Before calculus

Calculus:
It is the study of continuous change. Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz the pioner of
Calculus. It deals with limits, differentiation and integration of functions of one or more
variables. The two major concepts of Calculus are
Derivatives: It gives us the rate of change of a function. It describes the function at a particular
point.
Integrals: it gives us the area under curve. It gathers the different values of a function over
number of values.
Analytical Geometry: It is also Known as coordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry, is the
study of geometry using a coordinate System. It is a combination of algebra and geometry used
to model geometric objects Rene Descartes (Renatius Cartesius in Latin) is the founder/father of
it.
Functions: A function f is a rule that gives unique output with denoted by X with each input.
Input is denoted by x and output is denoted by f(x) by unique it means "exactly one".

Independent and Dependent Variables:

y=f(x)
Here the variable x is called the independent variable (or argument) of f and the variable y is
called the dependent variable of f.

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS:
If f is a real-valued function of a real variable, then the graph of f in the xy-plane is defined to be
the graph of the equation y = f(x). For example, the graph of the function f(x) = x is the graph of
the equation y = x.
THE VERTICAL LINE TEST: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of some function f if
and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

Absolute Value: The absolute value of a number or integer is the actual distance of the
integer from zero, in a number line. Therefore, the absolute value is always a positive.

A piecewise function: it is a function that has different parts or pieces. It means it has
different definitions depending upon the value of the input.
DOMAIN AND RANGE:
If x and y are related by the equation y = f(x), then the set of all allowable inputs (x-values) is
called the domain of f, and the set of outputs (y-values) that result when x varies over the domain
is called the range of f.
Also; If a real-valued function of a real variable is defined by a formula, and if no domain is
stated explicitly, then it is to be understood that the domain consists of all real numbers for which
the formula yields a real value. This is called the natural domain of the function.

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS:

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS:
Given functions f and g, the composition of f with g, denoted by f ◦g, is the function defined by
(f ◦g) (x) = f(g(x)) f(g(x))
The domain of f ◦g is defined to consist of all x in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the
domain of f.

EXPRESSING AFUNCTION AS A COMPOSITION:

Many problems in mathematics are solved by “decomposing” functions into compositions of
simpler functions. For example, consider the function h given by
h(x) = (x +1)2
To evaluate h(x) for a given value of x, we would first compute x + 1 and then square the result.
These two operations are performed by the functions g(x) = x +1 and f(x)=x2. We can express h
in terms of f and g by writing
h(x) = (x +1)2 =[g(x)]2 = f(g(x))
so we have succeeded in expressing h as the composition h = f ◦g. The thought process in this
example suggests a general procedure for decomposing a function h into a composition h = f ◦g:
• Think about how you would evaluate h(x) for a specific value of x, trying to break the
evaluation into two steps performed in succession.
• The first operation in the evaluation will determine a function g and the second a function f.
• The formula for h can then be written as h(x) = f(g(x)). For descriptive purposes, we will refer
to g as the “inside function” and f as the “outside function” in the expression f(g(x)). The inside
function performs the first operation and the outside function performs the second.

Graphical Changes:
TRANSLATIONS: The geometric effect on the graph of y = f(x) o fading or subtracting a
positive constant c to f or to its independent variable x.
REFLECTIONS: The graph of y= f(−x) is the reflection of the graph of y = f(x) about they-
axis because the point (x, y) on the graph of f(x) is replaced by (−x, y). Similarly, the graph of
y=−f(x) is the reflection of the graph of y=f(x)about the x-axis because the point (x, y) on the
graph of f(x) is replaced by (x, −y). The equation y=−f(x )is equivalent to−y= f(x).

STRETCHES AND COMPRESSIONS: Multiplying f(x) by a positive constant c has

the geometric effect of stretching the graph of y=f(x) in they-direction by a factor of c if c >1 and
compressing it in the y direction by a factor of 1/c if 0 < c < 1.

SYMMETRY: There are three types of symmetries: symmetry about the x-axis, symmetry
about the y-axis, and symmetry about the origin. As illustrated in the figure, a curve is symmetric
about the x-axis if for each point (x, y) on the graph the point (x, −y) is also on the graph, and it
is symmetric about the y-axis if for each point (x, y) on the graph the point (−x, y) is also on the
graph. A curve is symmetric about the origin if for each point (x, y) on the graph, the point (−x,
−y) is also on the graph.
EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS: A function f is said to be an even function if f(−x) =
f(x) and is said to be an odd function if f(−x) = −f(x). Geometrically, the graphs of even
functions are symmetric about the y-axis because replacing x by−x in the equation y = f(x) yields
y = f(−x), which is equivalent to the original equation y=f(x) Similarly, it follows from that
graphs of odd functions are symmetric about the origin. Some examples of even functions are x2,
x4, x6, and cosx; and some examples of odd functions are x3, x5, x7, and sinx.

FAMILIES OF CURVES: The graph of a constant function f(x)= c is the graph of the
equation y = c, which is the horizontal line shown in Figure 0.3.1a. If we vary c, then we obtain a
set or family of horizontal lines such as those in Figure 0.3.1b. Constants that are varied to
produce families of curves are called parameters. For example, recall that an equation of the
form y = mx + b represents a line of slope m and y-intercept b. If we keep b fixed and treat m as
a parameter, then we obtain a family of lines whose members all have y-intercept b (Figure
0.3.2a), and if we keep m fixed and treat b as a parameter, we obtain a family of parallel lines
whose members all have slope m.
POWER FUNCTIONS:
THE FAMILY y = xn A function of the form f(x)= xp, where p is constant, is called a power
function. For the moment, let us consider the case where p is a positive integer, say p = n. The
graphs of the curves y = Xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are shown. The first graph is the line with
slope 1 that passes through the origin, and the second is a parabola that opens up and has its
vertex at the origin.

For n ≥ 2 the shape of the curve y = xn depends on whether n is even or odd:

• For even values of n, the functions f(x)= xn are even, so their graphs are symmetric about the y-
axis. The graphs all have the general shape of the graph of y = x2, and each graph passes through
the points (−1,1), (0,0), and (1,1). As n increases, the graphs become flatter over the interval −1
< x ˂ 1 and steeper over the interval x ˃ 1 and x < −1.
• For odd values of n, the functions f(x)= xn are odd, so their graphs are symmetric about the
origin. The graphs all have the general shape of the curve y = x3, and each graph passes through
the points (−1, −1), (0,0), and (1,1). As n increases, the graphs become flatter over the interval
−1 < x ˂ 1 and steeper over the interval x ˃ 1 and x < −1.
THE FAMILY y =x–n. If p is a negative integer, say p =−n, then the power functions f(x)= xp
have the form f(x)= x−n = 1/xn. Figure shows the graphs of y = 1/x and y = 1/x2. The graph of y =
1/x is called an equilateral hyperbola. The shape of the curve y = 1/xn depends on whether n is
even or odd:
 For even values of n, the functions f(x)= 1/xn are even, so their graphs are symmetric
about the y-axis. The graphs all have the general shape of the curve y = 1/x2, and each
graph passes through the points (−1,1) and (1,1). As n increases, the graphs become
steeper over the intervals −1 < x < 1 and 0 < x ˂ 1 and flatter over the interval x ˃ 1 and x <
−1.
 For odd values of n, the functions f(x)= 1/xn are odd, so their graphs are symmetric about
the origin. The graphs all have the general shape of the curve y = 1/x, and each graph
passes through the points (1,1) and (−1, −1). As n increases, the graphs become steeper
over the intervals −1 < x < x 1 and 0 < x ˂ 1 and flatter over the interval x ˃ 1 and x < −1.
 For both even and odd values of n the graph y = 1/xn has a break at the origin (called a
discontinuity), which occurs because division by zero is undefined.

INVERSE PROPORTIONS:
Recall that a variable y is said to be inversely proportional to a variable x if there is a positive
constant k, called the constant of proportionality, such that
y = k /x
Since k is assumed to be positive, the graph of (1) has the same shape as y = 1/x but is
compressed or stretched in the y-direction. Also, it should be evident from equation (1) that
doubling x multiplies y by 1/2, tripling x multiplies y by 1 /3, and so forth. Equation (1) can be
expressed as
x y = k,
which tells us that the product of inversely proportional variables is a positive constant. This is a
useful form for identifying inverse proportionality in experimental data.
POWER FUNCTIONS WITH NONINTEGER EXPONENTS:
If p = 1/n, where n is a positive integer, then the power functions f(x)= xp have the form f(x)=
x1/n = n √x in particular, if n = 2, then f(x)= √x, and if n = 3, then f(x)= 3√x. The graphs of these
functions are shown in parts (a) and (b) of Figure. Since every real number has a real cube root,
the domain of the function f(x)= 3 √x is (−∞ ,+ ∞), and hence the graph of y = 3 √x extends over
the entire x-axis. In contrast, the graph of y = √x extends only over the interval [0, +∞ ) because
√x is imaginary for negative x. As illustrated in, the graphs of y = √x and y =−√x form the upper
and lower halves of the parabola x = y2. In general, the graph of y = n √x extends over the entire
x-axis if n is odd, but extends only over the interval [0, +∞ ) if n is even. Power functions can
have other fractional exponents. Some examples are f(x)= x2/3, f(x) = 5 √ x3, f(x) = x−7/8.

POLYNOMIALS: A polynomial in x Is a function that is expressible as a sum of finitely

many terms of the form cxn, where c is a constant and n is a nonnegative integer. The function
(x2 − a)3 is also a polynomial because it can be expanded by the binomial formula (see the inside
front cover) and expressed as a sum of terms of the form cxn . A general polynomial can be
written in either of the following forms, depending on whether one wants the powers of x in
ascending or descending order:
c0 +c1x +c2x2 +···+cnxn
cnxn +cn−1xn−1 +···+c1x +c0
The constants c0, c1,...,cn are called the coefficients of the polynomial. When a polynomial is
expressed in one of these forms, the highest power of x that occurs with a nonzero coefficient is
called the degree of the polynomial. Nonzero constant polynomials are considered to have degree
0, since we can write c = cx0. Polynomials of degree 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are described as linear,
quadratic, cubic, quartic, and quintic, respectively.
The natural domain of a polynomial in x is (−∞ ,+ ∞),since the only operations involved are
multiplication and addition; the range depends on the particular polynomial.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS: Functions that can be constructed from polynomials by
applying finitely many algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
root extraction) are called algebraic functions.

THE FAMILIES:
y =AsinBx and y =AcosBx
In this text we will assume that the in dependent variable of a trigonometric function is in radians
unless otherwise stated. Many important applications lead to trigonometric functions of the form
f(x)= Asin(Bx −C) and g(x)= Acos(Bx −C)
where A, B, and C are nonzero constants. The graphs of such functions can be obtained by
stretching, compressing, translating, and reflecting the graphs of
y = sinx and y = cosx
If A and B are positive, then the effect of the constant A is to stretch or compress the graphs of y
= sinx and y = cosx vertically and the effect of the constant B is to compress or stretch the graphs
of sinx and cosx horizontally. For example, the graph of y = 2sin4x can be obtained by stretching
the graph of y = sinx vertically by a factor of 2 and compressing it horizontally by a factor of 4.
(Recall that the multiplier of x stretches when it is less than 1 and compresses when it is greater
than 1.) Thus, as shown in Figure, the graph of y = 2sin4x varies between −2and 2, and repeats
every 2π/4 = π/2 units.
In general, if A and B are positive numbers, then the graphs of y =AsinBx and y =AcosBx
oscillate between −A and A and repeat every 2π/B unit, so we say that these functions have
amplitude A and period 2π/B. In addition, we define the frequency of these functions to be the
reciprocal of the period, that is, the frequency is B/(2π). If A or B is negative, then these
constants cause reflections of the graphs about the axes as well as compressing or stretching
them; and in this case the amplitude, period, and frequency are given by
amplitude =|A|, period = 2π /|B|, frequency = |B| /2π

THE FAMILIES: y =Asin(Bx– C) and y =Acos(Bx– C)

To investigate the graphs of the more general families
y =Asin(Bx −C) and y =Acos(Bx−C)
it will be helpful to rewrite these equations as
y =Asin B(x−C/B) and y=Acos B (x−C/ B)
In this form we see that the graphs of these equations can be obtained by translating the graphs of
y = AsinBx and y = AcosBx
to the left or right, depending on the sign of C/B. For example, if C/B > 0, then the graph of
y =Asin[B(x −C/B)] = Asin(Bx −C)
can be obtained by translating the graph of y = AsinBx to the right by C/B units.
if C/B ˂ 0, then the graph of
y =Asin[B(x −C/B)] = Asin(Bx −C)
can be obtained by translating the graph of y = AsinBx to the left by |C/B| units.

INVERSE FUNCTIONS: The idea of solving an equation y=f(x) for x as a function of y,

say x=g(y), is one of the most important ideas in mathematics. Sometimes, solving an equation is
a simple process; for example, using basic algebra the equation:
y=x3+1 →y = f(x)
can be solved for x as a function of
x= y3−1 → x=g(y)
The first equation is better for computing y if x is known, and the second is better for computing
x if y is known.
Our primary interest in this section is to identify relationships that may exist between the
functions f and g when an equation y=f(x) is expressed as x=g(y), or conversely. For example,
consider the functions f(x)=x3+1 and g(y)= 3 √y−1 discussed above. When these functions are
composed in either order, they cancel out the effect of one another in the sense that
3
g(f(x)) = 3√f(x) − 1 = √𝑥 3 + 1 − 1 = x
3
(g(y)) = [g(y)]3+1 = √(𝑦 − 1)3 +1= y
Pairs of functions with these two properties are so important that there is special terminology for
them.

CHANGING THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:

The above formulas use x as the independent variable for f and y as the
independent variable for f−1. Although it is often convenient to use different independent
variables for f and f−1, there will be occasions on which it is desirable to use the same
independent variable for both. For example, if we want to graph the functions f and f−1 together
in the same xy-coordinate system, then we would want to use x as the independent variable and y
as the dependent variable for both functions. Thus, to graph the functions
f(x)= x3 + 1 and f−1(y) = 3 √y −1
of the above Example in the same xy-coordinate system, we would change the independent
variable y to x, use y as the dependent variable for both functions, and graph the equations
y =x3+1 and y= 3 √ x −1.
we give the following reformulation of the cancellation equations as above using x as the
independent variable for both f and f−1.

DOMAIN AND RANGE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS: The equations in (3) imply

the following relationships between the domains and ranges of f and f−1:

One way to show that two sets are the same is to show that each is a subset of the other.
EXISTENCE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS:

Stated algebraically, a function f is one-to-one if and only if f(x1) = f(x2) whenever x1= x2; stated
geometrically, a function f is one-to-one if and only if the graph of y = f(x) is cut at most once by
any horizontal line. The latter statement together with Theorem provides the following geometric
test for determining whether a function has an inverse.

INCREASING ORDECREASING FUNCTIONS ARE INVERTIBLE:

A function whose graph is always rising as it is traversed from left to right is said to be an
increasing function, and a function whose graph is always falling as it is traversed from left to
right is said to be decreasing function. If x1 and x2 are points in the domain of a function f,
then f is increasing if f(x1) < f(x2) where x1 < x2
and f is decreasing if f(x1) ˃ f(x2) where x1 < x2
GRAPHS OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS:

RESTRICTING DOMAINS FOR INVERTIBILITY: If a function g is obtained

from a function f by placing restrictions on the domain of f, then g is called a restriction of f.
Thus, for example, the function g(x) = x3, x ≥ 0 is a restriction of the function f(x)= x3. More
precisely, it is called the restriction of x3 to the interval [0,+ ). Sometimes it is possible to create
an invertible function from a function that is not invertible by restricting the domain
appropriately. For example, we showed earlier that f(x)= x2 is not invertible. However, consider
the restricted functions f1(x) = x2, x ≥ 0 and f2(x)=x2, x ≤ 0 the union of whose graphs is the
complete graph of f(x)= x2. These restricted functions are each one-to-one (hence invertible),
since their graphs pass the horizontal line test. As illustrated in Figure, their inverses are f−1 1 (x)
=√x and f−1 2 (x) =−√x.
INVERSE FRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:
The six basic trigonometric functions do not have inverses because their graphs repeat
periodically and hence do not pass the horizontal line test. To come over this problem we will
restrict the domains of the trigonometric functions to produce one to one functions to define the
inverse trigonometric functions:
Note: A reflection about y=x converts vertical line into horizontal lines, and vice versa, and it
converts x-intercepts into y-intercept and vice versa.

Exponential and Logarithmic Function:

Irrational Exponents: If b is a nonzero real number then nonzero integer powers of b are
defined by 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 … .∗ 𝑏 and 𝑏 −𝑛 = 1⁄𝑏 𝑛
𝑝
And if n=0 then 𝑏 0 = 1, also if ⁄𝑞 is a +ve rational number expressed in lowest terms, then
𝑝 𝑝
𝑞 𝑞 −
𝑏 𝑞 = √𝑏 𝑝 = ( √𝑏 )p and 𝑏 𝑞 = 1⁄ 𝑝/𝑞 Here we assume b˃0
𝑏
If b is –ve, then some fractional powers of b will have imaginary values such as 2𝜋 , 3√2 , 𝜋 −7
Laws of Exponent:
𝑝
𝑞 𝑞
𝑖. 𝑏 𝑝 𝑏 𝑞 = 𝑏 𝑝+𝑞 ii. 𝑏 𝑝 /𝑏 𝑞 = 𝑏 𝑝−𝑞 iii. (𝑏 𝑝 )𝑞 𝑏 𝑝𝑞 iv. 𝑏 0 = 1 v. 𝑏 𝑞 = √𝑏 𝑝 = ( √𝑏 )p
𝑝
−
vi. 𝑏 𝑞 = 1⁄ 𝑝/𝑞
𝑏
Range of exponential function is (0,+∞) Domain of exponential function is (-∞,+∞)

The Family Of Exponent Functions: a function of the form f(x) = 𝒃𝒙 ,

where b ˃ 0 is called an exponential function with base b. for e.g. f(x) = 2𝑥 , (1/2)𝑥 , 𝜋 𝑥 .
An exponential function has a constant base and variable exponent.
The graph of y = 𝑏 𝑥 has the following properties:-
 The graph passes through (0,1) because 𝑏 0 = 1
 If b ˃ 1, the value of 𝑏 𝑥 increases as x increase. As you traverse the graph from left to
right, the value of 𝑏 𝑥 increases indefinitely .
 If you traverse the graph from right to left, the value of 𝑏 𝑥 decreases toward zero but
never reach zero .Thus, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑏 𝑥 .
 If 0 ˂ b ˂ 1, the value of 𝑏 𝑥 decreases as x increases and vice versa of point 2.
 If b = 1, then the value of 𝑏 𝑥 is constant.
 The graph of y = (1/ 𝑏)𝑥 is the reflection of the graph of y = 𝑏 𝑥 about the y-axis
because of replacing b by –x in the equation
y = 𝑏 𝑥 =≻ y = 𝑏 −𝑥 =≻ y = (1/ 𝑏)𝑥

The Natural Exponential Function:

The function f(x)= 𝑒 𝑥 is called the natural exponential function. It is also denoted as exp(x), in
which case the relationship
𝑒 𝑥1 + 𝑒 𝑥2 = 𝑒 𝑥1 𝑒 𝑥2
That base, denoted by the letter e, is a certain irrational number whose value to six decimal place
is e ≈ 2.718282.
Also, b=e is the only base for which the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = 𝑏 𝑥 at any point
P on the curve is equal to y-coordinate at P. Thus, the tangent line to y = 𝑒 𝑥 at (0,1) has slope 1.

The constant e also rises in the context of the graph of the equation.
1 𝑥
𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)

Y=e is a horizontal asymptote of this graph. As a result, the value of e can be approximated to
any degree of accuracy by evaluating for x sufficiently large in absolute value.
Change of Base Formula for Logarithms:
Y = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 x ----- i x = 𝑏 𝑦 ----- ii
Taking logarithm on both sides of eqn. (ii)
ylnb = lnx
=≻y = lnx/lnb
=≻ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 x = lnx/lnb

Logarithmic functions: The function f(x)=𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 x the logarithmic function with base b.
Logarithmic functions can also be viewed as inverses of exponential functions. if b ˃ 1 and b ≠
1, then the graph of f(x) = 𝑏 𝑥 passes the horizontal line test. So, 𝑏 𝑥 has an inverse formula for
this inverse with x as the independent variable is x = 𝑏 𝑦 for y as a function of x and can be
written as y=𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 x.
Theorem:- If b ˃ 1 and b ≠ 1, then 𝑏 𝑥 and y=𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 x are reflections of one another about the line
y=x. In general; y = lnx iff x = 𝑒 𝑦

Range of logarithmic function is (-∞,+∞) Domain of logarithmic function is (0,+∞)

 Open intervals
An open interval is a set of numbers that doesn't include its endpoints,
Use parentheses to indicate that the endpoints are not included. For example, (a, b)
is an open interval that includes all real numbers between 𝑎 and b but not 𝑎 & b.

 Closed intervals
while a closed interval is a set of numbers that does include its endpoints. Use square brackets to
indicate that the endpoints are included. For example, [a, b] open bracket a comma b close
bracket [𝑎, 𝑏] is a closed interval that includes all real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏, including a and
b.

 Half-open intervals
Include one endpoint but not the other. They can be left-open or right-open, depending on which
endpoint is excluded.

Domain: refers to all possible input values of a function.

Codomain: refers to the set of all possible output values that a function could produce,
Range: refers to the set of actual output values that the function generates when applied to its
domain.
Difference Between Symmetry And Reflection: Symmetry is when a shape or object is the
same on both sides, while reflection is when an object is reflected across a line to create a mirror
image.

Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body or

wave measured from its equilibrium position. i.e. A= |𝐴|
Frequency: The rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time
|𝐵|⁄
(usually 1 sec) or in a given sample. F =
2𝜋
Period: It is the time it takes for a vibrating object to complete one cycle of oscillation or
vibration. P = 2𝜋⁄|𝐵|
Exercise 0. 1
:
Exercise 0.2
Exercise 0.3
Exercise 0.4
Exercise 0.5