(ATOMIC BONDING)

Atomic bonding divides into two Isotopes

categories: primary and secondary
 Isotopes can also be defined using
Electron Orbits conventional or "AZE" notation, in
which A is the mass number, Z is the
 The travel path of an electron's
atomic number, and E is the element
movement around an atom's
symbol. The mass number "A"
nucleus.
appears as a superscript to the left of
Nucleus the chemical symbol "E," whereas the
atomic number "Z" appears as a
 The atomic nucleus is the subscript.
compact, dense region at the
center of an atom made up of
protons and neutrons. PRIMARY BONDS
 Strong chemical bonds, often
Protons referred to as primary bonds,
 A proton is a subatomic particle are formed when atoms share or
with a positive electric charge. transfer their outermost (valence)
electrons. This sharing or
Neutron transfer results in a relatively
strong attraction between the
 The neutron is an atomic nucleus
atoms, leading to the formation
particle with mass = 1 and
of stable compounds.
charge = 0.

Electrons SECONDARY BONDS

 Weaker chemical bonds,
 The electron is a subatomic known as secondary bonds,
particle with an atomic electric occur due to a more subtle
charge of -1. attraction between positively and
negatively charged parts of
Atomic Mass-z atoms or molecules.

 An element's atomic mass is the

average mass of its atoms IONIC BONDING
measured in atomic mass units
(amu, often known as daltons, • Ionic bonding is a type of chemical
D). interaction in which one atom
loses and acquires valence
Atomic Number electrons from another.

COORDINATION NUMBER (CN)

 The atomic number refers to the
total number of protons in an • The coordination number (CN)
atom's nucleus (which is the represents the number of adjacent
same as the number of electrons ions or atoms surrounding a
in a neutral atom). reference ion or atom.

Elements COVALENT BOND

 A chemical symbol is a one- or • A Covalent bond is a chemical bond

two-character notation that that involves the sharing of
represents an element. electrons to form electron pairs
between atoms.
  Ceramic
Covalent Boning
Octet Rule  Polymers
 Refers to the tendency of atoms Metallic Bonding
to prefer to have eight electrons  Metals
in the shell. Van Der Walls Bonding
 Molecular Solids
Valence Electrons
 Charles Augustin de Coulomb
 The electrons in the outermost
(1736–1806), French physicist,
shell or energy level, of an
was first to experimentally
atom.
demonstrate the nature of
METALLIC BOND Equations 2.1 and 2.2 (for large
spheres, not ions). Beyond major
 A metallic bond is a type of contributions to the
chemical bond in which a understanding of electricity and
‘cloud’ of free moving valence magnetism, Coulomb was an
electrons is bonded to the important pioneer in the feld of
positively charged ions in a applied mechanics (especially in
metal. the areas of friction and torsion)
PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF METALLIC  Johannes Diderik van der
BOND Waals (1837−1923), Dutch
physicist, improved the equations
Electrical and thermal conductivity of state for gases by taking into
 The mobile electrons are charge account the effect of secondary
carriers in the conduction of bonding forces. His brilliant
electricity and energy carriers in research was first published as a
heat conduction. thesis dissertation arising from
his part-time studies of physics.
Malleability and ductility: The immediate acclaim for the
 A metal can be hammered into work led to his transition from a
sheets and drawn into wires. job as headmaster of a
secondary school to a
professorship at the University of
High melting and boiling points: Amsterdam.
 The metallic bond is formed due
to the strong electrostatic forces Crystal lattice
between the sea of electrons and  a regular and repeating pattern
cations. of constituent particles in which
Luster and high reflectivity: each particle is depicted as a
 The delocalized electrons point
willingly absorb and re-emit  -a solid material is made up of
visible light. constituent particles

• Three primary bonds: Ionic, UNIT CELL

covalent, and metallic.  -the smallest portion of a
Examples of Metallic Bond crystal lattice that shows the
1. Sodium (Na) three-dimensional pattern of the
2. Magnesium (Mg) entire crystal
3. Aluminum (Al)

Materials-The Bonding Classification Types of Unit Cell

Ionic Bonding
  Primitive unit Cell  A polymer is composed of many
o Simple unit Cell simple molecules that are
 Non – Primitive unit Cell repeating structural units called
o Face Centered unit cell monomers. A single polymer
(FCC) molecule may consist of
o Body Centered Unit Cell: hundreds to a million monomers
(BCC) and may have a linear, branched,
o End Centered Unit Cell: or network structure.

Simple unit Cell SEMICONDUCTOR

STRUCTURE
o when the constituent
 A single structure dominates the
particle is present
semiconductor industry. The
particularly the corner of
elemental semiconductors (Si,
the unit cell.
Ge, and gray Sn) share the
o The particles present in
diamond cubic structure shown
the simple unit cell is 8.
X- Ray Diffraction
Face Centered unit cell (FCC)
 Diffraction is the result of
o contains atoms all the corners of radiation being scattered by a
the crystal lattice and at the regular array of scattering centers
center of all the faces of the cube who’s spacing is about the same
o -number of particles present in as the wavelength of the
the FCC is 14. radiation.
Body Centered Unit Cell: (BCC)

o A crystal structure that

 Auguste Bravais (1811–1863),
consists of a cube shaped unit French crystallographer, was
cell with atoms located at the productive in an unusually broad
corners and in the center of the range of areas, including botany,
cube. astronomy, and physics.
o -number of particles present in However, it is his derivation of the
the BCC is 9. 14 possible arrangements of
End Centered Unit Cell: points in space that is best
remembered. This achievement
o one constituent particles lie at the provided the foundation for our
corner of any two-opposite face current understanding of the
besides the particles lying at the atomic structure of crystals.
corners
o number of particles present is
10  Richard Buckminster Fuller
7 Crystal Systems (1895−1983), American architect
and inventor, was one of the
 Cubic most colorful and famous
 Tetragonal personalities of the 20th century.
 Orthorhombic His creative discussions of a wide
 Rhombohedral range of topics from the arts to
 Hexagonal the sciences (including frequent
 Monoclinic references to future trends)
 Triclinic helped to establish his fame. In
fact, his charismatic personality
POLYMERIC STRUCTRURE
became as celebrated as his
 unique inventions of various
architectural forms and
engineering designs
Key characteristics of noncrystalline
GROUP 3
materials:
Crystal Defects and Noncrystalline
Lack of Long-Range Order:
Structure Imperfection
o Unlike crystals, amorphous
 Crystal defects and noncrystalline materials do not exhibit a
structures are important concepts repeating pattern at long
distances.
in materials science and solid-
Short-Range Order:
state physics. They both refer to
o There may still be some degree
deviations from perfect,
of local order within a limited
regular atomic arrangements region, but this order does not
extend over large distances.
found in crystalline materials.
Isotropic Properties:
Crystal Defects
o Properties (such as density,
 In a perfect crystal, atoms are refractive index, etc.) are
generally the same in all
arranged in a highly ordered, directions.
repeating pattern called a No Well-Defined Melting Point:
lattice. However, in real-world o Amorphous materials soften over
scenarios, it's rare to find a a range of temperatures, in
contrast to crystalline materials
crystal that is completely defect-
that have a specific melting
free. Crystal defects are point.
irregularities or imperfections in Greater Sensitivity to Processing
Conditions:
this lattice structure. They can
occur for various reasons, such o The properties of amorphous
materials can be strongly
as during the crystal's formation, influenced by the way they are
due to external factors, or formed.
through thermal motion of atoms The Solid Solution—Chemical
Imperfection
Noncrystalline Structure
o A solid solution is a type of
o Noncrystalline or amorphous
homogeneous mixture or alloy
materials lack a regular,
where different elements or
repeating atomic structure. In
compounds are uniformly
these materials, the arrangement
distributed at the atomic or
of atoms is disordered. Instead of
molecular level within a solid
forming a well-defined lattice, the
matrix. In a solid solution, the
atoms in noncrystalline materials
atoms or ions of one element or
are more randomly packed.
compound are incorporated into
Glass is a common example of
the crystal lattice of another
an amorphous material.
element or compound, resulting
 in a single-phase material with a o In some cases, point defects can
uniform composition. introduce electrical charge
imbalances within the crystal
lattice. For instance, an excess
of cations can create a positive
charge defect, while an excess of
Substitutional Solid Solution:
anions can create a negative
o In this type, atoms of one
charge defect.
element are substituted for
atoms of another element in LINEAR DEFECTS, OR

the crystal lattice. The size and DISLOCATIONS- ONE DIMENSIONAL

charge of the substituting atoms IMPERFECTIONS

must be similar to those of the • Linear defects, which are one-

original atoms for this to occur. dimensional, are associated
Interstitial Solid Solution: primarily with mechanical
deformation. Linear defects are
o In this type, smaller atoms
also known as dislocations.
(usually non-metallic) occupy
the interstitial spaces (gaps) Types of Dislocations

between the larger atoms • Edge Dislocations

(usually metallic) in the crystal
• Screw Dislocations
lattice. This type of solid solution
is less common than the • Mixed Dislocations
substitutional type.
Edge Dislocations
Frenkel Defect
o Occurs when an extra half-plane
o A Frenkel defect involves the of atoms is introduced into the
crystal lattice, leading to a
displacement of an ion from its discontinuity or step at the
normal lattice site to an interstitial boundary between the extra half-
site. This typically occurs in ionic plane and the rest of the crystal
structure.
solids where the cation is much
smaller than the anion. Screw Dislocations

Schottky Defect o A topological defect of a crystal

lattice. If one moves around the
o A Schottky defect occurs in ionic
dislocation, the lattice plane shifts
solids when equal numbers of
by one layer (or more layers), like
cations and anions are missing
a spiral staircase. The Burgers
from the crystal lattice. This
vector of a screw dislocation is
creates vacancies in the lattice.
parallel to the dislocation line.
Charge Defects
Mixed Dislocations
 o In many materials, dislocations  Which separates 2 crystalline
are found where the line direction regions that are,
and Burgers vector are neither structurally, mirror images of
perpendicular nor parallel and each other.
these dislocations are called
 This mirror symmetry results in
mixed dislocations, consisting of
the formation of two regions
both screw and edge character.
within the crystal that are related
Burgers Vector, b by a specific type of symmetry
operation known as a twin
 Is a vector, often denoted as b,
operation. The line or plane
that represents the magnitude
where these two regions meet is
and direction of the lattice
the twin boundary.
distortion resulting from a
dislocation in a crystal lattice. Noncrystalline Solids—Three-
Burgers vector in an edge Dimensional Imperfection
dislocation (left) and in a screw
dislocation (right).
• Noncrystalline solids, also known
Planar Defects—Two-Dimensional as amorphous solids, have a
Imperfections disordered atomic or molecular
structure, unlike crystalline solids,
 Surface defects are the
boundaries, or planes, that which have a well-defined and
separate a material into regions, repeating arrangement of atoms
each region having the same
or molecules.
crystal structure but different
orientations. It is a discontinuity • Bernal model, which is produced
of the perfect crystal structure
across a plane by drawing lines between the
centers of adjacent atoms. The
Grain Boundaries
resulting polyhedra are
 A general planar defect that comparable to those illustrating
separates regions of different grain boundary structure in Fig.
crystalline orientation 4-20. In the totally
(i.e. grains) within a noncrystalline solid, the
polycrystalline solid. The atoms in polyhedra are again irregular in
the grain boundary will not be in shape but, of course, lack any
perfect crystalline arrangement. repetitive stacking arrangement.
Grain boundaries are usually the
GROUP 4
result of uneven growth when the
solid is crystallizing. Grain sizes Diffusion
vary from 1 µm to 1 mm. o is the process of particle (atoms,
molecules, or ions) movement
Twin Boundary from regions of high
concentration to regions of low
concentration. In material
 science, it refers to the • is a process in which elevated
movement of atoms within a temperatures provide sufficient
solid, liquid, or gas due to the energy for atoms or molecules
random thermal motion of to create point defects within a
particles. crystalline material?
Formation of Point Defects:
Importance of Diffusion: Vacancies:
o Diffusion is a fundamental o At elevated temperatures, some
phenomenon in material science lattice sites may become vacant
that governs various material as atoms move more freely.
properties and processes. These vacant sites are known
as vacancies.

Diffusion rate
Interstitials:
o is related to temperature,
pressure, state of matter, size o Interstitials are extra atoms that
of concentration gradient and insert themselves into interstitial
surface area of membrane positions in the crystal lattice.
Grain Boundary Diffusion

o In some materials, such as Substitutional Defects:

polycrystalline ones, diffusion
mainly occurs along grain o In some cases, atoms from the
boundaries. lattice may be replaced by
different atoms.
Surface Boundary Diffusion
o This substitutional defect
o Surface diffusion, on the other formation is facilitated by high
hand, is characterized by atoms temperatures.
or molecules moving
predominantly along the POINT DEFECTS
material's surface.
o Point defects are accounted
Thermally Activated Process for when the crystallization
process occurs at a very
o Thermally activated processes fast rate. These defects
involve the movement of atoms mainly happen due to
or molecules within a material, deviation in the arrangement
and this movement is influenced of constituting particles.
by temperature.
Factors Influencing Thermally
Activated Processes

Temperature

• Temperature is a critical factor

influencing thermally activated
processes.
Concentration Gradient VACANCY

o is another essential factor o When an atom is not present

affecting thermally activated at their lattice sites, then
processes? that lattice site is vacant and it
creates a vacancy defect.
Thermal Production of Point Defects
 o Vacancy defect puts the o is the process of moving
neighboring atoms under molecules or particles from an
tension. area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration.
Schottky Defect
Surface diffusion
o This kind of vacancy defects is
found in Ionic Solids. But in o is the diffusion of atoms or
ionic compounds, we need to molecules on the surface of a
balance the electrical neutrality of material. It is a significant factor
the compound so an equal in the formation of thin films and
number of anions and cations will nanostructures and is especially
be missing from the compound. important in the production of
semiconductor devices.
Interstitial Defect
Grain-boundary diffusion
o It is a defect in which an atom
or molecule occupies the o is the process of diffusion that
intermolecular spaces in occurs across the boundaries
crystals. between grains in a
polycrystalline material. It is a
Frenkel Defect
type of intergranular diffusion,
o In ionic solids generally, the which can result in grain growth,
smaller ion (cation) moves out grain boundary migration, and
of its place and occupies an other changes in the
intermolecular space. In this microstructure of the material.
case, a vacancy defect is created
on its original position and the
interstitial defect is experienced
at its new position.

Interdiffusion

o Interdiffusion is the process of

diffusional exchange of atoms
across two materials that are in
contact.
STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION

o Steady state diffusion takes place

at a constant rate - that is, once
the process starts the number of
atoms (or moles) crossing a
given interface (the flux) is
constant with time. This means
that throughout the system dc/dx
= constant and dc/dt = 0.
Alternate diffusion

o Alternate diffusion paths are

pathways that allow a chemical
or particle to move from one
place to another without
having to go through the same
route.
Volume diffusion