LESSON 2

Application of numbers and their operations in given

situations

Contents

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Number sense
2.3 Variety of methods and techniques when dealing with numbers and their operations
2.3.1 Addition
2.3.2 Multiplication
2.3.3 Division
2.3.4 Subtraction
2.4 Recognition and usage of the properties of numbers and real-world scenarios
2.5 Analysis of a variety of numbers
2.5.1 Prime numbers
2.5.2 Common number patterns
2.5.3 Numbers in the Fibonacci sequence
2.5.4 Numbers in Pascal’s triangle
2.5.5 Numbers used to define the golden ratio
2.6 Test your knowledge
2.7 Conclusion
2.8 Additional information

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to

• demonstrate the development of number sense
• apply a variety of methods and techniques when dealing with numbers and their
operations
• apply numerical knowledge and computation in real-world scenarios
• identify and analyse a variety of numbers, such as prime numbers, numbers in the
Fibonacci sequence, numbers in Pascal’s triangle and numbers used to define the
golden ratio

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We will now take a look at numbers and their operations in given situations.

The preceding unit focused on the history and comparison of numeration systems. The
Hindu-Arabic system focuses on the following properties:

15 ACI2605/1

Open Rubric
• All numerals are constructed from the ten digits: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0.
• Place value is based on powers of 10, the number base of the system.

All teachers should have an in-depth knowledge of how learners learn the concepts
relating to number and should know and understand the sequence in which learners
learn these concepts. It is necessary to take note of how early number concepts and
number sense are developed, so that you can assist your learners if they struggle with
these concepts.

This lesson focuses on the teaching and learning of the application of numbers and
operations in given situations. Number operations relate to the numbers and their
operational values. Dealing with number operations at primary school includes place
value, and the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of single, double- and
multiple-digit numbers.

Math Operations Symbols Other words

Addition + Sum; all together; in all; total; total; add

Subtraction – Difference; more than; fewer than; how many left

Multiplication × Product; multiply; multiplied by; times

Division ÷ Quotient; dividend; divide; divided by; each; per

Equal = The same; equals; same as; is equal to; equivalent

In your textbook, certain chapters deal with the development of early number concepts
and number sense; the meanings of operations; helping children to master basic facts;
whole-number place-value development; strategies for whole-number computation;
and computational estimation with whole numbers.

You will find that the textbook uses a friendly, interactive approach. All the concepts are
developed through modelling and problem-solving.

The activities in this study unit consist of content questions which you can use to teach
whole-number concepts. There are also activities dealing with how to teach the concepts.
All the activities in this study unit are applicable to the Intermediate Phase. In the CAPS
document, there are six specific skills to be developed in Mathematics in the Intermediate
and Senior Phases. Generally, this module deals with numbers, and accordingly it refers
to students’ “fluidity and flexibility with numbers” (Gersten & Chard 2001).

The unit situates number sense in foundational mathematics and emphasises its essence
in mathematical knowledge acquisition.

16
2.2 NUMBER SENSE
Learners come to school with existing ideas about numbers. They can, for example, often
recite several number names in order, but are then unable to match these one by one
to objects in a set. These existing ideas of the children should be built upon by teachers
and used to help them to form new number relationships. They should learn to recognise
patterned sets of numbers, count on and back in two’s and relate a given number to
other numbers, like 5 and 10. These whole-number concepts are important later on in
the Senior Phase, when learners work with number patterns. It can be argued that the
development of early number relationships represents a key foundation on which much
of number development rests.

2.2.1 Understanding number sense

Number sense is essential in mathematical knowledge acquisition as it enables the learner
to operate with numbers. As indicated above, it refers to students’ “fluidity and flexibility
with numbers” (Gersten & Chard 2001).

Number sense means knowing and understanding the relationships between numbers.
Burns (2007) describes learners with a strong number sense in the following way: “[They]
can think and reason flexibly with numbers, use numbers to solve problems, spot unreasonable
answers, understand how numbers can be taken apart and put together in different ways, see
connections among operations, figure mentally, and make reasonable estimates.” This can
be regarded as a powerful way of defining a learner who understands number sense.

There are four components that characterise number sense:

• Number meaning – the learners has knowledge of what a number is mentally, and
what it represents.
• Number relationship – the learner acknowledges the relationships between one number
and others, such as that 5 is 2 numbers less than 7 and 3 is a number greater than 2.
• Number magnitude – the learner knows the size of the number and what it represents
numerically.
• Operations involving numbers – the learner can add, subtract, multiply or divide the
number and find an answer

2.2.2 Why is number sense important?

Knowledge of numbers/number sense enables learners to think flexibly and be comfortable
and confident with numbers. The converse is also true – that learners who lack number
sense have problems developing the foundational arithmetic needed for more complex
mathematics later in life.

It is worth noting that number sense develops gradually and over time and that it results
from an exploration of numbers, visualising numbers in a variety of contexts, and relating
to numbers in different ways (Burns 2007). Number sense is enhanced by effective teaching
approaches such as modelling different methods for computing/calculating; regular mental

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arithmetic for learners; having learners provide reasons for their answers; and class discussions
about the various computing approaches used.

In her book, About teaching mathematics (a K-8 Resource, 3rd edition), Burns highlights the
following key, research-based teaching strategies to build number sense:

• Model different methods for computing:

When a teacher publicly records several different approaches to solving a problem –
solicited from the class or by introducing her own – it exposes students to strategies
that they may not have considered. As Marilyn Burns explains, “When children think
that there is one right way to compute, they focus on learning and applying it, rather
than thinking about what makes sense for the numbers at hand.”
• Ask students regularly to calculate mentally:
Mental math encourages students to build on their knowledge about numbers and
numerical relationships. When they cannot rely on memorised procedures or hold
large quantities in their heads, students are forced to think more flexibly and efficiently,
and to consider alternative problem-solving strategies. (Parrish 2010)
• Have class discussions about strategies for computing:
Classroom discussions about strategies help students to crystallise their own thinking,
while providing them the opportunity to critically evaluate their classmates’ approaches.
In guiding the discussion, be sure to track ideas on the board to help students make
connections between mathematical thinking and symbolic representation (Conklin
& Sheffield 2012). As noted in Chapin, O’Connor and Anderson (2009) book Classroom
discussions: using math talk to help students learn, the goal is “not to increase the amount
of talk but the amount of high-quality talk.”
• Make estimation an integral part of computing:
Most of the math that we do every day – deciding when to leave for school, how much
paint to buy, what type of tip to leave in a restaurant, or which line to get in at the
grocery store – relies not only on mental math, but estimations. However, traditional
textbook rounding exercises do not provide the necessary context for students to
understand estimating or to build number sense. To do that, estimation must be
embedded in problem situations.
• Question students about how they reason numerically:
Asking students about their reasoning – both when they make mistakes AND when
they arrive at the correct answer – communicates to them that you value their ideas,
that math is about reasoning, and, most importantly, that math should make sense to
them. Exploring reasoning is also extremely important for the teacher as a formative
assessment tool. It helps her/him understand each student’s strengths and weaknesses,
content knowledge, reasoning strategies and misconceptions.
• Pose numerical problems that have more than one possible answer:
Problems with multiple answers provide plenty of opportunities for students to reason
numerically. It is a chance to explore numbers and reasoning perhaps more creatively
than if there were “one right answer”.

18
2.3 VARIETY OF METHODS AND TECHNIQUES WHEN
DEALING WITH NUMBERS AND THEIR OPERATIONS
An important theme in this section is that mathematics should be useful, and that learners
should be able to apply the mathematics that they learn in some way – whether to real-
life situations, games, puzzles, or simply investigations that interest them. Estimation is
an important aspect of many applications of mathematics. Learners should develop a
sense of the reasonableness of a number being used to describe a given situation

There are four main operations that are dealt with at primary school, namely addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.

That is, the number operations +, –, × and ÷.

In the classification of numbers, we consider the following number groups:

Whole numbers: 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; ...
Natural numbers: 1; 2; 3; ...
Even numbers: 2; 4; 6; ...
Odd numbers: 1; 3; 5; 7; ...
Integers (positive and negative whole numbers): … -5, -4, -3, -2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, …

Numbers can be written as:

• Single-digit numbers: 2; 7; 9; etc.
• Double-digit numbers: 12; 43; 78; etc.
• Multiple-digit numbers: 435; 52675; 3871; etc.

Starting with number operations:

When all the operations are used in one problem, mathematicians use the BODMAS which
is an acronym for Brackets, Orders of (exponents), Division, Multiplication, Addition and
Subtraction.

Examples

3 + 4 × 3 ÷ 6 – 2 (2 + 4)
3 + 2 – 12
5 – 12

1st will be what is in the brackets, coloured red

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2nd is division, coloured green
3rd is multiplication (of 4 x and 2 x 6), coloured blue
4th is addition (of 3 + 2)
5th and lastly, subtract 12, coloured purple

2.3.1 Addition
Addition is the process of finding how many things there are in two or more groups taken
together. The result of adding entities is called a sum and the group of elements that add
up together are called addends of the sum.

Finding the sum of numbers consisting of two or more digits requires knowledge and
the use of place value.

Addition using the number bonds

4619
+ 5284 These numbers can be written in their bond forms as
= 4000 + 600 + 10 + 9
+ 5000 + 200 + 80 + 4 = 9 903

More examples
Begin adding on the right and then move to the left. Regroup each partial answer, if
necessary, by writing each digit in the appropriate place-value column.

Source: www.k5learning.com

20
Examples of addition and subtraction:

2.3.2 Multiplication
Multiplication is the process of finding the sum of a number of quantities which are all
equal to one another. The quantity which is repeated is called the multiplicand and the
number of times it is repeated is called the multiplier. Multiplication is therefore repeated
addition.

Example of a multiplication task: 461 x 127 =

This can be rewritten as continuous addition of the multiplicand (461) multiplied by

the bonds of the multiplier (127 = 100 + 20 + 7)

Therefore, 461 x 127 = 461 x 100 + 461 x 20 + 461 x 7

= 46 100 + 9 220 + 3 227
= 58 547

2.3.3 Division
Division is the process of taking one number from another repeatedly as many times
as possible. The number which is being repeatedly subtracted is called the divisor; the
number from which is being taken is called the dividend and the number of times the
divisor finally gets taken off is the quotient.

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2.3.4 Subtraction
Subtraction is the process of finding the difference between two or more numbers. For
instance, the difference between 12 and 15 is 3, and there are many explanations for this
difference.
• One can state that if we take away 12 from 15, the answer 3.
• The difference between 15 and 12 is 3.
• If we add 3 to 12, we get 15.

This means that the problem of subtraction can be reduced to one of addition. The
larger number from which a smaller number is subtracted, is called the minuend, and
the smaller number which is subtracted, is called the subtrahend. The result one gets
after subtraction is called the difference or remainder. The minus sign (–) indicates that
the number following it will be deducted (subtracted/taken away) from the number
preceding it. Thus 15 – 12 = 3.

When teaching subtraction, the use of the concept of complementary addition helps, for
instance, 24 taken away from 37 is what is added to 24 to reach 37, that is:
37 – 24 = is the same as 24 + …… = 37.

The simplest way is to begin to count from 24 till one reaches 37 and that would give us
12. The general approach is the use of place value, as in the case of addition, for example
to subtract 2763 from 5381, we write 5381 – 2763, or
5381
– 2763
.……

Activity 2.1

(1) Use the BODMAS rule to find answers to the following tasks:
(i) 4 × 2 + 6(4 – 2) ÷ 3
(ii) 9 – 2 ÷ 3 + 4 × (2 × 1)
(iii) 178 × 48 ÷ 8 + 42(12 – 6)

(2) Using multiple methods, calculate the answers to the following tasks:
(i) 62 789 + 89 726 + 211 098
(ii) 67 890 – 12 009
(iii) 876 × 121
(iv) 8 790 ÷ 15

(3) Try the problems below, while always thinking about how you would teach
multiplication:
(i) 435 × 143
(ii) 10 089 × 123

(4) Find answers to the following addition problems:

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 (i) 37 859 + 31 784
(ii) 89 974 + 983 629
(iii) 34 628 + 9 826 376 + 4 260 027 + 128 645

(5) Define number sense.

(6) What is a number system?
(7) Name 4 numbers systems that you know and for each system write down five
numbers.
(8) Write down the following sets:
(i) the set of natural numbers
(ii) the set of prime numbers less than 20
(iii) the set of even numbers divisible by 3 and less than 20
(iv) the set of factors of 18

Feedback on activity 2.1

2

Refer to the following sections:

(1) Section 2.3
(2) (i) Section 2.3.1
(ii) Section 2.3.4
(iii) Section 2.3.2
(iv) Section 2.3.3
(3) (i) Section 2.3.2
  (ii) Section 2.3.2
(4) (i) Section 2.3.1
(ii) Section 2.3.1
  (iii) Section 2.3.1
(5) Section 2.2
(6) Section 2.2
(7) Section 2.3
(8) Section 2.3

2.4 RECOGNITION AND USAGE OF THE PROPERTIES OF

NUMBERS AND REAL-WORLD SCENARIOS
Numbers are recognised by their characteristics and properties. Learners in the Intermediate
Phase should have already developed the meanings of the four basic operations. We will
therefore focus on how to use a contextual framework to reinforce the computations
with real numbers.

How do we know a good mathematical task from a bad one? As teachers begin to engage
with mathematics modelling in their classrooms, it is important that they use rich and
rewarding tasks. Butler-Wolf (2015) highlighted five important characteristics of good
mathematical tasks:

1. Good tasks are accessible to all learners.

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 The first characteristic should be obvious to almost any teacher in almost any classroom:
the students in the desks in front of us come with a wide range of foundational
knowledge, mathematics backgrounds, and experience with mathematics. If a task
is truly rich, it will provide interest, motivation, and a challenge for all our learners.
It will not encourage our most struggling students to opt out and allow the more
proficient students to take over, it will provide direction, and it will supply solutions.
By the same token, it will not be quickly and easily solved by the more advanced
math students, but will provide challenges and extensions for these learners as well.
A good task will provide opportunities for all learners to contribute with confidence.
2. Good tasks are often authentic.
The word authentic means ‘‘true’’, ‘‘reliable’’, ‘‘valid’’. Authentic tasks will relate to the
learner’s experience and environment. An example of an authentic task for learners
in rural areas would be the following:
My friend, Busiswa, has asked me to make bread for her son’s umgidi. The recipe
that she gave me says that 3/4 of a litre of milk will make one loaf of bread. My friend
gave me 20 litres of milk to make the bread. How many loaves of bread can I make?
3. Good tasks are challenging.
Good tasks are challenging, yet within the reach of the learners. An example of a task
for Grade 3 and Grade 4 learners in the Intermediate Phase learners is the following:
Modibedi has R98 rand. He buys a jersey for school which costs R67. How much
money does he have left?
4. Good tasks tickle the curiosity of learners.
Grade 7 learners definitely eat peanut butter. This might be a good task for them:
(a) Find the mass of each nutrient listed on the bottle of peanut butter.
(b) Does this add up to 250 g?
(c) Do a survey in your class to find out how many learners bring sandwiches to
school and list the fillings they prefer.
(d) Draw a bar graph of the data you collected in (c).
5. Learners are naturally interested in learning new things. By taking advantage of
their present knowledge and challenging their curiosity, teachers can hope that
mathematics will emerge as a sense-making activity.
Grade 8 and Grade 9 learners might enjoy this problem:
Suppose a local spaza shop offers a selection of 3 soups, 3 sandwiches and 4 meat
dishes on the menu. How many different meals consisting of soup, sandwiches and
meat can be created?

2.5 ANALYSIS OF A VARIETY OF NUMBERS: PRIME NUMBERS,

NUMBERS IN THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE, NUMBERS
IN THE PASCAL’S TRIANGLE AND NUMBERS USED TO
DEFINE THE GOLDEN RATIO
There are various numbers in mathematics that, when operations are applied to them, can
develop other numbers with specific characteristics. This includes the various number sets

24
such as natural numbers, whole numbers, rational and irrational numbers. For instance,
when the set of natural numbers undergoes a manipulation such as multiplying every
number by 2, we get a set of even numbers.

2.5.1 Prime numbers

A prime number is a number that is divisible only by 1 and itself, such as
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 ……

Prime number are therefore whole numbers great than 1 and have only two factors.

2.5.2 Common number patterns

Numbers can have interesting patterns. Here we list the most common patterns and how
they are formed.

The information provided is a summary and the full chapter can be sourced from
http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/worksheets/nopnumberwsheet.htm.

(a) Arithmetic sequences

An arithmetic sequence is made by adding some value each time.

Examples:
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, ...

This sequence has a difference of 3 between each number.

The pattern is continued by adding 3 to the last number each time.

3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, 33, 38, ...

This sequence has a difference of 5 between each number.

The pattern is continued by adding 5 to the last number each time.
The value added each time is called the “common difference”.

What is the common difference in this example? 19, 27, 35, 43, ...
Answer: The common difference is 8.

The common difference could also be negative, like this: 25, 23, 21, 19, 17, 15, ...
In this instance, the common difference is -2.
The pattern is continued by subtracting 2 each time.

(b) Geometric sequences

A geometric sequence is formed by multiplying a number by some value each time.

Examples: Here are some geometrical sequences:

25 ACI2605/1
 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 6, 128, 256 ….

This sequence has a factor of 2 between each number.

The pattern is continued by multiplying by 2 each time.

3,9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, …

This sequence has a factor of 3 between each number.

The pattern is continued by multiplying by 3 each time.

(c) Special sequences

Triangular numbers
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...

This sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which form a triangle.

By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the next number
of the sequence:

(d) Square numbers

0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ...

The next number is made by squaring where it is in the pattern.

The second number is 2 squared (22 or 2 × 2).
The seventh number is 7 squared (72 or 7 × 7), etc.

(e) Cube numbers

0, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, ...

The next number is made by cubing where it is in the pattern.

The second number is 2 cubed (23 or 2 × 2 × 2).
The seventh number is 7 cubed (73 or 7 × 7 × 7), etc.

(f) The use of number patterns

Number patters are useful and have a particular mathematical character as they make
patterns that are as a result mathematical combination. Below are some examples of
number patterns.

The information below is freely available for scholarly use at

26
http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/worksheets/nopnumberwsheet.htm.

Look carefully at the differences between the numbers in the sequence and use that
information to work out what comes next, or to fill in the gaps.

Examples of number patterns

(1) A very simple pattern, involving the repeated addition of one (one times table): 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
(2) Another simple pattern, involving the repeated addition of two (two times table):
– 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14
(3) The repeated addition of five (five times table): 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35
(4) Doubling each time: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
(5) Adding one more each time: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 22
i.e. 1 + 1 = 2, 2 + 2 = 4, 4 + 3 = 7, 7 + 4 = 11, 11 + 5 = 16, 16 + 6 = 22
(6) Halving each time: 1600, 800, 400, 200, 100, 50, 25
(7) Adding three each time: 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26
(8) Halving each time: 8, 4, 2, 1, ½, ¼, 1/8
(9) Adding 22 each time: 12, 34, 56, 78, 100, 122, 144
(10) Repeated pattern: 0, 15, 30, 0, 15, 30, 0

The Canadian National Curriculum, which shares some similarities with the South African
National Curriculum Statement, reports that teachers should give learners various pattern
rules to create their own models, pictures or number representations.

Choose from a variety of manipulatives (such as pattern blocks, coins or buttons) and
draw a picture to develop patterns or use numbers, for example:
• Start at 2 and double each time: 2, 4, 8, 16, …

Examples of other increasing number patterns include:

1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, … each digit repeats according to its value
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … even numbers – skip-counting by 2
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, … double the previous number
2, 5, 11, 23, … double the previous number and add 1
1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, … successively add 1, then 2, then 3, and so on
2, 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, … add the preceding two numbers

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• Relation of consecutive odd numbers to squares

The sum of N odd integers starting at 1 equals N squared.

• Relation of consecutive odd numbers to cubes

The sum of N odd integers starting after the previous series equals N cubed.
Source: http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/worksheets/nopnumberwsheet.htm

• Four related patterns

28
• 1089 and its reversal

These are the only 4, 5, 6 and 7-digit numbers that are equal to a multiple of their reversal
(the series may be extended indefinitely by inserting nines into the centre of each number).

(g) Miscellaneous patterns

There are patters that are mathematically intriguing and not so obvious. Here are
some examples.
17 = 23 + 32 This is the only number of the form x + pq + qp.
17 = 34 – 43 Is this the only number of the form x + pq–qp?
1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13

Some mathematicians have observed that this is the smallest number with this property.

Another one is the squares of the first 9 primes.

2 + 32 + 52 + 72 + 112 + 132 + 172 + 192 + 232 + 292 = 2395

Here is another number that has intriguing characteristics:

3816547290 is the only base 10 number …

• that uses each of the 10 digits exactly once

• of which the leftmost k digits are evenly divisible by k
3 is evenly divisible by 1
38 is evenly divisible by 2
381 is evenly divisible by 3
3816547290 is evenly divisible by 10

2.5.3 Numbers in the Fibonacci sequence

A famous sequence of numbers, the Fibonacci numbers, was the direct result of a problem
posed by Leonardo Fibonacci (also known as Leonardo of Pisa) in his book Liber Abaci
(1202) regarding the reproduction of rabbits. A brief review of this problem indicates that
the total number of pairs of rabbits existing each month is determined by the sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, ...

Fibonacci numbers have many interesting properties and have been found to occur in
nature. Let’s discuss how you can use this in your teaching of mathematics.

29 ACI2605/1
The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers formed by adding the two numbers
before it: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …
The next number is found by adding the two numbers before it together.
The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1 + 1).
The 21 is found by adding the two numbers before it (8 + 13).
The next number in the sequence would be 89 (34 + 55).

Leaves of a plant
Ask your learners to divide each number in the Fibonacci sequence by its right-hand
partner to see what sequence develops. They will give a series of fractions:

Now ask the learners if they can determine a relationship between

these numbers and the leaves of a plant (have a plant available in
your classroom).
Tell them to observe:
• the number of leaves it takes to go (around the stem) from any
given leaf to the next one that is in the same position (above it
and in the same direction), that is, a similarly placed leaf.
• the number of revolutions you make from one leaf to another one
that is similarly placed

The plant ratio in the figure above is ecause five anti-clockwise revolutions and eight
leaves are needed to arrive at the next leaf that is similarly placed.

What will the plant ratio be if you counted the clockwise revolutions?

30
The pineapple:

The pineapple The pineapple has three distinct spirals of hexa-

gons (six-sided figures): a group of five spirals wind-
ing gradually in one direction, a second group of
thirteen spirals winding more steeply in the same
direction, and a third group of eight spirals wind-
ing in the opposite direction. Each group of spirals
consists of a Fibonacci number. Each pair of spirals
interacts to give Fibonacci numbers. The figure
shows a representation of the pineapple with the
scales numbered in order. This order is determined
by the distance each hexagon is from the bottom,
that is, the lowest is numbered 0, the next higher
one is numbered 1.

Activity 2.2

Ask your learners if they can see three distinct sets of spirals which cross each other in
the picture of the pineapple, starting at the bottom

Can they find the spirals?

Now ask your learners to determine the common difference between the numbers in
each sequence. Let them write them down. Ask them what kind of numbers they are.

Feedback on activity 2.2

3

• One spiral is the 0, 5, 10, ... sequence, which increases at a slight angle.
• The second one is the 0, 13, 26, ... sequence which increases at a steeper angle.
• The third spiral has the 0, 8, 16, ... sequence, which lies in the opposite direction of the
other two.
• Note: Different pineapples may have different sequences. If the learners work in groups for
this activity, the different groups may come up with different sequences, which may lead
to interesting discussions.

2.5.4 Numbers in Pascal’s triangle

Pascal’s triangle was originally designed by the ancient Chinese, but Blaise Pascal was
the first proponent to discover the patterns it contained. A Pascal triangle is an infinite
equilateral triangle made up of numbers. The numbers that make up Pascal’s triangle
follow a simple rule: each number is the sum of the two numbers above it. See the
example below:

31 ACI2605/1
At the tip of Pascal’s Triangle is the number 1, which makes up the zeroth row. The first
row (1 & 1) contains two 1’s, both formed by adding the two numbers above them to
the left and the right, in this case 1 and 0 (all numbers outside the triangle are 0’s). Do
the same to create the second row: 0 + 1 = 1; 1 + 1 = 2; 1 + 0 = 1. And the third: 0 + 1 =
1; 1 + 2 = 3; 2 + 1 = 3; 1 + 0 = 1. In this way, the rows of the triangle go on infinitely. A
number in the triangle can also be found by nCr (n Choose r), where n is the number of
the row and r is the element in that row. For example, in row 3, 1 is the zeroth element, 3
is element number 1, the next three is the 2nd element, and the last 1 is the 3rd element.
The formula for nCr is:
n!
r! (n-r)!

! means factorial, or the preceding number multiplied by all the positive integers that are
smaller than the number. 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.

The sums of the rows:

The sum of the numbers in any row is equal to 2 to the nth power or 2n, when n is the
number of the row. For example:

20 = 1
21 = 1 + 1 = 2
22 = 1 + 2 + 1 = 4
23 = 1 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 8
24 = 1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1 = 16

2.5.5 Numbers used to define the golden ratio

The term “golden section” (in German, goldener Schnitt or der goldene Schnitt) appeared
to have been first used by Martin Ohm in the 1835 2nd edition of his textbook Die Reine
Elementar-Mathematik (Livio 2002, p. 6). The initial use of this term in English can be
found in James Sulley’s 1875 article on aesthetics in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. The symbol (“phi”) was apparently first used by Mark Barr in the 20th century
in commemorating the Greek sculptor Phidias (ca. 490-430 BCE), of whom numerous
art historians claimed that he made extensive use of the golden ratio in his works (Livio
2002, pp. 5-6). Similarly, the alternative symbolic notation is an abbreviation of the Greek
tome, meaning “to cut”.

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There is a relationship between the golden ratio (φ = 1.618033989) and the Fibonacci
numbers (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 …). The golden ratio is the limit of the ratios of successive
terms of the Fibonacci sequence. The golden ratio can also be found by adding the first
two consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci number series and dividing it by the second
number, which is the bigger number, and the answers will get closer to the ratio of
1.618033989 as the series progresses. Phi ( ) also has relationships with continued fractions
and the Euclidean algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor of two integers.

Given a rectangle with sides in the ratio , is defined as the unique number such
that partitioning the original rectangle into a square and new rectangle as illustrated
above results in a new rectangle which also has sides in the ratio (i.e., such that the
yellow rectangles shown above are similar). Such a rectangle is called a golden rectangle,
and successive points dividing a golden rectangle into squares lie on a logarithmic spiral,
giving a figure known as a whirling square.

Based on the definition above, it can immediately be seen that

(1)

giving
(2)

Euclid ca. 300 BCE gave an equivalent definition of by defining it in terms of the so-called
“extreme and mean ratios” on a line segment, such that

(3)

for the line segment illustrated above (Livio 2002, pp. 3-4). Plugging in, we get

(4)

and clearing denominators gives us

(5)

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 which is exactly the same formula obtained above (and incidentally means that is
an algebraic number of degree 2). Using the quadratic equation and taking the posi-
tive sign (since the figure is defined so that ) gives the exact value of , namely

(6)
(7)

The figure above shows that by adding the consecutive Fibonacci numbers and dividing
the sum by the greater one of the two numbers, the answer is closer to the golden ratio,
which is φ= 1.618033989

2.6 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 2.3

i. Find the 25th Fibonacci number.

ii. The golden ratio can also be approximated with the help of a familiar pattern of
numbers. Determine the next three numbers in this pattern:
   1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21; 34; 55; 89; 144; 233; ...; ...; ...
Do you know what this sequence of numbers is called? Yes, the Fibonacci numbers!
The numbers in the Fibonacci sequence occur in many branches of mathematics,
as well as in nature and art.
iii. A golden rectangle can be constructed from a square. Use the method described
below to construct as large a golden rectangle as possible on a full sheet of paper.
   Step 1: Construct a square. Label it GOEN. Extend line segment GO. Extend
line segment NE.
   Step 2: Bisect line segment GO. Label the midpoint M. With ME as your
radius and point M as the centre, construct an arc intersecting line
GO at point L.
   Step 3: Construct the rectangle OLDE.

Feedback on activity 2.3

4

Feedback to test your knowledge

i. Section 2.5.3
ii. Section 2.5.5
iii. Section 2.5.5 (the rectangle GLDN is a golden rectangle)

2.7 CONCLUSION
For Intermediate and Senior Phase learners we need to provide a wide variety of experiences
with ratios and their comparisons. These experiences should include both proportional and
non-proportional situations, so that learners can reflect on the features of a relationship

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that make it proportional. These experiences should include physical models and drawings
that can be measured, verbal problems and numeric situations, such as the comparison
of fractions and percentages.

The opportunity for reflective thinking must accompany these experiences. Therefore,
these experiences in the classroom should include significant opportunities for learners
to make observations and to compare ideas among classmates. The emphasis must for
a long time be on the argument that produces the result, and not on the repetitive use
of algorithms or finding answers.

2.8 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

In this unit we discussed most of the number series that will be taught in the Intermediate
Phase. The knowledge of the relations between numbers and their properties is critical in
enabling the learners to operationalise numbers and use them in various contexts. Here
is a video lesson on the golden ratio and its relationship with the Fibonacci numbers:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XiG_gNOyews
http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/worksheets/nopnumberwsheet.htm

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