School of Computing and Informatics

BIT 113 – Fundamental of Computing

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Introduction to Computers

Lecturer Contact (name, telephone, e-mail)

Name: Dr. Raphael Angulu (Group 10)

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Cell Number: 0729 260 641
Email: [email protected]

Introduction
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In this topic, we will learn basics of computer system. We will define various terms used in computers and
look at history of computers, characteristics of computers and basic organization of a computer.
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Objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to

1. Understand what is a computer

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2. Understand characteristics of computers

3. Understand various classification of computers

4. Learn about the evolution and development of computers

5. Understand various application areas of a computer

6. Understand basic organization of computers

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Learning Activities
The learning activities (Exercise questions) are presented after every sub-topic (Check the odel platform)

IMPORTANT: This material is prepared, specifically as supplementary material to the one

uploaded on odel platform. The target students are GROUP 10 students. Students are
encourage to also read the material uploaded under Chapter 1 on odel platform
Chapter 1

Introduction to Computers

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1.1 Introduction
By now, you must have seen a computer. But what actually is a computer?

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What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes the data based on some

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instructions and gives information as output

Raf, actually defines a computer as ...a stupid machine that obeys instructions.... Soon, we will notice why
this guy thinks so...

A computer actually performs the following three operations in sequence:

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• Receives data and instructions from an input device

• Processes the data as guided by the instructions

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• Gives information as output through the output device

What is data, information, algorithm and program?

• Data - These are raw facts, figures and symbols. For example, names of students and their
marks in different subjects listed in random, that is data

• Information - This is processed data, presented in an organized way. For example, names of
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students arranged in alphabetical order, total and mean of each student calculated and presented
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in a table, now, this is information

• Program - This is a set of instructions (written in a computer understandable language) that

guide a computer on how to perform some given task.

• Algorithm - This is a step-by-step procedure of how to perform a task using a computer

1.1.1 Characteristics/Advantages of computers

The attributes/characteristics of computers that have made them very powerful and universally useful are
speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage. Lets briefly discuss them

2 Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers
 Characteristics of Computers

1. Speed - Computers can perform tasks faster than humans. A computer can perform 3-4 millions
instructions per second

2. Accuracy - Computers are accurate. Suppose a human calculates faster but commits lots of
errors, such results are useless.

3. Diligence - Computers are free from tiredness, fatigue or loss of concentration. It can perform
calculations for hours without getting tired

4. Versatility - Computers can perform a wide range tasks.

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5. Storage - Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any instruction
stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.

Although computers have aforementioned advantages, it also has its own set of limitations

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Limitations of Computers

• Clear and Complete instructions - A computer needs a clear and complete set of instructions
of how to perform a task. If you give it wrong instructions, it will process data based on the

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wrong instruction and the results will be meaningless.

• No Intelligence Quotient(IQ) - Computers have no brain to detect human errors

• No Feelings - Computer has no feelings

• No Experience - However much a computer performs the same task, it does not gain experience.
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However, with machine learning and Artificial Intelligence, this is changing. Today, its possible
to train a computer.
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1.2 History of Computers

The history of computer development is often discussed with reference to different generations of computing
devices. In computer terminology, the word ’generation’ is described as a stage of technological development
or innovation. A major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate,
resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, more efficient and reliable devices characterize
each generation of computer. According to the type of ’processor’ installed in a machine, there are five
generations of computers, which are discussed in the next few sections.
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1.2.1 First Genration Computers (1940 - 1956) Vacuum Tubes

First-generation computers were vacuum tubes/thermionic valves-based machines. These computers used
vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated
with magnetic iron oxide material on which data and programs can be stored. The input was based on
punched cards and paper tape and the output was in the form of printouts.

First-generation computers relied on binary-coded language, which is also known as the machine language
(i.e. language of 0s and 1s), to perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at a time. Each
machine was fed with different binary codes and hence was difficult to program. This resulted in lack of
versatility and speed. In addition, to run on different types of computers, instructions must be rewritten
and recompiled.

Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers 3
 Characteristics of First Generation Computers

• Used vacuum tube technology

• They were very large hence needed a lot of space for installation

• They generated a lot of heat, air conditioning was vital

• They were too slow and non-versatile

• Consumed a lot of electricity

• Unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failure

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• Difficult to program, since could only be programmed in machine language (0s and 1s)

1.2.2 Second Generation Computers (1956 - 1963) Transistors

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Second-generation computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes, which were superior to vacuum
tubes. A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. It usually had three
leads and performed electrical functions such as voltage, current or power amplification with low power

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requirements. Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of the computer was greatly reduced.
Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than their predecessors. In
second-generation computers, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary
storage devices. However, they still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

One of the major developments of this generation includes the progress of machine language to assem-
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bly language. Assembly language used mnemonics (abbreviations) for instructions rather than numbers; for
example, ADD for addition and MULT for multiplication. As a result, programming became less cumber-
some. Early high-level programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN also came into existence
during this period.
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Characteristics of Second Generation Computers

• Used Transistor technology

• Smaller compared to first generations computers

• Speed improved to micro-seconds from milliseconds

• More reliable and less prone to hardware failure

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• Generated less heat, but still air conditioning was needed

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• Could be programmed in assembly language

1.2.3 Third Generation Computers - (1964 - 1970s) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third-generation computers. An integrated
circuit, also called IC, consisted of a single chip (usually silicon) with many components such as transistors
and resistors fabricated on it. Integrated circuits replaced several individually wired transistors. This de-
velopment made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.

4 Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third-generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system. This allowed the device to run many different appli-
cations at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. For the first time, computers became
accessible to majority of common people because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Characteristics of Third Generation Computers

• Based on Integrated Circuits (IC) technology

• Speed improved from micro-seconds to nano-seconds

• Smaller compared to second generation

• Consumed less electricity

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• Generated less head

• Could be programmed in high-level language

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1.2.4 Fourth Generation Computers (Early 70s - Todate) - Microprocessor
Fourth generation is an extension of third-generation technology. Although, the technology of this generation

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is still based on the integrated circuit, these have been made readily available because of the development
of the microprocessor (circuits containing millions of transistors). The Intel 4004 chip, which was developed
in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central
processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. A microprocessor is built
onto a single piece of silicon, known as chip. It is about 0.5 cm along one side and not more than 0.05 cm
thick.
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Fourth-generation computers led to an era of large-scale integration (LSI) and very-large-scale integra-
tion (VLSI) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be constructed on one small
slice of silicon material, whereas VLSI squeezed hundreds of thousands of components on to a single chip.
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Ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) increased that number to millions. This way the computers became
smaller and cheaper than ever before.

Fourth-generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable and affordable. As a result, it gave
rise to the personal computer (PC) revolution. During this period, magnetic core memories were substituted
by semiconductor memories, which resulted in faster random access main memories. Moreover, secondary
memories such as hard disks became economical, smaller, and bigger in capacity. The other significant
development of this era was that these computers could be linked together to form networks, which even-
tually led to the development of the Internet. This generation also saw the development of graphical user
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interfaces (GUIs), mouse and hand-held devices. Despite many advantages, there is only one disadvantage
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of this generation, that is, it required complex and sophisticated technology for the manufacturing of CPU
and other components.
Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers

• They are microprocessor based computers

• Very small
• Cheapest among all generations
• Generated negligible amount of heat
• Hardware failure is negligible

Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers 5
 • Faster compared to previous generations

1.2.5 Fifth Generation Computers (Today - Future) Artificial Intelligence

The dream of creating a human-like computer that would be capable of reasoning and reaching at a decision
through a series of ’what-if-then’ analyses has existed since the beginning of computer technology. Such
a computer would learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts. These are the objectives for
creating the fifth-generation computers. The starting point of the fifth-generation computers had been set
in the early 1990s. The process of developing fifth-generation computers is still in the development stage.
However, the ’expert system’ concept is already in use. The expert system is defined as a computer system

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that attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in specific areas. Three characteristics
can be identified with the fifth-generation computers. These are as follows:

• Mega Chips: Fifth-generation computers will use super large-scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will
result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single chip.

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To store instructions and information, fifth-generation computers require a great amount of storage
capacity. Mega chips may enable the computer to approximate the memory capacity of the human
mind.

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• Parallel Processing: Computers with one processor access and execute only one instruction at a time.
This is called serial processing. However, fifth-generation computer will use multiple processors and
perform parallel processing, thereby accessing several instructions at one time and working on them
at the same time.

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): It refers to a series of related technologies that tries to simulate and
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reproduce human behaviour including thinking, speaking and reasoning. AI comprises a group of
related technologies: expert systems (ES), natural language processing (NLP), speech recognition,
vision recognition and robotics
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Table 1.1 summarises generations of computers and their respective main technology used

Generation Main Technology Used

First Vacuum Tubes

Second Transistors

Third Integrated Circuits (IC)

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Fourth Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (Micro-Processor)

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Fifth Ultra-Large Scale Integrated Circuits, Artificial Intelligence

Table 1.1: Summary of technology used in each generation

1.3 Classification of computers

Computers can be classified in various categories depending on purpose, data handling and functionality.
Figure 1.1 shows how computers can be classified

6 Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers
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Figure 1.1: Basic Organization of a Computer

1.3.1 Classification according to Purpose

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There are two types of computers according to purpose they are designed for
Two types of computers according to purpose

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• General purpose computers - A general-purpose computer, as the name suggests, is designed
to perform a range of tasks. These computers have the ability to store numerous programs. These
machines can be used for various applications, ranging from scientific to business-purpose appli-
cations. Even though such computers are versatile, they generally lack in speed and efficiency.
The computers used in schools and homes are general-purpose computers.

• Specific purpose computers - These computers are designed to handle a specific problem
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or to perform a single specific task. A set of instructions for the specific task is built into the
machine. Hence, they cannot be used for other applications unless their circuits are redesigned,
that is, they lack versatility. However, being designed for specific tasks, they can provide the
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result very quickly and efficiently. These computers are used for airline reservations, satellite
tracking and air traffic control.

1.3.2 Classification according to Data Handling

Different types of computers process the data in different manner. According to the basic data-handling
techniques, computers can be classified into three categories: analog, digital and hybrid.
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Classification based on Data Handling Technique/Technology

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• Anolog computers - A computing machine that operates on data in the form of continuously
variable physical quantities is known as analog computer. These computers do not deal directly
with the numbers. They measure continuous physical magnitudes (e.g. temperature, pressure
and voltage), which are analogous to the numbers under consideration. For example, the
petrol pump may have an analog computer that converts the flow of pumped petrol into two
measurements: the quantity of petrol and the price of that quantity.

Analog computers are used for scientific and engineering purposes. One of the character-
istics of these computers is that they give approximate results since they deal with quantities
that vary continuously. The main feature of analog computers is that they are very fast in
operation as all the calculations are done in ’parallel mode’. It is very easy to get graphical

Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers 7
 results directly using analog computer. However, the accuracy of analog computers is less.

• Digital Computers - A computer that operates with information, numerical or otherwise,

represented in a digital form is known as digital computer. Such computers process data
(including text, sound, graphics and video) into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). In digital
computers, analog quantities must be converted into digital quantity before processing. In this
case, the output will also be digital. If analog output is desired, the digital output has to be
converted into analog quantity. The components, which perform these conversions, are the
essential parts or peripherals of the digital computer.

Digital computers can give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. The ac-
curacy of such computers is limited only by the size of their registers and memory. The desktop

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PC is a classic example of digital computer.

• Hybrid Computers - Hybrid computer incorporated the measuring feature of an analog com-
puter and counting feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers
use the analog components and for the storage of intermediate results, digital memories are

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used. To bind the powers of analog and digital techniques, that is, analog to digital and digital
to analog, the hybrid computers comprehensively use converters. Such computers are broadly
used in scientific applications, various fields of engineering and industrial control processes.

1.3.3
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Classification according to Functionality or Size
Based on physical size, performance and application areas, the computers are generally classified into four
major categories: micro, mini, mainframe and super computers.
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Classification according to size, functionality and performance

• Micro Computers - A micro computer is a small, low-cost digital computer, which usually
consists of a microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which
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may be on one chip inserted into one or several PC boards. The addition of a power supply and
connecting cables, appropriate peripherals (keyboard, monitor, printer, disk drives and others),
an operating system and other software programs can provide a complete micro computer system.
The micro computer is generally the smallest of the computer family. Originally, these computers
were designed only for individual users, but nowadays they have become powerful tools for many
businesses that, when networked together, can serve more than one user. Examples are desktop
PC, Laptops, Personal Digital Assistants (PDA), Smart Phones etc
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• Mini Computers - A mini computer is a small digital computer, which normally is able to
process and store less data than a mainframe, but more than a micro computer, while doing so
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less rapidly than a mainframe but more rapidly than a micro computer. These computers are
about the size of a two-drawer filing cabinet. Generally, they are used as desktop devices that
are often connected to a mainframe to perform the auxiliary operations.

A mini computer (sometimes called a mid-range computer) is designed to meet the com-
puting needs of several people simultaneously in a small- to medium-sized business environment.
It is capable of supporting 4 to about 200 simultaneous users. It serves as a centralized
storehouse for a cluster of workstations or as a network server. Mini computers are usually
multi-user systems, therefore they are used in interactive applications in industries, research
organizations, colleges and universities. They are also used for real-time controls and engineering
design work. High-performance workstations with graphics I/O capability use mini computers.

8 Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers
 • Mainframe Computers - A mainframe is an ultra-high-performance computer made for
high-volume, processor-intensive computing. It consists of a high-end computer processor,
with related peripheral devices, capable of supporting large volumes of data processing,
high-performance online transaction processing and extensive data storage and retrieval.
Normally, it is able to process and store more data than a mini computer and far more than
a micro computer. Mainframes are the second largest (in capability and size) of the computer
family, the largest being the super computers. However, they can usually execute many pro-
grams simultaneously at a high speed, whereas super computers are designed for a single process.

Mainframe computer allows its user to maintain large information storage at a central-
ized location and is able to access and process this data from different computers located at

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different locations. It is typically used by large businesses and for scientific purposes.

• Super Computers - Super computers are the special-purpose machines, which are specially
designed to maximize the numbers of FLOPS (floating point operation per second). Any
computer below 1 gigaflop/s is not considered a super computer. A super computer has the

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highest processing speed at a given time for solving scientific and engineering problems. It
basically contains a number of CPUs that operate in parallel to make it faster. Its processing
speed lies in the range of 40010,000 MFLOPS (millions of floating point operation per second).
Due to this feature, super computers help in many applications such as information retrieval
and computer-aided design.
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A super computer can process a great deal of information and make extensive calcula-
tions very quickly. They can resolve complex mathematical equations in a few hours, which
would have taken a scientist with paper and pencil a lifetime, or years, using a hand calculator.
They are the fastest, costliest and most powerful computers available today. Typically,
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super computers are used to solve multivariant mathematical problems of existent physical
processes such as aerodynamics, metrology and plasma physics. These are also required by the
military strategists to simulate defence scenarios. Cinematic specialists use them to produce
sophisticated movie animations. Scientists build complex models and simulate them in a super
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computer. Here, it is used to model the actions and reactions of literally millions of atoms as
they interact. Super computer has limited use because of its high cost and limited market. The
largest commercial use of super computers is in the entertainment/advertising industry.

1.4 Application of computers

In the last few decades, computer technology has revolutionized the businesses and other aspects of human
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life all over the world. Practically, every company, large or small, is now directly or indirectly dependent on
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computers for data processing. Computer systems also help in the efficient operations of railway and airway
reservation, hospital records, accounts, electronic banking and so on. Computers not only save time, but
also save paper work.
Areas where computers can be used

• Science - Scientists have been using computers to develop theories and to analyse and test the
data. The high speed and accuracy of the computer allow different scientific analyses to be
carried out. They can be used to generate detailed studies of how earthquakes affect buildings
or pollution affects weather pattern. Satellite-based applications have not been possible without
the use of computers. Moreover, it would not be possible to get the information of the solar
system and the cosmos without computers.

Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers 9
 • Education - Computers have also revolutionized the whole process of education. Currently,
the classrooms, libraries and museums are efficiently utilizing computers to make the education
much more interesting. Unlike recorded television shows, computer-aided education (CAE) and
computer-based training (CBT) packages are making learning much more interactive.

• Medicine and Health care - There has been an increasing use of computers in the field of
medicine. Now, doctors are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to monitoring a
patient’s status during complex surgery. By using automated imaging techniques, doctors are
able to look inside a person’s body and can study each organ in detail (e.g. CT scans or MRI
scans), which was not possible few years ago. There are several examples of special-purpose
computers that can operate within the human body such as cochlear implant, a special kind of
hearing aid that makes it possible for deaf people to hear.

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• Engineering/Architecture/Manufacturing - The architects and engineers are extensively
using computers in designing and drawings. Computers can create objects that can be viewed
from all the three dimensions. By using techniques like virtual reality, architects can explore
houses that have been designed but not built. The manufacturing factories are using comput-

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erized robotic arms to perform hazardous jobs. Besides, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
can be used in designing the product, ordering the parts and planning production. Thus, com-
puters help in coordinating the entire manufacturing process.

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• Entertainment - Computers are finding greater use in entertainment industry. They are used
to control the images and sounds. The special effects, which mesmerize the audience, would not
have been possible without the computers. In addition, computerized animation and colourful
graphics have modernized the film industry.

• Communication - E-mail or electronic mail is one of the communication media in which com-
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puter is used. Through e-mail, messages and reports are passed from one person to one or more
persons with the aid of computer and telephone line. The advantage of this service is that while
transferring the messages it saves time, avoids wastage of paper and so on. Moreover, the person
who is receiving the messages can read the messages whenever he is free and can save it, reply
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it, forward it or delete it from the computer.

• Business Application - This is one of the important uses of the computer. Initially, computers
were used for batch-processing jobs, where one does not require the immediate response from
the computer. Currently, computers are mainly used for real-time applications (like at the sales
counter) that require immediate response from the computer. There are various concerns where
computers are used such as in business forecasting, to prepare pay bills and personal records,
in banking operations and data storage, in various types of life insurance business and as an
aid to management. Businesses are also using the networking of computers, where a number of
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computers are connected together to share the data and the information. Use of e-mail and the
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Internet has changed the ways of doing business.

• Publishing - Computers have created a field known as desktop publishing (DTP). In DTP,
with the help of computer and a laser printer one can perform the publishing job all by oneself.
Many of the tasks requiring long manual hours such as making table of contents and index can
be automatically performed using the computers and DTP software.

• Banking - Computers are extensively used in the field of banking and finance. People can
use the ATM (automated teller machine) services 24 hours a day to deposit and withdraw cash.
When different branches of the bank are connected through computer networks, the inter branch
transactions such as cheque and draft can be performed without any delay.

10 Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers
1.5 Computer Organization
A computer is made up of five main components- input devices, memory (storage), processing unit, output
devices and buses. Figure 1.2 shows abstract view of a computer system. As shown in Figure 1.2 the four

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Figure 1.2: Basic Organization of a Computer

main components of a computer are connected by a fifth component called buses.

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Input devices, bus, storage, processing unit, output devices. What are they?

• Input devices - An input device reads data and instructions from input media and enters it

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into the computer memory in a coded form (in a form the computer can process)

Example input devices are mouse, keyboard, scanner, camera, microphone

• Bus (Buses) - A bus is a communication media that transfers data and information between
computer components
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• Memory (Storage) - Storage unit that hold data, instructions and information before, during
and after processing.

There are two types of memory:-

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– Primary memory - RAM and ROM

– Secondary memory - Harddrive, CDs, DVDs etc

• Processing Unit - The central processing unit is responsible for processing data into informa-
tion. It reads data and instructions from memory, process data based on the instructions and
writes information back into memory or sends it directly to the output device.
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CPU has three main components:

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– Registers - A temporary storage area built into the CPU

– Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) - Component that performs all the arithmetic and logical
operations such as addition, multiplication, AND, OR etc
– Control unit (CU) - Decodes (interprets) all the computer instructions and controls all
other components of the CPU to make it work properly.

• Output devices - Decodes information from the computer memory and present it to the user
in a human understandable form.

For instance, music file is stored as a series of 1s and 0s in memory, but an output de-
vice (speaker) decodes these 1s and 0s and present it as a sound to a user

Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers 11
1.5.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A CPU is referred to as the brain of the computer. As mentioned earlier, a CPU is made up of three main
components, as shown in Figure 1.3

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Figure 1.3: Organization of a Computer

Input Unit

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Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore we need to input
the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more input devices.Keyboard
is the one of the most commonly used input device. Other commonly used input devices are the mouse,
floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc. All the input devices perform the following functions

• Accept data and instructions from the user

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• Convert data and instructions into a form that the computer can understand

• Supply the converted (coded) data into the computer memory

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Storage Unit
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input unit, before
they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output devices.
It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a computer system are divided into
two categories

• Primary storage - Stores and provides data very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the
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program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the
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intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature. The data
is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the data has tobe
transferred to the secondary memory. Very small portion of primary storage memory is permanent is
nature eg. ROM which holds the data permanent even if power off.

• Secondary storage - Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs, documents,
data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the primary
memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in the
secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of
the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,

Memory sizes All digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0s and 1s. Each character or a number is
represented by an 8 bit code.

12 Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers
 • A set of 8 bits is called a byte

• A character occupies 1 byte space

• A numeric occupies 2 or 3 byte spaces

The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabyte). One KB is equal to1024
bytes and one MB is equal to 1000KB. The size of the primary storage in a typical PC usually starts at
16MB. PCs having 32 MB, 48MB, 128 MB, 256MB memory are quite common.

Output Unit
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to outside world.

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Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices. Other commonly used output
devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

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All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does comparison
and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, etc and does logic operations.

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Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit (primary stor-
age to registers then to ALU) to ALU once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the
storage unit by the control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying results.

Basically, a computer processes data and instructions in three basic steps, commonly referred to as fetch-
execute-cycle
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Fetch-Execute Cycle

A processor can be considered to be performing the following three steps forever

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• Fetch an instruction from the memory

• Decode (interpret) the instruction - Find out what operation to be done

• Execute the instruction - Perform the specified instruction

Control Unit
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It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where to store the
data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit to
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ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage unit. The control unit is generally
referred as the central nervous system of the computer that control and synchronizes its working

Dr. Raphael Angulu, BIT 113 SCI, MMUST, 2020: Introduction to Computers 13