gation,
Vol AP-17, March 1969, pp 244-246.

19A-5. Blore, W.E., "The Radar Cross Section of Spherically Blunted 8' Right
Circula Cones; IEEE Proceedings, Antennas Propagation, Vol AP-12, Mach
1973, pp. 252-253.

19A-6. Freeny, C.C., "Target Support Parameters Associated with Radar

Reflectivity Measurements", Proceedings, IEEE Vol 53, August 1965, pp. 929-
936.

19A-7. IEEE Standard 521-1976, 30 November 1976

19A-8. AFR 55-44 (AR105-86, OPNAVIST 3430.9B. ME0 3430.1). 27 October 1964.

19A-9. Skolnik, M.I., 'Radar Handbook," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990.

19A-10. Bush, T.F., ed., "Evaluation of the F.ATSCAT Ground Plane Range",
Report No. PE00911, Physical Science Laboratory, New Mexico State University,
Las Cruces, NM, August 1978.
19A-11. Burke, H.S., Dalby, T.G., Hansen, W.P. Jr., and Vincent, M.C., "A
Millimeter Wave Scattering Facility", 1980 Radar Camouflage Symposium,
Orlando, FL, 18-20 November 1980; Technical Report No. AFWAL-TR-81-1015,
Avionics Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, pp.327-336.

19A-12. Johnson, R.C., Ecker, H.A., and Moore, R.A., "Compact Range Techniques
and Measurements", IEEE Transactions, Antennas Propagation, Vol. AP-17,
september 1969, pp. 568-576.

19A-13. Cran, L.A. and Woolcock, S.C., "Review of Two Decades of Experience
Between 30 Ghz and 900 Ghz in the Development of Mode1 Radar Systems",
Millimeter and Sub-millimeter Wave Propagation and Circuits, AGARD Conference
Proceedings No. 245, September 1978.

19A-14. Bothe, H. and McDonald, D., "Determination of Antenna Patterns and

Radar Reflection Characteristics of Aircraft", AGARD Flight Test Techniques
Series, AGARDograph 300, Volume 4, 1986.

19A-15. Emerson, W.H. and Sefton, H.B. Jr., "An Improved Design for Indoor
Ranges", Proc. IEEE, Vol. 53, August 1965, pp 1079-1081.

19A-16. King, H.E, Shimabukuro, F.I., and Wong, J.L., "Characteristics of a

Tapered Anechoic Chamber", IEEE Transactions. Antennas Propagation, Vol. AP-
15, May 1967, pp 488-490.

19A-17. Knott, E.F. and Senior, T.B.A., "How Far is Fa?", IEEE Trans. on
Antennas Propagation, Vol. AP-22, September 1974.

19A-18. Knott, E.F., Shaeffer, J.F., and Tuley, M.T., "Radar Cross Section,
Its Predictio", Measurement and Reduction", Artech House, Inc. Dedham, MA,
1985, pp 413-442.

19A-19. Shaeffer, J.F., "Radar Reflectivity Measurement: Techniques and

Applications", 2nd ed., N. Currie (ed.), Artech House, Norwood, MA.

BIBLIOQRAPHY
Bethke, K.H., "Investigation of Signal Degradation by Scattered Fields and its
Suppression in Near-Grand Radar-Backscattering Maneuvers", DFVLR-FB 85-42,
Institut fur Hochfrequenztechnikder DFVLR, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, 1985.

Bethke, K.H., "Global and High Resolution Radar Cross Section Measurements and
'Two-Dimensional Microwave Images of a Scaled Aircraft Mode1 from the Type
Airbus A310". DLR-Mittlelungen 91-10, DLR Institut fur Hochfrequenztechnikder
DFVLR, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, 1991.

Blake, L.V., "Radar Range Performance Analysis", Artech House, Inc., Norwood
MA, 1986.

Burke, H.S., Dalby, T.G., Hansen, W.P. Jr., and Vincent, M.C., "A Millimeter
Wave Scattering Facility", 1980 Radar Camouflage Symposium, Orlando, FL, 18-20
November 1980; Technical Report No. AFWAL-TR-81-1015, Avionics Laboratory,
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, pp.327-336.

Burnside, W.D. and Peters, L. Jr., "Radar Cross Section of Finite Cones by the
Equivalent Current Concept with Higher Order Diffraction", Radio Science, Vol.
7, No. 10, October 1972, pp 943-948.

Currie, R.C., "Radar Reflectivity Measurement', Artech House, Inc., Morwood,

MA, 1989.
Emerson, W.H. and Sefton, H.B. Jr., "An Improved Design for Indoor Ranges",
Proc. IEEE, Vol. 53, August 1965, pp 1079-1081.

Howell, N.A., "Design of Pulse Gated Compact Radar Cross Section Range", 1970
G-AP International Program and Digest, IEEE Publication 70~ 36-AP, September
1970, pp. 187-195.

Johnson, R.C., Ecker, H.A., and Moore, R.A., "Compact Range Techniques and
Measurements", IEEE Transactions, Antennas Propagation, Vol. AP-17, September
1969, pp. 568-576.

Keller, J.B., "Backscattering from a Finite Cane", IRE Transactions. Antennas

Propagation, Vol. AP-8, Ma-ch 1960, pp 175-182.

Keller, J.B., "Backscattering from a Finite Cane - Comparison.of Theory and

Experiment," IRE Transactions. Antennas Propagation, Vol AP-g, July 1961, pp.
411-412.

Kouyoumjian, R.G. and L. Peters, Jr., "Range Requirements in Radar Cross

Section Measurements," Proc. IEEE, Vol. 53, August 1965.

Maffett, A.L., "Topics for a Statistical Description of Radar Cross Section",

John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1989.

Phelan, H.R., "Mode1 1640 - The Harris Large Compact Range", Antenna
Measurements Techniques Assoc. Symposium Proceedings, 1987, pp. 33-38.

"RATSCAT Facilities and Capabilities", brochure published by the 6585th Test

Group, Air Force Systems Command, Holloman AFB, NM. (The brochure is not
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Ruck, G.T., Barrick, D.E., Stuart, W.D., Krichbaum, C.K., "Radar Cross Section
Handbook', Vol 1, Plenum Press, New York, 1970.

Solomon, L., "Radar Cross Section Measurements: How Accurate Are They?",
Electronics, Vol. 35, July 20, 1962, pp. 48-52.

sweetman, B. and Goodall, J., "Lockheed F-117A". Motorbooks International,

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Van Bladel, J., "Electromagnetic Fields", Hemisphere Publishing, New York,

1985.
 Table 19A-1 Radar and ECM Bands

(a) lb)

Sladnrd Radar Bmdn (19A-8)

c!aUaluncmrrr Bmd8 [19&91
Bti F=ww BWld Frw-‘v
DedgMtloo Ruyt- DalgMUOll m-1

HF 3-30 A O-250
VHF (2) 30-300 B 250-500
C 500-lc4Nl
UHF (2) 300-1oM) D looo-2ooo
E 2000-3000
L ltmo-2ow F 3ooo-4ow
S 2ooo-4ooo G 4ooo-6ooo
H 6OW-8ooo
C 4ooo-8ocm 1 8oLclO.ooo
X 8ooo-12.ooo J lO,ooo-20,ooo
Ku 12,ooo-18.ooo K 2o.ooo-4o.ooo
L 4o.o00-60,ocm
K 18$‘.%27,000 M 6o,ooo-100,cna
K. 27.000-40.000
Millimeter (3) 4o,oLlo-300,ooa

Square Meters dBsm, dBm2

Figure 19A-1 Logarithmic Comparison of RCS Square Meter and Dbsm

 APPENDIX 19A-A RADAR CROSS SECTION REDUCTION

19A.A.0 INTRODUCTION

Radar Cross Section Reduction (RCSR) is a study of compromises in which

advantages are balanced against disadvantages. A reduction in RCSR at one
viewing angle is usually offset by an enhancement at another when target
surfaces are reoriented to achieve the initial reduction. HOWeVer, if radar
absorbing materials are used, the reduction is obtained by the dissipation of
energy within the material, therefore leaving the RCS levels relatively
unchanged in the other aspect angles. HOWeVer, the absorber is a compromise
paid for with added weight, volume, surface maintenance problems, and cost.

No matter what the cost may be, each improvement in RCS reduction is obtained
at higher cost. In general, the first 50 percent of reduction is fairly
inexpensive, "hile the next 10 percent is more costly, the next even more SO
until a level of 90-95 percent may be excessively costly and not practical.

19A.A.l THE FOUR BASIC METHODS OF RCSR

There are generally only four basic techniques used for reducing RCS. TbeY
are:
- Shaping
* Radar absorbing materials
* Passive cancellation
* Active cancellation

Each of these methods bave their advantages and disadvantages.

The goal of shaping is to orient the target surfaces and edges so as to

deflect the radar return energy away from the radar receiver. This is not
possible for a11 viewing angles within the entire sphere of the target because
there Will always be viewing angles at which surfaces are "seen" at normal
incidence and there the echoes will be observable. The success of shaping
depends on the existence of angular sectors over which 10" radar cross section
is less important than others.

A forward-opening cane is of primary interest and large cross sections cari be

"shifted" out of this forward sector toward the broadside sectors. This is
done by sweeping airfoils back at sharper angles. The forward sector includes
the elevation plane as well as the azimuth plane, and if a target is rarely
seen from above, echo sources such as engine intakes cari be placed on the top
side of the target where they are hidden by the forward portion of the body
when viewed from below. In addition to the flat "underbelly" and top side
engine inlets there are the added advantages of the inward canted vertical
fins that reduce broadside reflections, and rounded corners and wing tips.
Incidentally, outward canted vertical fins cari have similar effects to those
of the inward canted vertical fins,. that is, reflected energy is directed away
from the tracking radar.