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The Greenest Nation?
History for a Sustainable Future
Michael Egan, series editor

Derek Wall, Culture, Conflict, and Ecology: The Commons in History

Frank Uekötter, The Greenest Nation? A New History of German
Environmentalism
The Greenest Nation?
A New History of German Environmentalism

Frank Uekötter

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
© 2014 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by
any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or
information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the
publisher.

MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for busi-
ness or sales promotional use. For information, please email special_sales@
mitpress.mit.edu.

This book was set in Sabon by the MIT Press. Printed and bound in the
United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Uekötter, Frank, 1970-

The greenest nation? : a new history of German environmentalism / Frank
Uekötter.
pages cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-262-02732-8 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Environmentalism–History—21st century. 2. Environmental policy–Histo-
ry–21st century. 3. Environmentalism–Germany–History–20th century.
4. Environmentalism-–GE195.U45 2014
333.720943--dc23
2013032416

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

Foreword by Michael Egan vii

Acknowledgments xi

1 Environmentalism and Environmental History in the

Twenty-first Century 1
2 Creating a Tradition: German Environmentalism, 1900 to
1945 25
3 Getting in Motion: German Environmentalism, 1945 to
1980 59
Interim Remarks: Explaining the Rise of
Environmentalism 101
4 The Green Enigma: German Environmentalism, 1980 to
2013 113
5 German Environmentalism in Mid Passage 157
How Green After All? An Epilogue 177

Notes 185
Selected Readings on German Environmentalism 213
Index 217
Foreword
Michael Egan

It is hardly hyperbole to assert that we live in a state of en-

vironmental crisis. Human-induced climate change is already
threatening plant and animal biodiversity and human habitats.
Globally there is an uneven distribution of environmental ame-
nities and hazards. Our food and our bodies are increasingly
burdened with a cocktail of toxic chemicals. Despite our ad-
vances in science, technology, and medicine, more rather than
fewer children are diagnosed with asthma and leukemia. Hu-
man population growth is seriously challenging the planet’s
carrying capacity. And we are consuming more natural re-
sources at an unsustainable rate. This environmental deteriora-
tion has a history that is ingrained in a human social, political,
and technological past that we have yet to fully understand.
The History for a Sustainable Future series seeks to shed light
on this history as a means of better focusing contemporary
debate.
It is a bit of a funny name and a peculiar concept (looking
backward to look forward), but History for a Sustainable Fu-
ture is predicated on the idea that in order to fully understand
the social, political, economic, and ecological context of con-
temporary environmental problems, we need to be conscious of
their histories. Resolving local and global environmental quan-
daries requires careful thought and planning; future success
viii  Michael Egan

depends on a deeper appreciation of the past. This is the point:

historicizing sustainable and unsustainable futures is based less
on the notion that we should learn from past mistakes, but
rather on the premise that solving the environmental crisis will
demand the most and best information available, and history
provides valuable insight into the creation and proliferation of
the environmental ills we hope to curb.
Frank Uekötter’s The Greenest Nation? A New History of
German Environmentalism offers a particularly important per-
spective for this larger project, especially with respect to how
green initiatives have been integrated into national policy prac-
tices. Throughout the twentieth century, Germany has been at
the forefront of the global green movement. For North Ameri-
can readers, the history of environmentalism is predominantly
a chronicle of conflict and opposition. Indeed, in an insightful
reading of environmentalism past and present, the historian
Donald Worster remarked: “When contemporary environmen-
talism first emerged in the 1960s and ’70s, and before its goals
became obscured by political compromising and diffusion, the
destination was more obvious and the route more clear. The
goal was to save the living world around us, millions of species
of plants and animals, including humans, from destruction by
our technology, population, and appetites.” In reading through
The Greenest Nation? the surrender of that grand goal might
largely be a North American phenomenon. The only solution
to the environmental crisis, Worster claimed, involved the radi-
cal recognition that limits to population, technology, and ap-
petite were necessary.1 Through the twentieth century, a deeper
appreciation of the limits to growth has received considerable
attention in many parts of Europe. In Uekötter’s treatment, the
German case is more about cooperation and collaboration. Yes,
tensions exist, but the oppositional “us versus them” that typi-
fies North American environmental debates over conservation,
pollution, public health, and energy is comparatively absent.
 Foreword  ix

Uekötter is quick to further stress the distinction between

the German example and the traditional environmental nar-
rative that is almost cookie-cuttered into many national histo-
ries. German environmentalism was not a knee-jerk reaction
to some environmental catastrophe, which spurred the coun-
try into a green awakening. Certainly, there is a rich German
literature on green issues, but there is no Silent Spring that
transformed the intellectual and political landscape. Nor were
charismatic leaders central to the rise of German environmen-
talism; Uekötter points out that Germany’s most internation-
ally recognized environmentalist, Petra Kelly, “was much de-
spised and ridiculed among fellow activists and isolated within
Germany’s environmental community years before her violent
death in 1992.”2
That is not to say that Germany’s green movement simply
was (the greenest nation was not built in a day). Rather, its
historical development might sound familiar to those well ac-
quainted with green initiatives in other countries, though one
might ascertain that Germans practiced a more sensitive re-
sponse to risk. According to Uekötter, Germany’s green narra-
tive had three catalysts. First, that old chestnut post-materialism
played some role, though Uekötter seems less convinced than
many of his environmental history colleagues. Where previous
generations struggled for material security and balance, Ron-
ald Inglehart’s “silent revolution” consisted of coming to terms
with taking economic stability for granted and paying more
explicit attention to quality of life issues.3 Second, health—
public and individual—galvanized growing environmental in-
terest and concern. Cancer, and the uncertainty surrounding
health threats posed by pollution, raised global concerns, but
the responses in Germany and its neighbors are telling. What is
evident is that northern European countries have traditionally
been more willing to apply the precautionary principle to their
environmental policies. Third, green politics have been shaped
x  Michael Egan

by changing economic contexts. The decline in industry made

opposition to its pollution more acceptable and popular. Since
World War II, ideas of progress at all cost and stressing the
economy over the environment have not held up well in the
German context. One might also consider the closed and cen-
tralized nature of German politics created space for concerns
to be raised on a statewide level.
On a very basic level, we might turn to the German practice
as a model for less environmentally enlightened states. And in
so doing, The Greenest Nation? provides a valuable analysis
and template. But that is not enough. Rather than appointing
German policies as a prototype for future global environmen-
tal decision-making, we need to dig deeper. Too many factors,
not least the three above, make the German case an admirable
one, but one that is less applicable to other states in the fu-
ture. This is especially important since Uekötter’s work offers
an important lesson to environmental historians in the manner
in which he situates environmentalism in German history. In
effect, The Greenest Nation? positions German environmen-
talism as nothing less than a national code of conduct.
But, as Uekötter rightly argues, even a history of German
environmentalism is also a global history—one that is tied to
peace and social justice initiatives. And this is an important fea-
ture of sustainability: it suggests the comprehensive nature of
realizing a greener future. But sustainability also implies hope.
Given how easy it is to lose heart at the scale and scope of en-
vironmental problems in front of us, I think this is more impor-
tant than I can ably state. Furthermore sustainability demands
a plan, a goal, a mission. And it has been incredibly effective
at initiating dialogue. If we can take a hopeful message away
from The Greenest Nation? it is that history does offer us a
means of engaging with a more sustainable future.
Acknowledgments

Every book has its history, and syntheses usually have a par-
ticularly circuitous one. After two decades of researching and
writing on many aspects of environmentalism in Germany and
elsewhere, a book of this kind was a somewhat logical proj-
ect. It was also an exercise in self-restraint. It probably would
have been easier to write a long history of German environ-
mentalism, and I am still remorseful about the many stories
and people that I have left out: one of the great charms of
environmental movement history lies in the fact that it is full
of real characters. However, brevity has the salubrious effect
of forcing authors to get to the point, and while that made the
narrative rather dense at times, it was probably a worthwhile
endeavor. I am particularly grateful that I could publish this
synthesis in a series that encourages reflections on the present
and the future, something that environmental historians have
always done and should do more.
In a book of this kind, readers inevitably wonder where
the author stands on environmental issues, and I will make
no bones about my background here. I am a long-standing
member of several environmental NGOs, I have attended and
talked at many environmental meetings, and I have done schol-
arly work for the German ministry for the environment, the
Bavarian Bird Protection League, and the Bavarian League for
xii  Acknowledgments

Nature Protection. I usually buy organic food and pay climate

compensation for my air travel. My concern for environmen-
talism comes from two insights, namely that it is a necessity
in our age and that it is fun (at times). And yet for all the en-
thusiasm that I can bring to green causes, I have had a nag-
ging feeling for years that environmentalism is in crisis and
that this crisis defies standard recipes, if not our present ideas
about what environmentalism is. My personal conclusion was
to opt for critical reflection, a stance that has gotten me into
all sorts of trouble over the years (both for being too critical
and not critical enough) but still strikes me as the proper role
for the environmental humanities. I am also not very good at
advocacy.
Many people have shaped my ideas about environmental-
ism over the years, and that makes a complete list of influences
somewhat difficult. The book probably would not exist with-
out the Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society,
which I helped to build as deputy director. For a global institu-
tion situated in Munich, Germany, the tension between inter-
national and national perspectives is a recurring issue in dis-
cussions at the center. I was blessed with clever students who
took part in my courses and lectures at Munich University. In
a project that deals with the future of environmentalism, one
can barely hope for better company than young people who
disagree.
Segments of this book were originally published in German
as part of my book, Am Ende der Gewissheiten. Die ökolo-
gische Frage im 21. Jahrhundert, published in 2011 with Cam-
pus. I would like to thank Tanja Hommen and Campus Ver-
lag for allowing the reuse of the manuscript, Thomas Dunlap
for translating it into English, and the Rachel Carson Center
for paying the bill. Claas Kirchhelle, Christian Möller, Kevin
Niebauer, Veronika Schäfer, Sarah Waltenberger, and Amir
Zelinger read the final draft and provided helpful comments.
 Acknowledgments  xiii

Jennifer Thomson gave the text a thorough reading as to sub-

stance and style. Series editor Michael Egan and Clay Mor-
gan and Dana Andrus of MIT Press shepherded the project
calmly but firmly toward the finishing line. The Volkswagen
Foundation supported my work through a generous Dilthey
Fellowship.
I dedicate this book to my wife Simona. After all, spouses
are the hidden heroes of book writing: they tolerate a distracted
and sometimes grumpy partner, they carry an excessive share
of household duties, and they prevent public health hazards
by insisting that, oh yes, that mug needs washing. Simona has
endured that fate more often than I wish to remember, and yet
she still shows a genuine interest in my work. The issues of this
book have been our household conversation for years on end,
and Simona is providing feedback with the vigor of an engineer
who meticulously stress-tests complex technological devices—
which, incidentally, is her daytime job. She let me know years
ago that she would not need a dedication, and that was before
I devoted my last book to a snake. But, hey, let’s face it, darling:
you really earned this.
1
Environmentalism and Environmental
History in the Twenty-first Century

The Land of (Organic) Milk and Honey: An Inspection

In a way, this book is an outgrowth of many conversations that

I have had over the last years. As a German environmental-
ist traveling abroad, I have frequently encountered a sense of
envy: man, you have it so good! Strict laws, world-class green
technology firms, the phase-out of nuclear power and a power-
ful green party—observers from other countries have come to
watch German environmentalism with a mixture of admira-
tion and awe. In May 2012, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) called Germany “a
laboratory for green growth” and praised its “proactive role
in environmental policy within the EU and internationally.”1
In a status report on renewable energy, Mohamed El-Ashry of
the United Nations Foundation credited German energy policy
with “beacon-like character for many other countries around
the world.”2 As a tribute to Germany’s green energy efforts, the
New York Times has adopted Energiewende in its vocabulary,
along with older terminological imports such as Kindergarten
and Schadenfreude.
These voices match with sentiments in Germany. Environ-
mental problems have long dominated political and social de-
bates, and they usually carry the air of commonsense issues.
2  Chapter 1

Politicians rarely spat over environmental issues, and if they do,

they fight over tactics rather than principles. Parties from the left
to the right strive to claim green credentials, eager to avoid any
kind of statement or gesture that the public might construe as
a sign of deficient awareness. A powerful network of nongov-
ernmental organizations represents environmental issues on all
political levels, often in close collaboration with state and mu-
nicipal agencies. All the while, journalists of diverse stripes cover
environmental issues in a generally sympathetic light. When it
comes to Germany, it is not easy to not be green.
A wide array of campaigns, laws, and institutions attests to
this mood, making it tempting to compile an impressive list
of achievements. In the 1970s, Germany developed one of the
largest antinuclear movements in the Western world. During
the 1980s, the fear of widespread deforestation turned Ger-
many into the vanguard of pollution control. After the Rio
summit of 1992, Germany became a leader in the global fight
against climate change. Most recently the boom of renewable
energy from wind and solar has galvanized attention around
the globe. Of course, a lot remains to be done for environmen-
tal sustainability, but as Western societies go, Germany stands
out. Even President Obama noted the German clean energy
achievements in his 2012 State of the Union address, urging the
United States to emulate this example.3
However, there is more to the Green Germany than a re-
cord of achievements. Over the last two or three decades, being
green has emerged as a matter of national identity in Germany.
It is hard to explain the enthusiasm for green technology or the
fancy for recycling, along with the diligence in separating trash,
without a reference to patriotic sentiments. Germans routinely
expect their government to assume a leadership role in interna-
tional negotiations, and few things offend Germans more than
being told that another country is doing more for the environ-
ment. Given the painful history of German nationalism, one
 Environmentalism and Environmental History   3

might find that an ironic state of affairs. It almost seems as if,

at the end of a long and circuitous road, Germans have finally
found a type of patriotism that is truly safe.
The Green Germany has provoked a number of divergent
interpretations. A friendly reading suggests that Germans have
reached a level of environmental awareness that other coun-
tries are still lacking. A less friendly reading suggests a link to
the dark chapters of German history, with the Nazi era provid-
ing the most popular point of reference. Or perhaps the age of
Romanticism continues to resonate within the German soul?
Monocausal readings of this kind draw on clichés and are easy
to disprove, and yet they have proved hard to exorcise. It is
disheartening, to give just one example, that people continue
to discuss Anna Bramwell’s allegation of a “green party” in
Nazi Germany even though scholars have long shown that the
quality of her evidence stands in inverse relation to the level of
excitement.4 While German environmentalism attracts world-
wide attention, its history seems to attract those in search of a
cheap provocation.
This makes it important to clarify the record, and that
is what this book intends to do. Most crucially, it seeks to
overcome the strange disconnect between German environ-
mentalism today and its history. In most Western countries,
environmentalism has grown over time, with different ideas,
challenges, and policies accumulating on top of each other like
layers of sediment. Some of these developments loop back a
century or more; others are of recent origin. Some trends were
peculiar, the result of specific events or conditions in a certain
region; others were characteristic of industrial societies around
the globe. In any case, environmentalism is not something that
we can understand by looking only at the last few years. It has
deep roots in history that we neglect at our own peril.
It only takes a look at the size of this book to understand
that this endeavor is not comprehensive. At the risk of stating
4  Chapter 1

the obvious, Germany is a large and diverse country, and en-

vironmentalism is a large and diverse movement. The follow-
ing treatise is as simple as possible but also as complicated
as necessary, seeking to identify the main factors and forces
in the development of German environmentalism while keep-
ing its distance from intellectual monoculture. The goal is to
give non-German readers a general idea of the path of German
environmentalism, providing them with a road map that may
stimulate more in-depth inquiries. However, while working
on the manuscript, it gradually dawned on me that this book
would also need to pursue some wider ambitions.5

A Time for a New History

Once upon a time it was easy to write a history of environmen-

talism. All that one had to do was search for key thinkers, au-
thors of influential books, and founders of key organizations,
arrange them in chronological order, and then recount their
stories in a sympathetic vein. Almost half a century ago Roder-
ick Nash wrote a book of this kind, published it under the title
Wilderness and the American Mind, and thus created one of
the first classics of environmental history.6 It is still an exciting
book, full of stories that both environmentalists and American
patriots can read with a sense of pride. Scholars followed the
same path for other countries, and nowadays we have books
for countries from Great Britain to Israel.7 For Germany, read-
ers can choose among half a dozen monographs.8
It goes without saying that these books were important
for the development of environmental history. They showed
that there was indeed a long history of environmentalism that
deserved closer scrutiny, and presented an outline of that his-
tory that scholars subsequently discussed and refined with
great merit. However, as research advanced and the number of
books and essays multiplied, scholars started to look at these
 Environmentalism and Environmental History   5

books with a growing sense of disaffection. It became less and

less convincing to write the history of environmentalism as a
story of “prophets and pioneers,” as one title proclaimed.9 The
reasons were both scholarly and political.
Monographs of the 1970s and 1980s typically presented the
environmental movement as a rising star. They described en-
vironmentalism as a movement that had grown from humble
beginnings into a major force that held the promise of a better,
greener tomorrow. More recent events have taken much of the
air out of these emphatic projections. Two decades after the
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where global warming and
biodiversity were the key issues, climate change and the extinc-
tion of species continue at dramatic speed, and many other
problems remain unresolved as well. When leaders reconvened
in Rio in 2012, the enthusiasm of the 1992 summit was only
a distant memory, as many observers charged the meeting for
producing little more than hot air. Opinions obviously differ
on the future of environmentalism, but it is clear that teleolo-
gies of an impending green utopia have come to ring hollow.
No longer can we write the history of environmentalism as the
predestined rise of the greens.10
During the last two decades, scholars have also taken a
closer look at the choice of people that an earlier generation
of environmental historians put center stage. Many of these
figures looked rather ambiguous upon closer inspection, and
Germany provides a case in point. The first generations of Ger-
man environmentalists included many people that were elitist,
nationalist, racist, or anti-Semitic, and quite a few were all of
the above. Every other finding would have been in fact surpris-
ing: German environmentalism was never an idealistic sect, far
removed from the rest of society, but rather a cross section of
the general population with all its imperfections. A late-com-
ing democracy and two dictatorships begat German environ-
mentalism with several generations of environmentalists that
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