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3.7 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display? 82
3.8 What Are Common Igneous Rocks? 84
C H A P T E R 5:
P L AT E T E C TO N I C S 122
3.9 What Are Some Metamorphic Features? 86
3.10 What Are Metamorphic Processes and Rocks? 88
5.1 What Is Inside Earth? 124
3.11 CONNECTIONS: How Are Different Rock Types
Expressed in Landscapes? 90 5.2 What Are the Major Features of Earth? 126
3.12 INVESTIGATION: What Materials Compose 5.3 Why Do Some Continents Have Matching
These Landscapes? 92 Shapes? 128
5.4 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur? 130
5.5 What Causes Tectonic Activity to Occur in Belts? 132
5.6 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries? 134
5.7 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries? 136
5.8 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries? 138
5.9 How Does Seafloor Vary from Place to Place? 140
5.10 What Features Occur Along Mid-Ocean Ridges? 142
5.11 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts,
CHAPTER 4: and Oceanic Plateaus Form? 144
E A R T H H I S TO RY 94 5.12 What Are the Characteristics and History
of Continental Hot Spots? 146

4.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 96 5.13 How Do Plates Move and Interact? 148

4.2 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity? 98 5.14 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine
Rates of Seafloor Spreading? 150
4.3 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events? 100
5.15 CONNECTIONS: Why Is South America Lopsided? 152
4.4 What Are Fossils? 102
5.16 INVESTIGATION: Where Is the Safest Place to Live? 154
4.5 How and Why Did Living Things Change
Through Geologic Time? 104
4.6 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed? 106
4.7 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth? 108
4.8 How Did Earth Form and Change Over Time? 110
4.9 What Were Some Milestones in the Early History
of Life on Earth? 112
4.10 What Were Some Milestones in the Later History
of Life on Earth? 114
4.11 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 116
4.12 CONNECTIONS: What Is the History CHAPTER 6:
of the Grand Canyon? 118 V O LC A N I S M A N D OT H E R
4.13 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic History
IGNEOUS PROCESSES 156
of This Place? 120
6.1 How Does Magma Form? 158
6.2 How Does Magma Move? 160
6.3 What Is and Is Not a Volcano? 162
6.4 What Controls the Style of Eruption? 164
6.5 What Hazards Are Associated with Volcanoes? 166
6.6 What Volcanic Features Consist of Basalt? 168
VII
 6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes 7.12 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes? 212
and Volcanic Domes? 170 7.13 What Were Some Major North American
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused by Composite Earthquakes? 214
Volcanoes and Volcanic Domes? 172 7.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Potential for
6.9 What Are Calderas? 174 Earthquakes Along the San Andreas Fault? 216
6.10 What Types of Volcanism and Other Igneous 7.15 INVESTIGATION: Where Did This Earthquake
Processes Occur Along Plate Boundaries? 176 Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected? 218
6.11 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form
and How Are They Expressed in Landscapes? 178
6.12 How Are Small Intrusions Formed
and Expressed in Landscapes? 180
6.13 What Areas Have the Highest Potential
for Volcanic Hazards? 182
6.14 CONNECTIONS: What Volcanic Hazards
Are Posed by Mount Rainier? 184
6.15 INVESTIGATION: How Would You Assess
Hazards on This Volcano? 186 C H A P T E R 8:
M O U N TA I N S , B A S I N S , A N D
CO N T I N E N TA L M A R G I N S 220

8.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation? 222

8.2 Where Do Mountain Belts and High Regions
Form? 224
8.3 How Do Local Mountains Form? 226
8.4 Where Do Basins Form? 228
C H A P T E R 7: 8.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form
at Convergent Continental Margins? 230
D E F O R M AT I O N A N D
E A R T H Q UA K E S 188 8.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur? 232
8.7 What Features Characterize the Interiors
and Margins of Continents? 234
7.1 What Is Deformation and How Is It Expressed
in Landscapes? 190 8.8 How Do Marine Salt Deposits Form? 236

7.2 How Are Fractures Expressed in Landscapes? 192 8.9 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form? 238

7.3 How Are Folds Expressed in Landscapes? 194 8.10 How Do Continents Form and Grow? 240

7.4 What Is an Earthquake? 196 8.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart? 242

7.5 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes? 198 8.12 CONNECTIONS: How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? 244

7.6 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 200 8.13 INVESTIGATION: Where Will Mountains and
Basins Form in This Region? 246
7.7 How Do We Determine the Location
and Size of an Earthquake? 202
7.8 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 204
7.9 What Causes Earthquakes Along Plate
Boundaries and Within Plates? 206
7.10 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 208
7.11 How Does a Tsunami Form and Cause
Destruction? 210
VIII
 10.6 What Types of Soils Are Most Influenced
C H A P T E R 9: by Their Climate? 290
SCULPTING LANDSCAPES 248 10.7 What Other Factors Control the Formation
and Distribution of Soils? 292
9.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes? 250 10.8 What Are the Causes and Impacts of Soil Erosion? 294
9.2 How Does Physical Weathering Affect 10.9 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 296
Earth’s Surface? 252 10.10 How Do Slopes Fail? 298
9.3 How Does Chemical Weathering Affect 10.11 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 300
Earth’s Surface? 254
10.12 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 302
9.4 How Does the Type of Earth Material Influence
10.13 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 304
Weathering? 256
10.14 CONNECTIONS: How Do We Assess the Risk
9.5 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation, and Time
for Problem Soils and Future Slope Failures? 306
Influence Weathering? 258
10.15 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have the
9.6 How Is Weathering Expressed? 260
Highest Risk of Slope Failure or Problem Soils? 308
9.7 How Are Landscapes Eroded? 262
9.8 How Do Landscapes Record Transport and
Deposition by Gravity, Streams, Ice, and Waves? 264
9.9 How Do Landscapes Record Transport
and Deposition by Wind? 266
9.10 How Do Arches and Natural Bridges Form? 268
9.11 How Do Caves Form? 270
9.12 What Is Karst Topography? 272
9.13 CONNECTIONS: What Formed Diverse
Landscapes of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado? 274
9.14 INVESTIGATION: How Did These Landscapes
Form? 276

C H A P T E R 11:
G L AC I E R S , S H O R E L I N E S , A N D
CHANGING SEA LEVELS 310

11.1 What Are Glaciers? 312

11.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish? 314
11.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and Deposit? 316
C H A P T E R 1 0: 11.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation? 318
S O I L A N D U N S TA B L E S LO P E S 278 11.5 What Are the Landforms of Continental
Glaciation? 320
10.1 What Is Soil? 280 11.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers? 322
10.2 How Important Are Water and Organics in Soil? 282 11.7 What Happened During Past Ice Ages? 324
10.3 How Does Soil Form? 284 11.8 What Starts and Stops Glacial Episodes? 326
10.4 How Do Terrain, Parent Material, Vegetation, 11.9 What Processes Occur Along Shorelines? 328
and Time Affect Soil Formation? 286 11.10 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides? 330
10.5 What Are the Major Types of Soil? 288 11.11 How Do Waves Form and Propagate? 332
IX
 11.12 How Is Material Eroded, Transported, 12.14 What Problems Are Associated
and Deposited Along Shorelines? 334 with Groundwater Pumping? 376
11.13 What Landforms Occur Along Shorelines? 336 12.15 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 378
11.14 What Are Some Challenges of Living 12.16 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move
Along Shorelines? 338 and How Do We Clean It Up? 380
11.15 What Happens When Sea Level Changes? 340 12.17 CONNECTIONS: What Is Going On
11.16 What Causes Changes in Sea Level? 342 with the Ogallala Aquifer? 382
11.17 CONNECTIONS: What Coastal Damage Was 12.18 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface Water
Caused by These Recent Atlantic Hurricanes? 344 and Groundwater in This Place? 384
11.18 INVESTIGATION: What Is Happening Along
the Coast of This Island? 346

C H A P T E R 13:
C H A P T E R 12: E N E R G Y A N D M AT T E R I N T H E
STREAMS, LAKES, AND AT M O S P H E R E 386
G R O U N D WAT E R 348
13.1 What Is the Atmosphere? 388
12.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 350 13.2 What Is Energy and How Is It Transmitted? 390
12.2 How Do We Use Freshwater? 352 13.3 What Are Heat and Temperature? 392
12.3 What Are Stream Systems? 354 13.4 What Is Latent Heat? 394
12.4 How Do Streams Transport Sediment 13.5 What Is Electromagnetic Radiation? 396
and Erode Their Channels? 356 13.6 What Causes Changes in Insolation? 398
12.5 How Do River Systems Change Downstream 13.7 Why Do We Have Seasons? 400
or Over Short Time Frames? 358
13.8 What Controls When and Where
12.6 Why Do Streams Have Curves? 360 Sunrise and Sunset Occur? 402
12.7 What Features Characterize Steep Streams? 362 13.9 How Does Insolation Interact
12.8 What Features Characterize Low-Gradient with the Atmosphere? 404
Streams and Deltas? 364 13.10 What Is Ozone and Why Is It So Important? 406
12.9 What Features Are Associated with Streams? 366 13.11 How Much Insolation Reaches the Surface? 408
12.10 What Is and What Is Not a Flood? 368 13.12 How Does Earth Maintain an Energy Balance? 410
12.11 Where Is Groundwater Found? 370 13.13 How Do Insolation and Outgoing
12.12 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 372 Radiation Vary Spatially? 412
12.13 What Is the Relationship Between Surface 13.14 Why Do Temperatures Vary Between Oceans
Water and Groundwater? 374 and Continents? 414
X
13.15 CONNECTIONS: How Are Variations in Insolation
Expressed Between the North and South Poles? 416 C H A P T E R 15:
13.16 INVESTIGATION: How Do We Evaluate Sites
AT M O S P H E R I C M O I S T U R E 444
for Solar-Energy Generation? 418
15.1 How Does Water Occur in the Atmosphere? 446
15.2 What Is Humidity? 448
15.3 How Do Specific Humidity and Dew Point Vary
from Place to Place and Seasonally? 450
15.4 What Happens When Air Rises or Sinks? 452
15.5 How Does the Surface Affect the Rising of Air? 454
15.6 What Mechanisms Can Force Air to Rise? 456
15.7 What Do Clouds Tell Us About Weather? 458
15.8 What Conditions Produce Fog? 460
15.9 How Does Precipitation Form? 462
15.10 How Do Sleet and Freezing Rain Form? 464
15.11 What Is the Distribution of Precipitation? 466
15.12 CONNECTIONS: What Caused the Recent
C H A P T E R 14: Great Plains Drought? 468
AT M O S P H E R I C M OT I O N 420
15.13 INVESTIGATION: How Do Global Patterns
of Humidity, Water Vapor, and Precipitation
14.1 How Do Gases Respond to Changes Compare? 470
in Temperature and Pressure? 422
14.2 What Causes Winds? 424
14.3 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 426
14.4 What Are Some Significant Regional Winds? 428
14.5 How Do Variations in Insolation Cause Global
Patterns of Air Pressure and Circulation? 430
14.6 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics? 432
14.7 How Does Air Circulate in High Latitudes? 434 C H A P T E R 16:
14.8 How Does Surface Air Circulate W E AT H E R A N D S TO R M S 472
in Mid-Latitudes? 436
14.9 How Does Air Circulate Aloft 16.1 Why Does Weather Change? 474
Over the Mid-Latitudes? 438
16.2 What Are Fronts? 476
14.10 CONNECTIONS: What Causes Monsoons? 440
16.3 Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Form
14.11 INVESTIGATION: What Occurs During and Cross North America? 478
Seasonal Circulation Shifts? 442
16.4 What Conditions Produce Thunderstorms? 480
16.5 Where Are Thunderstorms Most Common? 482
16.6 What Causes Hail? 484
16.7 What Causes Lightning and Thunder? 486
16.8 What Is a Tornado? 488
16.9 Where and When Do Tornadoes Strike? 490
16.10 What Are Some Other Types of Windstorms? 492
16.11 What Is a Tropical Cyclone? 494
XI
 16.12 What Affects the Strength of a Tropical Cyclone? 496
C H A P T E R 18:
16.13 CONNECTIONS: What Happened
During Hurricane Sandy? 498
C L I M AT E S A R O U N D T H E W O R L D 528
16.14 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Expect
Severe Weather? 500 18.1 How Do We Classify Climates? 530
18.2 What Are the Most Common Climate Types? 532
18.3 What Is the Setting of Tropical Climates? 534
18.4 What Conditions Cause Arid Climates? 536
18.5 What Causes Warm Temperate Climates? 538
18.6 What Are the Settings
of Mid-Latitude Climates? 540
18.7 What Causes Subarctic and Polar Climates? 542
18.8 What Is the Role of Carbon in the Climate? 544
C H A P T E R 17: 18.9 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 546
O C E A N S A N D T H E I R I N T E R AC T I O N S 18.10 What Factors Influence Climate Change? 548
W I T H OT H E R E A R T H S YS T E M S 502 18.11 What Are the Consequences
of Climate Change? 550
17.1 What Causes Ocean Currents? 504 18.12 How Do We Use Computers
17.2 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents? 506 to Study Climate Change? 552
17.3 How Do Sea-Surface Temperatures Vary 18.13 CONNECTIONS: What Are Non-Fossil Fuel
from Place to Place and Season to Season? 508 Sources of Energy? 554
17.4 What Causes Water to Rise or Sink? 510 18.14 INVESTIGATION: What Climates and Weather
17.5 What Are the Global Patterns Would Occur Here? 556
of Temperature and Salinity? 512
17.6 What Processes Affect Ocean Temperature
and Salinity in Tropical and Polar Regions? 514
17.7 How Are Oceans Coupled with the Atmosphere
and Cryosphere? 516
17.8 What Connects Equatorial Atmospheric
and Oceanic Circulation? 518
17.9 What Are the Phases of ENSO? 520
17.10 What Are the Effects of ENSO? 522
17.11 CONNECTIONS: What Types of Life Reside
in the Oceans? 524
17.12 INVESTIGATION: What Oceanic and Atmospheric
Patterns Are Predicted for a Newly Discovered
Planet? 526

XII
C H A P T E R 19: C H A P T E R 2 0:
O U R S O L A R S YS T E M 558 OUR UNIVERSE 57 8

19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons? 560 20.1 How Do We Observe the Universe? 580
19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different? 562 20.2 What Is Our Framework for Observing
19.3 What Can We Observe on the Inner Planets? 564 the Universe? 582
19.4 What Is On the Surface of Our Moon? 566 20.3 How Does Temperature Influence the Type
of Light an Object Emits? 584
19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons? 568
20.4 How Do We Use Spectra to Study the Universe? 586
19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons? 570
20.5 What Controls the Motions of Objects? 588
19.7 What Do We Observe on the Outer Planets
and Their Moons? 572 20.6 How Do We Measure Distance, Motion,
and Mass of Astronomical Objects? 590
19.8 CONNECTIONS: What Have We Learned
About Mars? 574 20.7 What Processes and Features
Characterize Stars? 592
19.9 INVESTIGATION: How and When Did Features
on This Alien World Form? 576 20.8 How Do Low-Mass Stars Change Over Time? 594
20.9 How Do High-Mass Stars Change Over Time? 596
20.10 What Objects Represent Remnants of Stars? 598
20.11 What Are Galaxies, Including the Milky Way? 600
20.12 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Universe Form,
and How Is It Changing Through Time? 602
20.13 INVESTIGATION: What Are These Astronomical
Objects, and How Did They Form? 604

Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
Shaded-Relief Map of the United States Inside Back Cover

XIII
 PREFACE

TELLING THE STORY . . .

WE WROTE EXPLORING EARTH SCIENCE so that students could distinguishing what is important from what is not, (2) instructors
learn from the book on their own, freeing up instructors to teach needed to lecture so that students would know what is important,
the class in any way they want. I (Steve Reynolds) first identified and (3) many students have difficulty learning independently from
the need for this type of book while I was a National Association the textbook.
of Geoscience Teachers’ (NAGT) distinguished speaker. As part of
my NAGT activities, I traveled around the country conducting work- In most cases, textbooks drive the curriculum, so my coauthor
shops on how to infuse active learning and scientific inquiry into (Julia Johnson) and I decided that we should write a textbook that
introductory college science courses, including those with upwards (1) contains only important material, (2) indicates clearly to the
of 200 students. In the first part of the workshop, I asked the faculty student what is important and what they need to know, and (3) is
participants to list the main goals of an introductory science course, designed and written in such a way that students can learn from
especially for nonmajors. At every school I visited, the main goals the book on their own. This type of book would give instructors
were similar to those listed below: freedom to teach in a way that is more consistent with their goals,
including using local examples to illustrate concepts and their rel-
• to engage students in the process of scientific inquiry so that evance. Instructors would also be able to spend more class time
they learn what science is and how it is conducted, teaching students to observe and interpret landscapes, tectonics,
• to teach students how to observe and interpret landscapes and atmospheric or astronomic phenomena, and to participate in
and other aspects of their physical environment, the process of scientific inquiry, which represents the top goal for
many instructors.
• to enable students to learn and apply important concepts of
science,
• to help students understand the relevance of science to their COGNITIVE AND SCIENCE
lives, and
EDUCATION RESEARCH
• to enable students to use their new knowledge, skills, and
To design a book that supports instructor goals, we delved into cogni-
ways of thinking to become more informed citizens.
tive and science-education research, especially research on how our
I then asked faculty members to rank these goals and estimate how brains process different types of information, what obstacles limit
much time they spent on each goal in class. At this point, many student learning from textbooks, and how students use visuals versus
instructors recognized that their activities in class were not consis- text while studying. We also conducted our own research on how stu-
tent with their own goals. Most instructors were spending nearly all dents interact with textbooks, what students see when they observe
of class time teaching content. Although this was one of their main photographs showing landscape features, and how they interpret dif-
goals, it commonly was not their top goal. ferent types of scientific illustrations, including maps, cross sections,
and block diagrams that illustrate evolution of environments. Explor-
Next, I asked instructors to think about why their activities were ing Earth Science is the result of our literature search and of our own
not consistent with their goals. Inevitably, the answer was that most science-education and cognitive research. As you examine Exploring
instructors spend nearly all of class time covering content because Earth Science, you will notice that it is stylistically different from most
(1) textbooks include so much material that students have difficulty other textbooks, which will likely elicit a few questions.

How Does Wind Transport Sediment?

Wind is generated by differences in air pressure and at times is strong enough to transport material, but only relatively
small and lightweight fragments, like sand and clay. Transport of these materials by the wind is most efficient in dry
climates, where there is limited vegetation to bind materials together and hold them on the ground.

Wind is capable of transporting sand and finer sediment, as well as lightweight plant fragments and other materials lying on the surface. It
generally moves material in one of three ways and can deposit sediment in various settings, some of which are shown in the photographs below.

Wind can pick up and

Most materials on Earth’s carry finer material, such
surface are not moved as dust, silt, and salt. This
by the wind because mode of transport is
they are too firmly at- called suspension, and
tached to the land (such wind can keep some
as rock outcrops), are too particles in the air for
large or heavy to be weeks, transporting them
moved, or are both. 09.09.a1 long distances.

If wind velocity is great enough, it can roll or slide grains of Very strong winds can lift sand grains, carry them short distances, and drop them.
sand and silt and other loose materials across the ground. This process is akin to bouncing a grain along the surface and is called saltation.

XIV
 HOW DOES THIS BOOK SUPPORT STUDENT CURIOSITY AND INQUIRY?

CHAPTER
279

10
Soil and Unstable Slopes

Soil and Unstable Slopes TOPIC S IN T H IS CH APTE R

WEATHERING PRODUCES SOIL, one of our most precious resources. Different types of soils form in different 10.1 What Is Soil? 280 10.9 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 296
topographic settings, especially as a function of climate, starting material, and how long soil formation has been 10.2 How Important Are Water and Organics in Soil? 282 10.10 How Do Slopes Fail? 298
occurring. Soils and other materials can become unstable on slopes, and such slope instability is called mass 10.3 How Does Soil Form? 284 10.11 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 300
wasting — the movement of material downslope in response to gravity. Mass wasting can be slow and barely per- 10.4 How Do Terrain, Parent Material, Vegetation, 10.12 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 302
ceptible, or it can be catastrophic, involving thick slurries of mud and debris. What factors determine if a slope and Time Affect Soil Formation? 286 10.13 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 304
is stable, and how do slopes fail? In this chapter, we explore the formation of soils, the process of mass wasting, 10.5 What Are the Major Types of Soil? 288 10.14 Connections: How Do We Assess the Risk
and the importance of both phenomena to our lives. 10.6 What Types of Soils Are Most Influenced for Problem Soils and Future Slope Failures? 306
by Their Climate? 290 10.15 Investigation: Which Areas Have the Highest
The Cordillera de la Costa is a steep 2 km-high mountain In December 1999, torrential rains in the mountains caused landslides and 10.7 What Other Factors Control the Formation Risk of Slope Failure or Problem Soils? 308
range that runs along the coast of Venezuela, separating mobilized soil and other loose material as debris flows and flash floods that and Distribution of Soils? 292
the capital city of Caracas from the sea. This image, looking buried parts of the coastal cities. Some light-colored landslide scars are 10.8 What Are the Causes and Impacts
south, has topography overlain with a satellite image taken visible on the hillsides in this image.
of Soil Erosion? 294
in 2000. The white areas are clouds and the purple areas
are cities. The Caribbean Sea is in the foreground. The How does soil and other loose material form on hillslopes? What factors
determine whether a slope is stable or is prone to landslides and other types
1999 Venezuelan Disaster
(▼) photograph below shows the type of soils that are
of downhill movement? Huge boulders smashed through the lower two floors of this

A
typical of the region. On steep slopes, such debris flow is a slurry of water and debris,
soils are prone to fail, especially during building in Caraballeda and ripped away part of the right side (▼). including mud, sand, gravel, pebbles, boul-
heavy tropical rainstorms. 10.00.a1
The mud and water that transported these boulders are no ders, vegetation, and even cars and small
longer present, but the boulders remain as a testament to the
structures. Debris flows can move at speeds up to
strength of the event.
80 km/hr (50 mph), but most are slower. In Decem-
10.00.a2

ber 1999, two storms dumped as much as 1.1 m (42

in.) of rain on the coastal mountains of Venezuela.
The rain loosened soil on the steep hillsides, caus-
Caracas
ing many landslides and debris flows that coalesced
Caracas in the steep canyons and raced downhill toward the
cities built on the alluvial fans.
In Caraballeda, the debris flows carried boulders
Cordillera de la Costa Landslide up to 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and weighing 300 to
Scars 400 tons each. The debris flows and flash floods
Landslide raced across the city, flattening cars and smashing
Scars houses, buildings, and bridges. They left behind a
jumble of boulders and other debris along the path
of destruction through the city.
After the event, USGS geoscientists went into
the area to investigate what had happened and why.
They documented the types of material that were
carried by the debris flows, mapped the extent of
Caracas Airport 10.00.a3 Caraballeda, Venezuela the flows, and measured boulders (▼) to investigate
processes that occurred during the event. When the
scientists examined what lay beneath the founda-
tions of destroyed houses, they discovered that
Caraballeda much of the city had been built on older debris
Alluvial Fan Caribbean Sea Caribbean Sea flows. These deposits should have provided a warn-
ing of what was to come.
10.00.a5 Caraballeda, Venezuela

The mountain slopes are too steep for buildings, so people built The city of Caraballeda, built on one such alluvial fan, was especially hard ◀ This aerial photograph of
the coastal cities on the less steep fan-shaped areas at the foot hit in 1999 by debris flows and flash floods that tore a swath of destruction Caraballeda, looking south up
of each valley. These flatter areas are alluvial fans composed of through the town. Landslides, debris flows, and flooding killed more than the canyon, shows the damage
mountain-derived sediment that has been transported down 19,000 people and caused up to $30 billion in damage in the region. The in the center of the city caused
the canyons and deposited along the mountain front. damage is visible as the light-colored strip through the center of town. by the debris flows and flash
floods. Many houses were
What are some potential hazards of living next to steep mountain How can loss of life and destruction of property by debris flows and landslides

10.0
completely demolished by the
slopes, especially in a city built on an active alluvial fan? be avoided or at least minimized? fast-moving, boulder-rich mud.

10.00.a4 Caraballeda, Venezuela

278

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Exploring Earth Science promotes inquiry and science as an active they already have a mental image of the thing being named (Lawson,
process. It encourages student curiosity and aims to activate exist- 2003). For example, this book presents students with maps show-
ing student knowledge by posing the title of every two-page spread ing the spatial distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain
and every subsection as a question. In addition, questions are dis- ranges and asks them to observe the patterns and think about what
persed throughout the book. Integrated into the book are oppor- might be causing the patterns. Only then does the textbook intro-
tunities for students to observe patterns, features, and examples duce the concept of tectonic plates.
before the underlying concepts are explained. That is, we employ
a learning-cycle approach where student exploration precedes the Also, the figure-based approach in this book allows terms to be intro-
introduction of new terms and the application of knowledge to a duced in their context rather than as a definition that is detached
new situation. For example, chapter 10 on slope stability begins with from a visual representation of the term. We introduce new terms
a three-dimensional image of northern Venezuela, pictured above, in italics rather than in boldface, because boldfaced terms on a
and asks readers to observe where people are living in this area and textbook page cause students to immediately focus mostly on the
what natural processes might have formed these sites. terms, rather than build an understanding of the concepts. The ital-
ics, however, let a student know when they have encountered an
Wherever possible, we introduce terms after students have an important term during their reading. The book includes a glossary
opportunity to observe the feature or concept that is being named. for those students who wish to look up the definition of a term to
This approach is consistent with several educational philosophies, refresh their memory. To expand comprehension of the definition,
including a learning cycle and just-in-time teaching. Research on each entry in the glossary references the pages where the term is
learning cycles shows that students are more likely to retain a term if defined in the context of a figure.

XV
 WHY ARE THE PAGES DOMINATED BY ILLUSTRATIONS?

Earth science is a visual science. Earth science textbooks contain a that specifically points to the location of this feature. A cross section
variety of photographs, maps, cross sections, block diagrams, and of atmospheric circulation, such as those related to El Niño condi-
other types of illustrations. These diagrams help portray the spatial tions, can be accompanied by short text blocks that describe each
distribution and geometry of features in the landscape, atmosphere, part of the system and that are linked by leaders directly to specific
oceans, and universe in ways words cannot. In earth sciences, a pic- locations on the figure. This allows the reader to concentrate on the
ture really is worth a thousand words. concepts being presented, not deciding what part of the figure is
being discussed.
Exploring Earth Science contains a wealth of figures to take advan-
tage of the visual nature of earth science and the efficiency of fig- The approach in Exploring Earth Science is consistent with the find-
ures in conveying earth science concepts. This book contains few ings of cognitive scientists, who conclude that our minds have two
large blocks of text — most text is in smaller blocks that are specifi- different processing systems, one for processing pictorial informa-
cally linked to illustrations. Examples of our integrated figure-text tion (images) and one for processing verbal information (speech
approach are shown throughout the book. In this approach, each and written words). This view of cognition is illustrated in the figure
short block of text is one or more complete sentences that succinctly below. Cognitive scientists also speak about two types of memory:
describe a feature, process, or both of these. Most of these text working memory, also called short-term memory, holds informa-
blocks are connected to their illustrations with leader lines so that tion that our minds are actively processing, and long-term memory
readers know exactly which feature or part of the diagram is being stores information until we need it (Baddeley, 2007). Both the verbal
referenced in the text block. A reader does not have to search for the and pictorial processing systems have a limited amount of working
part of the figure that corresponds to a text passage, as occurs when memory, and our minds have to use much of our mental processing
a student reads a traditional textbook with large blocks of text refer- space to reconcile the two types of information in working memory.
encing a figure that may appear on a different page. The short blocks For information that has both pictorial and verbal components, as
are numbered if they should be read in a specific order. most earth science information does, the amount of knowledge we
retain depends on reconciling these two types of information, on
This approach is especially well suited to covering earth science top- transferring information from working memory to long-term mem-
ics because it allows the text to have a precise linkage to the features ory, and on linking the new information with our existing mental
and geographic location of the aspect being described. A text block framework. For this reason, this book integrates text and figures, as
discussing the Intertropical Convergence Zone can have a leader in the example shown here.

New experiences from the environment enter the Input from the senses is filtered and transferred into two
brain via the senses. Images, for example, come in different types of working memory, a visual area for im-
through the eyes, and sounds enter the ears. ages and a phonetic area for words. Each type
of working memory has a very limited
capacity to hold new information.

Information from working memory is

processed further and transferred into
long-term memory. Ideally, new infor-
mation is linked to existing knowledge
in long-term memory to build a more
complete understanding.

When information from long-term

memory is needed, it is retrieved into
working memory, where it can be
processed to make decisions.

XVI
 WHY ARE THERE SO MANY FIGURES?

This textbook contains more than 2,500 figures, which is two to three of text that is detached from the figure. We avoid the redundancy
times the number in most earth science textbooks. One reason for effect by including only text that is integrated with the figure.
this is that the book is designed to provide a concrete example of each
process, environment, or feature being illustrated. Research shows The style of illustrations in Exploring Earth Science was designed to
that many college students require concrete examples before they can be more inviting to today’s visually oriented students who are used
begin to build abstract concepts (Lawson, 1980). Also, many students to photo-realistic, computer-rendered images in movies, videos, and
have limited travel experience, so photographs and other figures computer games. For this reason, many of the figures were created
allow them to observe places, environments, and processes they have by world-class scientific illustrators and artists who have worked on
not been able to observe firsthand. The numerous photographs, from award-winning textbooks, on Hollywood movies, on television shows,
geographically diverse places, help bring the sense of place into the for National Geographic, and in the computer-graphics and gaming
student’s reading. The inclusion of an illustration for each text block industry. In most cases, the figures incorporate real data, such as satel-
reinforces the notion that the point being discussed is important. In lite images, aerial photographs, weather and climatological data, and
many cases, as in the example below, conceptualized figures are inte- locations of earthquakes and volcanoes. Our own research shows that
grated with photographs and text so that students can build a more many students do not understand cross sections and other subsur-
coherent view of the environment or process. face diagrams, so nearly every cross section in this book has a three-
dimensional aspect, and many maps are presented in a perspective
Exploring Earth Science focuses on the most important earth science view that incorporates topography. Research findings by us and other
concepts and makes a deliberate attempt to eliminate text that is not researchers (Roth and Bowen, 1999) indicate that including people
essential for student learning of these concepts. Inclusion of informa- and human-related items in photographs and figures attracts undue
tion that is not essential tends to distract and confuse students rather attention, thereby distracting students from the features being illus-
than illuminate the concept; thus, you will see fewer words. Cognitive trated. As a result, our photographs have nondistracting indicators
and science-education research has identified a redundancy effect, of scale, like dull coins and plain marking pens. Figures and pho-
where information that restates and expands upon a more succinct tographs do not include people or human-related items unless we
description actually results in a decrease in student learning (Mayer, are trying to (1) illustrate how geoscientists study earth science pro-
2001). Specifically, students learn less if a long figure caption restates cesses and features or (2) reinforce the relevance of the processes
information contained elsewhere on the page, such as in a long block on humans.

270 Sculpting Landscapes 271

9.11 How Do Caves Form? What Features Are Associated with Caves?
Caves are beautiful and interesting places to explore. Some contain twisty, narrow passages connecting open
WATER IS AN ACTIVE CHEMICAL AGENT and can dissolve rock and other materials. Weathering near the chambers. Others are immense tunnels full of cave formations. Caves can be decorated with intricate features formed
surface and groundwater at depth can work together to completely dissolve limestone and other soluble rocks, by dissolution and precipitation of calcite and several other minerals.
leaving openings in places where the rocks have been removed. Such dissolution of limestone forms most caves,
1. Most caves form by dissolution of limestone. Certain features on the land surface can indicate 6. Dissolution of limestone along
but caves form in many other ways. Once a cave is formed, dripping and flowing water can deposit a variety of that there is a cave at depth. These include the presence of limestone, sinkholes, and other features fractures and bedding planes,
beautiful and fascinating cave formations. of karst topography. Collapse of part of the roof can open the cave to the surface, forming a along with formation of sinkholes
skylight that lets light into the cave. and skylights, disrupts
streams and other
How Do Limestone Caves Form? 2. Caves contain many features
drainages. Streams
formed by minerals precipitated
may disappear into
Water near the surface or at depth as groundwater can dissolve limestone and other carbonate rocks, to form large from dripping or flowing water.
the ground, adding
caves, especially if the water is acidic. Cave systems generally form in limestone rocks because most other rock types Water flowing down the walls
more water to the
do not easily dissolve. A few other rocks, such as gypsum or rock salt, dissolve too easily — they completely disappear or along the floor can precipi-
cave system.
tate travertine (a banded form
and cannot maintain caves. The figure below illustrates how limestone caves form. of calcium carbonate) in thin
layers that build up to create
1. Limestone is primarily made of calcite 2. Groundwater dissolves limestone and other formations called flowstone or 5. In humid
(calcium carbonate), a relatively soluble carbonate rocks, often starting along fractures and draperies (▼). environments,
mineral that dissolves in acidic water. boundaries between layers, and then progressively weathering at the
09.11.c2 Carlsbad Caverns, NM
Rainwater is typically slightly acidic due widening them over time. Open spaces become surface commonly
to dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur larger and more continuous, allowing more water to produces reddish,
dioxide (SO2), and organic material. Water flow through and accelerating the dissolution and clay-rich soil. The
reacts with calcite in limestone, dissolving widening. If the openings become continuous, they soil, along with
it. This dissolution can be aided by acidic may accommodate underground pools or under- pieces of lime-
water coming from deeper in the Earth, ground streams. stone, can be
by microbes, and by acids that washed into
microbes produce. crevices and
4. If the roof of the cave collapses, the cave can be
exposed to the air. This can further dry out the sinkholes, where it
cave. Such a roof collapse commonly forms a forms a reddish
3. Most caves form below the pit-like depression, called a sinkhole, on the surface. matrix around
09.11.c3 Kartchner Caverns, AZ limestone
water table, but some form from
downward-flowing water above the 5. Limestone caves (▼) range in size from miniscule fragments.
water table. In either case, dissolu- to huge. The Mammoth Cave system of Kentucky is
tion over millions of years can form a the longest cave
network of interconnected caves and in the world, 3. Probably the most recognized 09.11.c1
tunnels in the limestone. If the water with an explored features of caves are stalactites and
table falls, groundwater drains out of length of over stalagmites, which are formed 4. As mineral-rich water drips from the
the tunnels and dries out part of the 640 km (400 mi), when calcium-rich water dripping roof and flows from the walls, it leaves
cave system. 09.11.a1 with some parts from the roof evaporates and behind coatings, ribbons (▶), and straw-
still unexplored. leaves calcium carbonate like tubes. The water can accumulate
behind. Stalactites hang tight in underground pools on the floor of
from the roof. Stalagmites form the cave, precipitating rims of cream-
when water drips to the floor, colored travertine along their edges.
09.11.a2 Lehman Caves, NV building mounds upward.
What Are Some Other Types of Caves? 09.11.c4 Kartchner Caverns, AZ

09.11.b1 Hawaii Volcanoes NP, HI 09.11.b2 Hueco Tanks, TX

Most but not all caves Almost any rock type can
developed in limestone. host a cave, as long as it Carlsbad Caverns
Caves in volcanic regions is strong enough to

A
are commonly lava tubes, support a roof over the bout 260 million years ago, Carlsbad, eventually exposed it at the surface. Ground-
which were originally open space. Granite, not New Mexico, was an area covered by water dripped and trickled into the partially Before You Leave This Page
subsurface channels of known as a soluble rock, a shallow inland sea. A huge reef, dry cave, where it deposited calcium carbonate Be Able To
flowing lava within a can form caves, especially lush with sea life, thrived in this warm-water to make the cave’s famous formations.
partially solidified lava flow. where physical and tropical environment. Eventually, the sea Summarize the character and
When the lava drained out chemical weathering have retreated, leaving the reef buried under other formation of caves and sinkholes.
of the tube, it left behind enlarged areas along rock layers.
a long and locally branch- fractures (◀). Many Briefly summarize how stalactites,
While buried, the limestone was dissolved
ing cave. Such caves tend non-limestone caves are stalagmites, and flowstone form.
by water rich in sulfuric acid generated from
to have a curved, tube-like along a contact between
9.11

appearance with walls a stronger rock above, hydrogen sulfide that leaked upward from Describe features on the surface that
that have been smoothed which holds up the roof, deeper accumulations of petroleum. Later, ero- might indicate an area may contain
and grooved (▶) by the and a weaker rock below, sion of overlying layers uplifted the once-buried caves at depth.
flowing lava. to form the opening. and groundwater-filled limestone cave and
09.11.t1 Carlsbad Caverns, NM

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XVII
 WHY DOES THE BOOK CONSIST OF TWOPAGE SPREADS?

This book consists of two-page spreads, most of which are further Each spread has a unique number, such as 17.9 for the ninth topical
subdivided into sections. Research has shown that because of our two-page spread in chapter 17. These numbers help instructors and
limited amount of working memory, much new information is lost if students keep track of where they are and what is being covered.
it is not incorporated into long-term memory. Many students keep Each two-page spread, except for those that begin and end a chapter,
reading and highlighting their way through a textbook without stop- contains a Before You Leave This Page checklist that indicates what is
ping to integrate the new information into their mental framework. important and what is expected of students before they move on.
New information simply displaces existing information in working This list contains learning objectives for the spread and provides a
memory before it is learned and retained. This concept of cognitive clear way for the instructor to indicate to the student what is impor-
load (Sweller, 1994) has profound implications for student learning tant. The items on these lists are compiled into a master What-
during lectures and while reading textbooks. Two-page spreads and to-Know List provided to the instructor, who then deletes or adds
sections help prevent cognitive overload by providing natural breaks entries to suit the instructor’s learning goals and distributes the list
that allow students to stop and consolidate the new information to students before the students begin reading the book. In this way,
before moving on. the What-to-Know List guides the students’ studying.

520 Oceans and Their Interactions with Other Earth Systems 521

17.9 What Are the Phases of ENSO? Cold Phase of 1. In many ways, the cold phase of ENSO
2. During a cold phase of ENSO (La Niña), Walker cell circulation
strengthens over the equatorial Pacific. This increases winds aloft and
(La Niña) displays conditions opposite to causes near-surface easterly trade winds to strengthen, driving
THE ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN SYSTEM in the equatorial Pacific is constantly changing. Although each year has its ENSO (La Niña) an El Niño, hence the opposing name. warmer surface waters westward toward Australasia and Indonesia.
own unique characteristics, certain atmosphere-ocean patterns repeat, displaying a limited number of modes. We
3. Enhanced easterly trade winds bring
can use surface-water temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific to designate conditions as one of three phases more moisture to the equatorial parts of the
8. The region of equatorial
of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system — neutral (or “normal”), warm (El Niño), and cold (La Niña). rainfall associated with the Andes and to nearby areas of the Amazon
warm pool expands and basin. Orographic effects cause heavy
the amount of rainfall precipitation on the Amazon (east) side of
What Are Atmosphere-Ocean Conditions During the Three Phases of ENSO? increases dramatically. the mountain range.
El Niño and La Niña phases represent the end-members of ENSO, but sometimes the region does not display the 4. Partially depleted of moisture and driven
character of either phase. Instead, conditions are deemed to be neither and are therefore assigned to the neutral phase 7. In the western Pacific, by stronger trade winds, dry air descends
of ENSO. To understand the extremes (El Niño and La Niña), we begin with the neutral situation. strong easterlies push warm westward off the Andes and onto the coast.
waters to the west where The flow of dry air, combined with the
they accumulate against the descending limb of the Walker cell, produces
Neutral Phase 1. Warm, unstable, rising air over 2. Walker cell circulation in the 3. Cool, descending air over the eastern continent, forming a warmer
the western equatorial Pacific clear skies and dry conditions along the coast.
of ENSO
equatorial troposphere brings equatorial Pacific produces dominantly high and more expansive warm Thermocline
warm pool produces low atmo- cool, dry air eastward along atmospheric pressure at the surface and pool. In response, the 5. As surface waters push westward and the
spheric pressures near the surface. the tropopause. stable conditions in the atmosphere. thermocline of the western Humboldt Current turns west, deep waters
9. The warm, moist air equatorial Pacific is pushed 17.09.a3 rise (strong upwelling). The resulting cool
above the warm pool 4. Easterly trade winds flow over the Andes much deeper, further SST and descending dry, stable air conspire
rises under the influence mountain range and then continue to the increasing the slope of the 6. The upwelling near South America raises the thermo- to produce excessive drought in coastal
of low pressures, produc- west across the ocean, pushing west against thermocline to the west. cline and causes it to slope steeper to the west. regions of Peru.
ing intense tropical the surface waters along the coast of South
rainfalls that maintain the America. The easterlies continue propelling
less saline, less dense the warm water westward toward Australia How Are ENSO Phases Expressed in Sea-Surface Temperatures?
freshwater on the surface and southeast Asia, allowing the waters to
of the warm pool. warm even more as they are heated by As the Pacific region shifts between the warm (El Niño), cold (La Niña), and neutral phases, sea-surface temperatures
insolation along the equator. (SST), atmospheric pressures, and winds interact all over the equatorial Pacific. These variations are recorded by numerous
8. Warm waters blown to
the west not only depress 5. Westward displacement of surface waters, types of historical data, especially in SST. The globes below show SST for the western Pacific (near Asia) and eastern
the thermocline to about and offshore winds, induces upwelling of Pacific (near the Americas) for each phase of ENSO — neutral, warm, and cold. The colors represent whether SST are
150 m below the surface, Thermocline cold, deep ocean waters just off the coast of warmer than normal (red and orange), colder than normal (blue), or about average (light).
but also physically raise the western South America. Abundant insolation
17.09.a1
height of the western under clear skies warms these rising waters
equatorial Pacific compared
Neutral Phase of ENSO Warm Phase of ENSO (El Niño) Cold Phase of ENSO (La Niña)
somewhat, so there is no density-caused
to the eastern Pacific. return of surface waters to depth.
7. In the western Pacific, surface waters are warm (over 28°C) and less saline 6. The thermocline slopes to the west, being over three
because of abundant precipitation and stream runoff from heavy precipitation times deeper in the western Pacific than in the eastern
that falls on land. The warm surface waters (the warm pool) overlie cooler, Pacific. This condition can only be maintained by a series of
deeper ocean water — a stable situation. feedbacks, including the strength of the trade winds.

Warm Phase of 1. During a warm phase (El Niño), the 2. El Niño conditions are also characterized by weakened Walker cell
warm pool and associated convective circulation over the equatorial Pacific. This is expressed by decreased
ENSO (El Niño) rainfall move toward the central Pacific. winds aloft and by a reduction in the strength and geographic range 17.09.b1-2 17.09.b3-4 17.09.b5-6
of the easterly trade winds near the surface.
During the neutral phase of ENSO, SST along During the warm phase of ENSO, a belt of much During the cold phase of ENSO (a La Niña),
6. For Australia, Indonesia, and 3. Upon reaching South America, the equator in the Pacific are about average, warmer than normal water appears along the a belt of colder than normal water occurs
the westernmost Pacific, El Niño the cool air descends over equato- with no obvious warmer or colder than equator in the eastern Pacific, west of South along the equator west of South America,
brings higher atmospheric rial parts of the Andes, increasing normal waters near the Western Pacific Warm America. This warm water is the signature of an hence the name “cold phase.” The western
pressures, reduced rainfall, and atmospheric pressure, limiting Pool (left globe) or South America (right El Niño, causing the decrease in cold-water fishes. Pacific (left globe), however, now has
westerly winds. The warm pool convectional uplift, and reducing globe). An area of warmer than normal SST SST in the western Pacific are a little cooler than waters that are warmer than normal. These
and associated convective associated rainfall in Colombia and occurs southwest of North America, but this average, but an El Niño is most strongly warm waters are quite widespread in this
rainfalls move toward the parts of the Amazon. is not obviously related to ENSO. expressed in the eastern Pacific (right globe). region, extending from Japan to Australia.
central Pacific, allowing cooler
surface waters in the far west. 4. Weakening of the trade winds
reduces coastal upwelling of cold
5. Changes in the strength of the water, which, combined with the
Before You Leave This Page Be Able To
winds, in temperatures, and in the eastern displacement of the
movements of near-surface descending air, promotes a more Sketch and explain atmosphere-ocean conditions for each of the three typical phases of ENSO, noting typical vertical and horizontal

17.9
waters cause the thermocline to Thermocline southerly location of the ITCZ in the air circulation, sea-surface temperatures, relative position of the thermocline, and locations of areas of excess rain and drought.
become somewhat shallower in Southern summer and increased
the west and deeper in the east, precipitation in the normally dry Summarize how each of the three phases of ENSO (neutral, warm, and cold) are expressed in SST of the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
17.09.a2
but it still slopes to the west. coastal regions of Peru and Ecuador.

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Two-page spreads and integrated Before You Leave This Page lists offer • Two-page spreads allow busy students to read or study a
the following advantages to the student: complete topic in a short interval of study time, such as the
breaks between classes.
• Information is presented in relatively small and coherent
• All test questions and assessment materials are tightly
chunks that allow a student to focus on one important aspect
articulated with the Before You Leave This Page lists so that
or earth system at a time.
exams and quizzes cover precisely the same material that was
• Students know when they are done with this particular topic assigned to students via the What-to-Know list.
and can self-assess their understanding with the Before You
Leave This Page list.
XVIII
The two-page spread approach also has advantages for the instruc- content by providing students with an edited What-to-Know list.
tor. Before writing this book, the authors wrote most of the items Alternatively, an instructor can give students a list of assigned two-
for the Before You Leave This Page lists. We then used this list to page spreads or sections within two-page spreads. In this way, the
decide what figures were needed, what topics would be discussed, instructor can identify content for which students are responsible,
and in what order. In other words, the textbook was written from even if the material is not covered in class. Two-page spreads pro-
the learning objectives. The Before You Leave This Page lists provide a vide the instructor with unparalleled flexibility in deciding what to
straightforward way for an instructor to tell students what informa- assign and what not to cover. It allows this book to be easily used
tion is important. Because we provide the instructor with a master for one-semester and two-semester courses.
What-to-Know list, an instructor can selectively assign or eliminate

CONCEPT SKETCHES
Most items on the Before You Leave This
Page list are by design suitable for stu-
dent construction of concept sketches.
Concept sketches are sketches that are
annotated with complete sentences
that identify features, describe how
the features form, characterize the
main processes, and summarize histo-
ries (Johnson and Reynolds, 2005). An
example of a concept sketch is shown
to the right.

Concept sketches are an excellent way

to actively engage students in class and
to assess their understanding of earth
science features, processes, and his-
tory. Concept sketches are well suited
to the visual nature of earth science,
especially cross sections, maps, and block diagrams. Earth scientists are natural sketchers using field notebooks, blackboards, publications,
and even napkins, because sketches are an important way to record observations and thoughts, organize knowledge, and try to visualize tec-
tonic processes, the subsurface geometry of rock units, the evolution of landscapes, circulation in the atmosphere and oceans, and motions
of astronomical objects. Our research data show that a student who can draw, label, and explain a concept sketch generally has a good under-
standing of that concept.

REFERENCES CITED
Baddeley, A. D. 2007. Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 400 p.
Johnson, J. K., and Reynolds, S. J. 2005. Concept sketches—Using student- and instructor-generated annotated sketches for learning, teach-
ing, and assessment in geology courses. Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 53, pp. 85–95.
Lawson, A. E. 1980. Relationships among level of intellectual development, cognitive styles, and grades in a college biology course. Science
Education, v. 64, pp. 95–102.
Lawson, A. 2003. The neurological basis of learning, development & discovery: Implications for science & mathematics instruction. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 283 p.
Mayer, R. E. 2001. Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 210 p.
Roth, W. M., and Bowen, G. M. 1999. Complexities of graphical representations during lectures: A phenomenological approach. Learning and
Instruction, v. 9, pp. 235–255.
Sweller, J. 1994. Cognitive Load Theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, v. 4, pp. 295–312.
XIX
 HOW IS THIS BOOK ORGANIZED?

Two-page spreads are organized into 20 chapters that are arranged highlight the interactions among different earth systems. It introduces
into five major parts: (1) introduction to earth systems, earth glacial movement, landforms, and deposits, along with the causes of
materials, and geologic time; (2) tectonic processes and features; glaciation. This chapter then moves to shoreline processes, landforms,
(3) landscapes; (4) the atmosphere and oceans; and (5) the solar and hazards, and it ends with the consequences of changing sea level
system and universe. The first chapter provides an overview of on landforms and humans, emphasizing the role of glaciers in rais-
earth science, how we represent location and geologic features, the ing and lowering sea level. Chapter 12, the final chapter in this third
scientific approach, and an introduction to earth systems—a unify- part, is about various topics involving water, including the hydrologic
ing theme interwoven throughout the rest of the book. Chapter 2 cycle, water use, streams, stream processes, different types of streams,
introduces minerals and mineral resources, providing an example of and flooding. The second half of the chapter explores the relationship
our approach of presenting information about mineral, energy, and between surface water and groundwater, including the important top-
water resources in the chapter that is most pertinent to each topic. ics of contamination and overpumping of groundwater.
Chapter 3 follows with an introduction to earth materials and to the
processes that form the main families of rocks. Part one of the book The fourth part of the book is about the atmosphere and oceans.
ends with Chapter 4, which presents the important concepts about It begins with Chapter 13, an introduction to energy, matter, and
determining sequences of events, ages of rocks, and other aspects the atmosphere, providing a solid background for later chapters.
of geologic time. Chapter 14 follows this up with coverage about the processes and
manifestations of atmospheric motion. It features separate two-page
The second part of the book covers various aspects of tectonics. Chap- spreads on circulation in the tropics, high latitudes, and mid-latitudes,
ter 5 begins with having students observe large-scale features on land allowing students to concentrate on one part of the system at a time,
and the seafloor, as well as patterns of earthquakes and volcanoes, as leading to a synthesis of lower-level and upper-level winds. Chapter 14
a lead-in to tectonic plates. Integrated into the chapter are two-page also covers air pressure, the Coriolis effect, and seasonal and regional
spreads on continental drift, paleomagnetism, continental and oce- winds. These topics lead naturally into Chapter 15, which is an intro-
anic hot spots, and evolution of the modern oceans and continents. duction to atmospheric moisture, including clouds and various forms
This is followed by Chapter 6, which explores volcanism, volcanoes, of precipitation. Within the chapter are globes and other maps pre-
and other igneous processes and features. Chapter 7 begins with senting global, regional, and seasonal patterns of humidity and pre-
general principles of deformation and geologic structures, empha- cipitation. Chapter 16 follows this with a visual, map-oriented discus-
sizing how these are expressed in landscapes. The second half of sion of weather and storms, including cyclones, tornadoes, and other
Chapter 7 takes these principles of deformation and applies them to severe weather. The next chapter (Chapter 17) is devoted to the oceans
earthquakes, including their causes, settings, and resulting damage. and their interactions with the atmosphere and cryosphere. It features
Chapter 8, the final chapter in the second part of the book, explores sections on ocean currents, sea-surface temperatures, ocean salinity,
explanations for mountains and other regions of high elevations, the and a thorough treatment of ENSO. The chapters in this part build
formation of continents, and features along continental margins. It into Chapter 18, which presents various aspects of climate, including
also explores the origin of local mountains and basins, a topic unique the controls on climate and climate classification. Chapter 18 features
to this textbook, and provides an introduction to oil and natural gas, a two-page spread on each of the main climate groups, illustrated
including shale gas and oil. with a rich blend of figures and photographs. These spreads are built
around globes that portray a few related climate types, enabling stu-
The third part of the book focuses on the broad field of dents to concentrate on the distribution and controls of each climate
geomorphology — the form and evolution of landscapes. It begins type. The climate chapter also has a data-oriented presentation on
with Chapter 9, a visually oriented introduction to processes that the important topic of climate change, especially the data for climate
sculpt landscapes and redistribute earth materials. It presents a brief change, the controlling factors, and predicted consequences. It ends
introduction to weathering, erosion, and transport. Wind erosion, with a two-page spread on alternative (non-fossil fuel) energy sources.
transport, deposition, and resulting landforms are integrated into
Chapter 9, rather than being a separate, sparse-content chapter that The fifth and final group of chapters focuses on the solar system and
forcibly brings in non-wind topics, as is done in other textbooks. This the rest of the universe. Chapter 19 presents a highly visual introduc-
chapter also illustrates the formation of arches, natural bridges, karst tion to various objects in the solar system and how we study and inves-
topography, and caves, topics of interest to many students. tigate them. It is followed by Chapter 20, the final chapter in the book,
which explores the rest of the universe. It begins with a treatment of
The remaining chapters in the third part of the book cover dif- how we observe the universe and our framework for referencing these
ferent aspects of geomorphology. Chapter 10 treats the formation, observations. It introduces forces, motions, and light, presenting
description, and classification of soils, followed by a figure-based pre- the laws of motion of Newton and Kepler. The chapter successively
sentation of mass wasting and slope stability. Chapter 11 integrates explores stars, stellar evolution, stellar remnants, and galaxies, ending
information about glaciers, shorelines, and changing sea level, to with a discussion of cosmology and the early history of the universe.
XX
TWO-PAGE SPREADS Connections Two-Page Spread
Most of the book consists of two-page spreads, each of which is
The next-to-last two-page spread in each chapter is a Connections
about one or more closely related topics. Each chapter has four
spread designed to help students connect and integrate the various
main types of two-page spreads: opening, topical, connections, and
concepts from the chapter and to show how these concepts can be
investigation.
applied to an actual location. Connections are about real places that
illustrate the concepts and features covered in the chapter, often
explicitly illustrating how we investigate an earth science problem
Opening Two-Page Spread and how these problems have relevance to society.

Opening spreads introduce the chapter, engaging the student by high-

lighting some interesting and relevant aspects and posing questions CONNECTIONS Atmospheric Motion 441

14.10
to activate prior knowledge and curiosity. What Causes Monsoons?
A COMMON MISCONCEPTION is that the word “monsoon” refers to a type of rainfall, but the word actually refers
What Other Regions Experience Monsoon Circulations?
West Africa
14.10.b1 14.10.b2
July — A shift in wind direction in July brings moist
to winds that reverse directions depending on the season. One of these seasonal wind directions typically brings January — In January, ocean air from several directions onto the very
dry conditions and the other brings wet conditions. Monsoons impact a majority of the world’s population. near-surface winds in West hot land where air has risen. This change in wind
Africa largely flow from the direction causes enormous differences in precipi-
northeast, bringing in dry tation, as shown by the graph below for Dakar,
What Are the Features of the Asian Monsoon? air from inland areas, Senegal. Along with the increase in precipitation
including the Sahara Desert, comes an increase in the amount of vegetation. In
One way to characterize a monsoon is to compare maps showing wind directions for different times of the year. and carrying it southwest to Dakar and much of
Such maps can then be compared to rainfall records to determine which seasonal wind directions bring dry coastal areas and farther the region, precipi-
CHAPTER conditions and which ones bring wet conditions. The maps below show climatological wind conditions for the years offshore. Such offshore flows tation is nearly
421 1981 through 2010 for two months — January and July. Arrows show wind directions, and shading represents generally result in dry nonexistent in

14
Atmospheric Motion
weather. January and
pressure at sea level, with light gray being high and dark gray being low. Examine the patterns of circulation for
adjacent months.

Atmospheric Motion TO PI C S IN TH IS C H A PTER

each month and then compare the patterns between the months.
14.10.a1 14.10.a2
Winter Summer
14.10.b3

14.10.b4 14.10.b5
MOTION OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE controls climate, rainfall, and weather patterns, all of which greatly 14.1 How Do Gases Respond to Changes 14.5 How Do Variations in Insolation Cause Global Northern
July — The wind shifts by July (winter) as

1045
1045
affect our lives. It is driven largely by differences in insolation, with influences from other factors, including topog- in Temperature and Pressure? 422 Patterns of Air Pressure and Circulation? 430 60˚ N 60˚ N Australia the land surface cools, creating higher
raphy, land-sea interfaces, and especially rotation of the planet. These factors control motion at local scales, like 14.2 What Causes Winds? 424 14.6 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics? 432 January — In pressure over the land. This causes a large
14.3 14.7 January (the drop in precipitation, as shown by the
between a mountain and valley, at larger scales encompassing major storm systems, and at global scales, determin-

SEA LEVEL PRESSURE (mb)

SEA LEVEL PRESSURE (mb)
What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 426 How Does Air Circulate in High Latitudes? 434
southern summer), graph below for Katherine, Australia. The

1027.5
1027.5
ing the prevailing wind directions for the entire planet. All of these local-to-global circulations are governed by 14.4 What Are Some Significant Regional Winds? 428 14.8 How Does Surface Air Circulate in Mid-Latitudes? 436 Seoul
Seoul winds over monsoon
similar physical principles. 14.9 How Does Air Circulate Aloft Over northern Australia flow in
the Mid-Latitudes? 438 30˚ N 30˚ N bring moist air January
Kolkata Kolkata from the ocean results in

1012.5
1012.5
Large-scale patterns of atmospheric circulation are shown here for the Northern
14.10 Connections: What Causes Monsoons? 440 onto the heated plentiful
Hemisphere. Examine all the components on this figure and think about what you 14.11 Investigation: What Occurs During Seasonal land surface. rain.
know about each. Do you recognize some of the features and names? Two features Circulation Shifts? 442
on this figure are identified with the term “jet stream.” You may have heard this term 14.10.b6
14.10.b7 14.10.b8

995
995
watching the nightly weather report or from a captain on a cross-country airline flight. Equator Equator July — During the late summer months, heating of the
EQ EQ Southwestern U.S. land surface and the resulting low pressure causes a
What is a jet stream and what effect does it have on weather and flying? Jet streams are fast-flowing currents of air high in the troposphere, near the JANUARY SLP JULY SLP
January — The Desert shift in winds. Winds from the south bring moist air
altitude at which large airplanes fly. The Polar Front Jet Stream occurs at high 0˚ 1500 km 60˚ E 120˚ E 0˚ 1500 km 60˚ E 120˚ E Southwest has a less northward from the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of
latitudes, along the edges of a circulating mass of cold air called the Polar Cell. The
January — This map shows typical wind conditions for Asia during July — This map shows that wind conditions for the same region dramatic, but still impor- California, and summer thunderstorms form when this
Prominent labels of H and L represent areas with relatively Northern Hemisphere version is shown here, but a similar one occurs in the
January. In the center of the map, winds define a region where flow is during July are totally different than they are for January. Circulation tant monsoon effect. In the air interacts with the heated land. These summer
higher and lower air pressure, respectively. Southern Hemisphere. Two more jet streams, called Subtropical Jet Streams, occur in
clockwise and outward, centered on the light-colored area of high that marked the high pressure is gone, replaced by an area of inward winter months, winds blow thunderstorms cause precipitation to peak in August,
the subtropics on either side of the equator, at about 30° N and 30° S.
What is air pressure and why do some areas have higher or lower pressure. This high-pressure area (anticyclone) forms from cold, sinking and counterclockwise flow over Tibet (north of Kolkata). In the from various directions, as shown by the graph below for Tempe, Arizona.
pressure than other areas? Do jet streams always stay in the same position, and how do they affect our weather? air over Siberia. This circulation brings very dry air (from the cold interior Northern Hemisphere, this pattern of circulation is diagnostic of a and winter precipitation is First, note the different scale needed to show the
of the continent) from the north over southern Asia and from the low-pressure area, which in this case is caused by warm, rising air that from brief incursions of relatively small amounts of precipitation. Also note
northwest across eastern Asia. We would predict from these wind accompanies warming of the Asian landmass. This circulation brings cold, wet air (i.e., cold that nearly as much precipitation falls in the winter
Distinctive wind patterns, shown by white arrows, are patterns that little precipitation would occur in much of Asia at this time. very humid air from the southwest over southern and southeastern fronts) from the northwest. from the cold fronts.
Near-surface winds interact with upward- and
associated with the areas of high and low pressure. The downward-flowing air higher in the atmo- Asia. How do you think this circulation affects rainfall?
winds are flowing outward and in a clockwise sphere, together forming huge tube-shaped air
Seasonal Variation in Precipitation Effect of the Monsoon on Vegetation
direction from the high, but inward and in a
counterclockwise direction from the low. These
circuits called circulation cells. The most
prominent of these are Hadley Cells, one of
The Effect of Monsoons on Cultures
Observe these graphs showing average monthly precipitation These satellite images show increased vegetation due to monsoon-
directions would be reversed for highs and which occurs on either side of the equator.

M
amounts for two very different parts of Asia: Kolkata, one of the related rains along the western coast of India. The left image is onsoons greatly influence the lives in ways not fathomable to most North Amer-
lows in the Southern Hemisphere. largest metropolitan areas of India, and Seoul, the capital of South during the dry season, when wind patterns bring in dry air. The right of people living in regions with sea- icans or Europeans. The influence on agricul-
What controls the existence and location of 14.10.b9
Korea. For both cities, notice prominent precipitation peaks that image is from the end of the monsoon. Note the increase in plant sonal shifts in wind. The main ture, including the cultivation of rice, and on
Why do wind patterns develop around areas of circulation cells, and how do the Hadley Cells
occur during the summer — the wet season. The increase in cover (green areas) during the monsoon-caused rainy season. effects of a monsoon are seasonal variations flooding and other natural hazards is obvi-
high and low pressures, why do these patterns influence global weather and climate?
precipitation during the wet season results from the flow of moist in precipitation, which in turn affect water ous, but the monsoon also appears in litera-
Before You Leave This Page
spiral, and why are some spirals clockwise and 14.10.a5 India 14.10.a6 India
others counterclockwise?
air from oceans onto land, toward the Tibetan Low. The dry season,
supplies, amount of vegetation, and overall ture, art, music, architecture, and nearly every Be Able To
during the winter months, reflects the flow of dry air from the
livability for some normally dry landscapes. other aspect of culture. Ceremonies com-
Motion in the atmosphere affects us land, flowing outward from the Siberian High.
Many cultures plan their activities around monly mark the anticipated start of the mon- Explain what causes a monsoon,
in many ways. It controls short-term 14.10.a3 14.10.a4
North of the equator, prevailing winds these seasonal changes, conserving water soon. In years when the monsoon rains arrive using examples from Asia, West
(shown with large gray arrows) have gently weather and long-term climate, during the dry season and taking advantage later than usual, people become very con- Africa, northern Australia, and

14.10
curved shapes. For most of human history, including typical average, maximum, southwestern North America.
of the plentiful water during the wet season. cerned that harvests will suffer. The date of
transportation routes depended on local and and minimum temperatures. The
large-scale patterns of air circulation, The monsoon pervades the psyches of the onset of the monsoon rains varies by loca- Describe some of the effects of
regional atmospheric circulation. These winds
along with effects of local winds, cause people in southern and southeastern Asia, tion, but generally proceeds from south to shifting monsoonal winds.
were named “trade winds” because of their
importance in dictating the patterns of world some areas to be deserts and others especially the region from India to Vietnam, north with the onset in April and May.
commerce. The trade winds circulate from to be rain forests, and cause winds to
440
Spain southwestward, causing Christopher change direction with the seasons and
Columbus to land in the Bahamas rather than from night to day. Regional air
the present U.S. circulation affects the amount and
timing of rainfall for a region, which in
What causes winds blowing toward the equator turn controls the types of soils,
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12/11/14 7:17 PM 441 12/11/14 7:17 PM
to be deflected to the west? vegetation, agriculture, and animals
situated in an area. Winds determine
which areas of the U.S. are more
Prevailing winds from the north and south conducive to wind-power generation
converge near the equator. This zone of conver- than others. The result of these global,
regional, and local atmospheric
14.0

gence, called the Intertropical Convergence Zone

(ITCZ), is a locus of humid air and stormy weather. motions is a world in which the tropics
are not too hot, the polar areas are not
What causes winds to converge near the equator, and
why does this convergence cause unsettled weather?

420
d
14.00.a1
too cold, and no areas have too little
moisture for life.

Investigation Two-Page Spread

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Each chapter ends with an Investigation spread that is an exercise in

which students apply the knowledge, skills, and approaches learned
Topical Two-Page Spread in the chapter. These exercises mostly involve virtual places that stu-
dents explore and investigate to make observations and interpreta-
Topical spreads comprise most of the book. They convey the content, tions and to answer a series of relevant questions. Investigations are
help organize knowledge, describe and illustrate processes, and modeled after the types of problems geoscientists investigate, and
provide a spatial context. The first topical spread in a chapter usu- they use the same kinds of data and illustrations encountered in the
ally includes some aspects that are familiar to most students, as a chapter. The Investigation includes a list of goals for the exercises
bridge or scaffold into the rest of the chapter. Each chapter has at and step-by-step instructions, including calculations and methods
least one two-page spread illustrating how earth science processes for constructing maps, graphs, and other figures. These investiga-
impact society and commonly another two-page spread that specifi- tions can be completed by students in class, as part of a laboratory
cally describes how earth scientists study typical problems. exercise, as worksheet-based homework, or as online activities.

432 Atmospheric Motion 433

I N V E S T I G AT I O N Atmospheric Motion 443

14.6 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics? Formation of Hadley Cells
8. After rising, this air spreads out poleward
14.11
What Occurs During Seasonal Circulation Shifts? Air Pressure
7. Insolation, on average, is most as it approaches the upper boundary of the
TROPICAL CIRCULATION is driven by the intense solar heating of land and seas near the equator. The heated air intense near the equator, in the troposphere (the tropopause). These two globes show average air pressure
rises and spreads out from the equator, setting up huge, recirculating cells of flowing air. The rising air results in a tropics. The position of the overhead GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION responds directly to insolation. As the Sun’s direct rays migrate over the Atlantic and adjacent land areas during
Sun migrates between the Tropic of 9. Once the upper-level flow reaches seasonally, belts of winds, such as the westerlies, migrate too. In this investigation, you will examine the the months of January and July. Lighter gray
belt of tropical low pressure, and where the air descends back toward the surface is a belt of subtropical high pres- Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn from about 30° N and 30° S latitude, it sinks, indicates relatively high pressures, whereas
sure. What determines where the rising and sinking occur, and how does the Coriolis effect influence this flow? both because it begins to cool aloft
general circulation of the atmosphere, as expressed by data on air pressure, wind velocity, and cloud cover darker gray indicates low pressures. Intermedi-
season to season. The Sun-heated air
rises from the tropics, forming a belt and due to forces arising from Earth’s for two months with very different seasons — January and July. ate grays indicate intermediate pressures. The
of low pressure at the surface. As the rotation. This sinking air dynamically lines encircling the globe are the equator and
General Circulation in the Tropics 14.06.a2 Kakadu World Heritage Site, Australia
warm, moist air rises, the air cools compresses itself and the surrounding 30° and 60° (N and S) latitudes.
1. Examine the large figure below and note the main features. What do you observe, and
somewhat, forming clouds; this air, producing the subtropical high- Goals of This Exercise:
accounts for the typical cloudiness pressure systems. Observe the main patterns on these two
can you explain most of these features using concepts you learned from previous parts of
and haziness of many tropical areas. • Identify major patterns in air pressure, wind velocity, and cloud cover for each season. globes, noting the positions of high pressure
the chapter? Tropical areas are known for their lush vegetation (▶), which in turn is due 14.06.a3 10. Once near the surface, the air flows back toward the equator to replace the air that and low pressure and how the positions,
largely to relatively abundant and consistent insolation, warm temperatures, and abundant rose. The flow from the two hemispheres converges at the ITCZ. • From these data, identify the major features of the global atmospheric circulation in each season. shapes, and strengths change between the two
rainfall. After thinking about these aspects, read the rest of the text. • Assess and explain the degree of seasonal movement of these circulation features. seasons. Then, complete the steps described in
the procedures section.
14.11.a2 14.11.a3
Influence of the Coriolis Effect January July
12. In the Northern Hemisphere, as the air flows When examining large-scale patterns of the earth, such Observe the entire scene, noting which areas on land
11. As the air flows toward the poleward after rising at the ITCZ, the weak Coriolis as global circulation patterns, a useful strategy is to have the most vegetation and which ones have the
equator in each hemisphere from the effect also pulls the air slightly to the right of its focus on one part of the system at a time. Another least. Compare these vegetation patterns with
subtropical high to the ITCZ, the intended path. The result is that some of the upper- often-recommended strategy is to begin with large-scale patterns of atmospheric circulation
2. At the surface, winds generally converge Coriolis effect pulls it to the right of level air moves from southwest to northeast at the relatively simple parts of a system before and air pressure, like subtropical highs and the
on the equator from the north and south. its intended path (in the Northern top of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell. moving to more complex ones. For this Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Wind Velocity
The south-flowing winds in the Northern Hemisphere) or left (in the investigation, you will infer global patterns
Hemisphere are apparently deflected to the Southern Hemisphere), as shown 13. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect of air circulation by focusing on the These globes show average wind velocities for
Consider what directions of prevailing winds
right relative to their original path, blowing by the arrows on the left side of deflects the upper-level winds to the left of their Atlantic Ocean and adjacent lands (▶). January and July. The arrows show the direc-
from the northeast. These winds are the would occur in different belts of latitude.
this diagram. The Coriolis effect is intended path, causing a northwest-to-southeast flow tions, while the shading represents the speed,
northeast trade winds, which blow from the For example, where in this globe are the
weak near the equator, however, at the top of the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell. This globe is centered on the central with darker being faster. In this exercise, the
Old World (Europe and Africa) to the New two belts of trade winds (one north and
so the deflection is only slight. Atlantic, and its top is slightly tilted directions are more important than the speeds,
World (the Americas). one south of the equator)? How about the
The result is surface air flowing 14. As the seasons progress, the set of Hadley cells toward you to better show the but both tell part of the story.
mid-latitude belts of westerlies in each
from northeast to southwest in and the ITCZ migrate — to the Northern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere. As a result of
hemisphere? Consider how these winds Observe the large-scale patterns, identifying
the Northern-Hemisphere tropics in Northern-Hemisphere summer and to the Southern this tilt, Antarctica is barely visible at the
3. In the Southern Hemisphere, might blow moisture-rich air from the those patterns that are related to global
(the northeast trade winds) and Hemisphere in Southern-Hemisphere summer. If the bottom of the globe. The colors on land,
winds blowing toward the equator ocean onto land. After you have thought circulation (i.e., westerlies) versus those that are
from southeast to northwest in the trade-wind flow crosses the equator, the Coriolis deflec- derived from satellite data, depict rocks
are deflected to the left (west), 14.06.a4 about these aspects, read the procedures related to more regional features, such as the
Southern-Hemisphere tropics (the tion begins to occur in the opposite direction, and the and sand in tan and brown. Vegetation is
resulting in winds blowing from below and examine the globes and text on Bermuda-Azores High and the Icelandic Low.
southeast trade winds). winds can reverse direction (not shown). in various shades of green, with the darkest
the southeast, forming the the next page, which highlight average air Note also the position of where winds con-
green indicating the thickest vegetation
southeast trade winds. pressure, wind velocity, and cloud cover for two verge along the equator and how this position
(usually forests). Shallow waters in the Carib-
months — January and July. changes between the two months.
bean region (on the left side of the globe)
Seasonal Variations in the Position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone are light blue. 14.11.a4 14.11.a5
4. A belt of high pressure 14.11.a1 January July
occurs near 30° N and 30° 15. As the overhead Sun shifts north 16. The ITCZ generally extends 17. Unlike the ITCZ, the subtropical high pressure doesn’t exist
and south within the tropics from season poleward over large landmasses in a continuous belt around the earth. The ocean-covered
S, where air descends to
the surface of the earth. to season, the ITCZ shifts, too. In the in the hemisphere that is experi- surfaces support high pressure better than land surfaces Procedures
This air rose in the low northern summer, it shifts to the north. encing summer. This larger shift because land heats up too much at these latitudes, especially Complete the following steps on a worksheet provided by your instructor or as an online activity.
pressure located near the The typical June position of the ITCZ is over the land than over the in summer. The heated air over the land rises, counteracting
equator, as a result of the red line on the figure below, and the oceans is because of the more the tendency for sinking air in the Hadley cell. So the subtropi- 1. Study the two globes showing air pressure (on the next page), and note areas with high and low pressure. First, locate Cloud Cover
excess heating. December position is the blue line. intense heating of land surfaces. cal high pressure tends to be more vigorous over the oceans. a belt of low pressure near the equator and the adjacent belts of subtropical highs on either side. Next, locate the The clouds that form, move above Earth’s
Icelandic Low and a high pressure area to the south (called the Bermuda-Azores High), located in the Atlantic Ocean surface, and disappear can be detected and
Before You Leave This Page between Africa and North America. Determine for which season each is strongest or if there is not much difference tracked with satellites, shown here for January
5. The rising and descend- between the seasons. Mark and label the approximate locations of these features on the globe on the worksheet. and July 2012. On these globes, light colors
ing air, and the related Be Able To that obscure the land and ocean indicate more
Typical Position 2. Next, examine the two globes that show wind velocity. In the appropriate place on the worksheet, draw a few arrows abundant clouds (and often precipitation),
high- and low-pressure areas, of ITCZ in July
are linked together in a huge Sketch, label, and explain the main to represent the main wind patterns for different regions in each month. Label the two belts of westerlies and the two whereas the land shows through in areas that
TROPIC OF CANCER
cell of convecting air — the patterns of air circulation and air average fewer clouds.
belts of trade winds. If the horse latitudes are visible for any hemisphere and season, label them as well. Mark any some-
Hadley cell. One Hadley cell pressure over the tropics and
occurs north of the equator
what circular patterns of regional winds and indicate what pressure feature is associated with each. Observe the large-scale patterns, noting which
EQUATOR
subtropics.
and another just south of areas are cloudiest and which ones generally
14.06.a1 3. Examine the two globes that show the average cloud cover for each month. From these patterns, label areas that you have clear skies. Relate these patterns of clouds
the equator. As air rises near Sketch and explain air circulation in
the Hadley cells. interpret to have high rainfall in the tropics due to proximity to the ITCZ or low rainfall due to position in a subtropical to the following: amount of vegetation on the
the equator, surface winds
14.11
14.6

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN high. Examine how the cloud patterns correspond to the amount of vegetation, pressure, and winds. land, air pressure for that month, and average
flow in from both sides, Describe the Intertropical
6. Note that the Hadley cell extends to approximately 30° north forming the Intertropical wind directions. Answer all questions on the
Typical Position of ITCZ in January Convergence Zone and its shifts. 4. Sketch and explain how the different features of circulation and air pressure change between the two months. Answer worksheet or online.
and south of the equator, so it generally encompasses all the Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
tropics and some distance beyond.
all the questions on the worksheet or online. January 14.11.a6
July 14.11.a7
14.06.a5

442

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XXI
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XXII
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XXIII
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Writing a totally new type of introductory earth science textbook Harrison, Skye Rodgers, Steve Semken, and David Walsh. We are
would not be possible without the suggestions and encouragement extremely grateful to Thomas Arny and Stephen Schneider for the
we received from instructors who reviewed various incarnations of use of many illustrations from their excellent astronomy textbooks.
text and artwork in this book. We are especially grateful to people Our astronomy figures and text benefitted from thorough reviews
who contributed entire days either reviewing our books or attend- by Steven Desch, William Karl Pitts, and David A. Williams.
ing symposia to openly discuss the vision, challenges, and refine-
ments of this kind of new approach. We also appreciate the sup- We used a number of data sources to create many illustrations. Reto
port of hundreds of instructors who have reported great success Stöckli of the Department of Environmental Sciences at ETH Zürich
with using our books in their classrooms, validating our unusual and NASA Goddard produced the Blue Marble and Blue Marble
approach and encouraging us to extend our original vision into Next Generation global satellite composites. We are very apprecia-
various fields of earth science. tive of the NOAA Reanalysis Site, which we used extensively, and
for other sites of the USDA, NASA, USGS, and NPS.
This book is a decidedly collaborative effort, incorporating material
from our two other textbooks. Our colleagues Paul Morin, Chuck We have treasured our interactions with the wonderful Iowans
Carter, and Mike Kelly contributed materials to our Exploring Geol- at McGraw-Hill Education, who enthusiastically supported our
ogy textbook, and some of this content is included here. Likewise, vision, needs, and progress. We especially thank our current and
we have greatly benefitted from our collaboration with geographers previous publishers Michelle Vogler, Ryan Blankenship, and Marge
Bob Rohli, Peter Waylen, and Mark Francek on our Exploring Physi- Kemp for their continued encouragement and excellent support.
cal Geography textbook, which provided the starting materials for Jodi Rhomberg, Laura Bies, and others skillfully and cheerfully
chapters on the atmosphere and oceans. We gratefully acknowledge guided the development of the book during the publication pro-
the words, figures, organization suggestions, and friendship pro- cess, making it all happen. Lori Hancock helped immensely with
vided by these colleagues. our ever-changing photographic needs, and Jerry Marshall guided
us through the obstacle-laden arena of photo permissions. We also
This book contains over 2,500 figures, several times more than a appreciate the support, cooperation, guidance, and enthusiasm of
typical introductory earth science textbook. This massive art pro- Thomas Timp, Marty Lange, Kurt Strand, Matt Garcia, Lisa Nicks,
gram required great effort and artistic abilities from the illustrators Danielle Dodds, David Hash, Traci Andre, Tammy Ben, and many
and artists who turned our vision and sketches into what truly are others at McGraw-Hill who worked hard to make this book a reality.
pieces of art. We are especially appreciative of Cindy Shaw, who Kevin Campbell provided thorough copy editing and also compiled
was lead illustrator, art director, and a steady hand that helped the index and glossary. Kay Brimeyer provided excellent proofread-
guide the project. For many figures, she extracted data from NOAA ing that caught small gremlins before they escaped. Our wonder-
and NASA websites and then converted the data into exquisite ful colleague Gina Szablewski expertly directed the development of
maps and other illustrations. Cindy also fine-tuned or extensively LearnSmart materials and provided general encouragement.
reworked the authors’ layouts, standardized various aspects of the
illustrations, and prepared the final figures for printing. Chuck Finally, a project like this is truly life consuming, especially when
Carter produced many spectacular pieces of art, including virtual the authors do the writing, illustrating, photography, near-final
places featured in the chapter-ending Investigations. Susie Gillatt page layout, media development, and development of assessments,
contributed many of her wonderful photographs from around the teaching ancillaries, and the instructor’s website. We are extremely
world, photographs that helped us tell the story in a visual way. She appreciative of the support, patience, and friendship we received
also color corrected and retouched most of the photographs in the from family members, friends, colleagues, and students who shared
book. We also used visually unique artwork by Daniel Miller, David our sacrifices and successes during the creation of this new vision
Fierstein, and Susie Gillatt. Suzanne Rohli performed magic with of a textbook. Steve Reynolds thanks the ever-cheerful, supportive,
GIS files and helped in many other ways. We were ably assisted in and talented Susie Gillatt; John and Kay Reynolds; and our mostly
data compilation and other tasks by students and former students helpful book-writing companions, Widget, Jasper, and Ziggy. Julia
Cheryl Replogle, Jenna Donatelli, Emma Harrison, Abeer Hamden, Johnson thanks Annabelle Louise and Hazel Johnson, and the rest
Peng Jia, Javier Vázquez, and Courtney Merjil. Terra Chroma, Inc., of her family for enthusiastic support and encouragement. Steve
of Tucson, Arizona, supported many aspects in the development of and Julia appreciate the support of their wonderful colleagues at
this book, including funding parts of the extensive art program and ASU and elsewhere.
maintaining the ExploringEarthScience.com website.
The authors are very grateful for the thousands of students who
Many people went out of their way to provide us with photographs, have worked with us on projects, infused our classrooms with
illustrations, and advice. These helpful people included Susie Gil- energy and enthusiasm, and provided excellent constructive
latt, Vladimir Romanovsky, Paul McDaniel, Lawrence McGhee, feedback about what works and what doesn’t work. We wrote this
Charles Love, Cindy Shaw, Ramón Arrowsmith, Dan Trimble, book to help instructors, including us, make students’ time in our
Bixler McClure, Michael Forster, Vince Matthews, Ron Blakey, classes even more interesting, exciting, and informative. Thank
Doug Bartlett, Phil Christensen, Scott Johnson, Peg Owens, Emma you all!

XXIV
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
writing the case is still pending before the Supreme Court. Mr.
Purcell is not only a shrewd business man, but a man of broad and
generous sympathies. He uses his great wealth to help his friends,
loaning money at nominal interest in a way to win the gratitude of
many men who but for him would find it impossible to get a good
start in life. He also gives large sums for charitable and benevolent
purposes. In religion Mr. Purcell is a Roman Catholic.

Nantel, Guillaume Alphonse, St. Jerome, Quebec,

M.P.P. for Terrebonne, Editor of La Press and Le Nord newspapers,
was born in November, 1852, at St. Jerome, in the county of
Terrebonne, Quebec province. His father, Guillaume Nantel, was in
his lifetime a lieutenant in the militia, and although he came from St.
Eustache, was a thorough loyalist. He died in February, 1857, leaving
a family of nine children. His mother, Adelaide Desjardiner, was born
in Ste. Therese, Terrebonne county. One of his brothers, the Rev. A.
Nantel, has been superior of the Ste. Therese Seminary for about
fifteen years, and in 1883 established a fine college in that place.
Another brother, P. Nantel, is a school inspector, and his youngest
brother, Bruno Nantel, has been for a long time a law partner of the
Hon. M. Taillon, and is now practising at St. Jerome. He is the rising
barrister for the county of Terrebonne. Young Nantel, the subject of
our sketch, received his education at the college of Ste. Therese,
and was a very successful student, having carried off several first-
class prizes. In 1873 he obtained a second class certificate at the
Montreal military school, and in 1881 he was made first lieutenant in
the eighth company of the 65th battalion. He takes a deep interest,
with Father Labelle, in colonization, and is greatly interested in the
settlement of the northern townships of the Ottawa valley. He is a
director of the Montreal and Western Railway Company, which
proposes to build a railroad—already largely subsidized by the
government—from St. Jerome to Nominingue Lake, in the county of
Ottawa, and from Nominingue Lake up to Torrierdeninque Lake,
which line when built will cross the most fertile belt, in which is
found the finest timber and minerals in Ottawa and Pontiac counties.
Is also interested in the “Le Grande Nord” railway from St. Jerome to
St. Julienne, in Montcalm county. Mr. Nantel was called to the bar of
Quebec province on the 10th July, 1875, and practised his profession
alone in Montreal, up to January, 1877, when he joined in
partnership the Hon. M. J. A. Ouimet, M.P., and now Speaker of the
House of Commons. This partnership having been dissolved, he
again practised alone for a year, when, in 1881 he left Montreal, and
joining his brother, B. Nantel, in St. Jerome, successfully carried on
business in that place till the 1st of May, 1886. In April of that year,
Mr. Nantel, along with C. Marchand, purchased Le Nord, a local and
colonization newspaper, but his partner having given up his
connection with the paper the following December, he has himself
since then conducted it. In November, he and Mr. Wintele bought out
La Press, one of the leading French papers. In 1882, at the general
election of that year, he was elected a member of the Quebec
legislature for the county of Terrebonne, beating his opponent, E. A.
Poivier, by a majority of seven hundred and fifty-three votes. Mr.
Nantel is a strong Conservative in politics, and contends that
Canadians should govern Canada, and each province be permitted to
stand by itself, that we must have a national policy, such as shall
foster our own trade and commerce, agriculture, etc., so as to make
our country independent of all outsiders. He strongly advocates in
his papers the building of railways, the opening up of mines, the
advancement of agriculture, the creation of factories, industrial
learning, manual training in our seminaries of learning, and
everything else possible that can make the people more learned and
prosperous. In 1884, while a member of the Quebec legislature, Mr.
Nantel was one of the commissioners appointed to investigate the
charges preferred against Hon. Mr. Mercier and the late Judge
Mousseau. In religion he is a Roman Catholic, but favors the most
liberal tolerance to all other sects. He thinks there is room enough in
Canada for people professing all the different creeds of Christendom,
and also for men of all nationalities, and would be only too happy to
see the indigent and down-trodden people of Europe make their
home with us, and become partakers with us in all the liberty and
independence we possess. He was opposed to the execution of Riel.

Macdonald, Right Hon. Sir John Alexander,

K.C.M.G., D.C.L., LL.D., Premier of Canada, was born in Glasgow, on
the 11th January, 1815. He came to Canada in 1820 with his
parents, who first settled near Kingston, but after a few years
removed to a farm on the Bay of Quinté. Meanwhile the future
premier of Canada was left at Kingston, the grammar school of
which he attended until he was about fifteen years of age, when he
began the study of law. When he had reached his twenty-first year
he was called to the bar. He has been described by a writer in The
Week as a lively youth, a good scholar, and a voluminous reader; but
his talents were not considered extraordinary and he owed his
election as member for Kingston, thirteen years after his call to the
bar, more to his personal popularity than to his abilities. In a
democratic country a good memory for faces and names, a frank
and cordial manner of speech, a willingness to say yes rather than
no, are wonderful aids to an aspirant in public life. Add readiness of
speech in public, and self-confidence, and they will outweigh, for a
time at least, the soundest judgment, the most extensive
knowledge, and the warmest patriotism. It is not wonderful,
therefore, that Mr. Macdonald’s popular address should have brought
him early into the political field. In 1841 (says the writer from whom
we have already quoted), Canada was granted a constitution, as the
Liberals understood it, a transcript of that of Britain—the Governor in
place of the Queen, bound to accept the legislation voted by the
people’s representatives, and to receive advisers of whom they
approved. Sir Charles Bagot accepted this view of the constitution,
but when Sir Charles Metcalfe became governor there came a
change of tactics. Responsible government was a new idea in
colonial politics, and to very many unwelcome. Metcalfe was an
honest, and in some ways, an able man; but he had served in India,
and could not accept readily the notion that a dependency of the
empire could be at once free and loyal. He refused to make an
appointment asked by his ministers; they resigned; he called in
others and appealed to the people. In Upper Canada he was
sustained by an enormous majority; in Lower Canada he was
defeated as decisively; his ministers had only a small majority,
varying from two to eight. Lord Metcalfe, who was in ill health gave
up the contest and his office. Lord Elgin succeeded him; another
election was held, and the friends of responsible government
returned to power, supported by a large majority in the House of
Assembly. In this contest Mr. Macdonald was a loyal supporter of
Lord Metcalfe, and took office in his government first as receiver-
general and afterwards as commissioner of crown lands. It is
improbable that a politician so shrewd as he could have been
sanguine of preventing the introduction of responsible government
into Canada for any length of time. But he was then, and is now, in
spite of many concessions to popular feeling, a Conservative of the
British type, on the side of the classes, distrusting the masses, and
resolved at whatever cost to maintain inviolate the supremacy of the
Crown. In this fact is to be found the key to his policy during his
forty-three years of public life. Fond of power, eager for success,
indifferent as to the means of obtaining it, he has throughout been
true to his flag. The ministry formed by Messrs. Baldwin and
Lafontaine, under Lord Elgin, did not remain long in power. It was
assailed by the Conservatives for proposing to pay losses incurred by
residents of Lower Canada during the rebellion, a measure not called
for by the country at large, but pressed upon the government by Mr.
Lafontaine, a man of great ability and strength of will. Mr. Macdonald
opposed the bill temperately, and was not believed to have given
countenance to the violent proceedings which followed its passage.
Nor did he take an active part in the crusade against the financial
policy of the government which the Conservatives undertook after
the removal of the executive and parliament to Toronto. In that
movement the Conservatives were aided, and Messrs. Baldwin and
Lafontaine ultimately coerced into resignation, by the “original Clear
Grits,” under the leadership of Hon. Malcolm Cameron and Hon. W.
H. Merritt. Mr. Baldwin was the most venerable figure in our political
history, pure, honorable, high-minded, and during the struggle for
responsible government rendered incalculable service to his party
and cause. But he was a Whig rather than a Radical, a High
Churchman, and therefore opposed to the secularisation of the
clergy reserves, and incapable of stooping to the arts of the
politician. He retired with Mr. Lafontaine, and Mr. Hincks became
premier. During his brief reign George Brown commenced his
agitation for representation by population, the secularisation of the
clergy reserves, and against the further extension of the Separate
School system in Upper Canada, and at the election of 1854 John A.
Macdonald took an active part in inducing Conservative candidates
to accept the secularisation plank of Mr. Brown’s platform, receiving
in return the support of the powerful section of Reformers who went
into opposition to Mr. Hincks on that and other questions. The result
was the defeat of the government and the return of the
Conservatives to office under the leadership of Sir Allan MacNab and
Mr. Morin, Mr. Macdonald taking the office of attorney-general west,
and practically the leadership of the Legislative Assembly being
infinitely superior to his nominal chief in all that constitutes an
effective parliamentarian. Mr. Macdonald then became, for the first
time, an influential legislator, in the prime of life and fullest measure
of his intellectual power. Mr. Macdonald took care in commuting the
claims of existing clerical incumbents that great liberality should be
shown. Simultaneously with this measure—the price in fact paid to
the French Canadians for permitting the secularisation of the
reserves—a bill was passed to abolish the seignorial tenure in Lower
Canada, and emancipate the habitants from their feudal dues.
Hitherto Mr. Macdonald had been opposed to French Canadians as a
class, and he now appeared as their ally. He himself had no fancy for
reform or change, and rightly judged that the French would prefer
conservatism to liberalism. The alliance thus formed was not broken
till the execution of Riel, and the effects of that deed of justice are
not likely to be lasting. It must not be inferred, however, that Sir
John has placed himself under the control of the French. He has
helped to build their railways in liberal fashion, but has resisted
successfully many demands besides the pardon of Riel. They would
gladly have had a land endowment for the Catholic church in
Manitoba and aid to send French emigrants thither, but he yielded
neither. At critical moments they have forced concessions from him,
but he has always made a stout fight, and the money demanded has
generally been spent in the development of the resources of the
province. Very early in his career as minister, Mr. Macdonald was met
by a demand for further subsidies to the Grand Trunk Railway, and
he gave them freely. His warmest admirer will not say that he is an
economist even now, when old age might have been expected to
bring carefulness. But in youth he was lavish both in his own
expenditure and that of the country. His best defence as to the latter
is that the country has advanced under his care; that though the
public debt is large, there is a great deal to show for it. The
inception of the great public works of the country, however, did not
come from him. The Grand Trunk was commenced by the late Sir
Francis Hincks, the annexation of the North-West was pressed upon
parliament by the late Hon. George Brown, and the Canadian Pacific
was begun, and large sums spent upon it, by Hon. Alexander
Mackenzie. But Sir John carried all these to completion, and may
fairly claim renown on their account. He cannot be said to have a
creative mind, but in dexterity, perseverance, and courage in
carrying through important measures he stands unrivalled among
Canadian statesmen, and few elsewhere can be held to have
surpassed him. Sir John was singularly favored by circumstances in
the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Mr. Mackenzie
helped him by the construction of the line from Pembina and Port
Arthur to Winnipeg. Sir John made a fiasco with Sir Hugh Allan in
1871, and the latter was no longer available as a contractor in 1878.
But it happened that three Canadians had lately acquired great
fortunes in railway enterprises, and were able and willing to enter
upon new efforts. But for these circumstances Sir John might have
been compelled to build the Canadian Pacific with public loans, by
very slow degrees. With the aid of these capitalists he had but to
guarantee an issue of government debentures to secure immediate
construction of the road from the Atlantic to the Pacific. His policy
was assailed, and not without reason, because the difficulties were
great and the means of overcoming them not obvious to the public.
But the result has justified Sir John’s audacity, and there are few
who now question the wisdom of his policy. The road may not pay a
large return to its shareholders at once, but it will do its work as a
colonising agent, and ultimately must be a triumphant financial
success, as well as of advantage to the great territory through which
it takes its course. It is a triumph of Canadian enterprise, energy,
and liberality, and has directed to the Dominion admiring eyes in
every quarter of the globe. Sir John’s extraordinary capacity for
conciliating contending factions and individuals has carried the
confederated provinces through twenty years of their union. Difficult
questions are now coming to the front, and the wonder is not that
they should now appear, but that they should have been delayed so
long. The British-American Act is a bundle of compromises put
together to bring the provinces together, and not meant to be
permanent. If Sir John should live to assist in revising its terms it will
be a happy augury of success. At his age he cannot be expected to
be fully in accord with the spirit of the rising generation, but his
address, his personal influence, his vast knowledge, have always
been of eminent service to the State. In the settlement of difficulties
at various periods with the United States his influence has been used
wholly for good. This was manifested particularly in the Washington
treaty of 1871. His ambition and jealousy of rivals have sometimes
led him astray, but when he is called away his errors will be
forgotten; it will be said of him even by his political opponents that
he was the greatest politician in Canada, the one who spent most of
his time and strength in her service, and did more than any other to
forward her material progress. “For forty years,” (says another
writer), “a representative of the people in parliament, for thirty years
the trusted and beloved leader of the great Conservative party, and
for twenty-five years the premier of the Dominion of Canada, the
career of Sir John A. Macdonald, is in one respect at least unique in
the history of parliamentary institutions.” When the Parliamentary
deadlock occurred in 1864, in consequence of the bitter antagonisms
that had sprung up between our Canadian politicians, he joined with
leading men of both parties in bringing about, in 1867, the
confederation of the British North American provinces, which had the
effect at the time of smoothing over many difficulties; and, in 1878,
when the Mackenzie government fell, he was successful in
inaugurating what is known as the National Policy, which has been
instrumental in developing the industries of the country, and in no
little degree in maintaining his hold of power. In the success of these
public measures, Sir John owes much to his astuteness and
dexterity, as well as to his personal magnetism and phenomenal
influence over the great body of the electorate. Quite recently, it has
been said that the premier himself has come under an influence
which has hitherto been new to him, that of religion, and that some
Ottawa revivalists, in his old age, have brought about in his case a
change of heart. This is a matter too sacred for the biographer to
touch, and must be left to him whom alone it concerns. Though he
has never been known as what is called a religious man, and
however lax have been his political ethics, no enemy has ever
charged him with being personally corrupt. His own words in 1873,
when defending himself from charges arising out of the Pacific
Railway scandal, may be accepted and reechoed, that “there does
not exist in Canada a man who has given more of his time, more of
his heart, more of his wealth, or more of his intellect and powers,
such as they may be, for the good of this Dominion of Canada.”

Weller, Charles Alexander, Peterborough. Judge of

the County Court, Local Judge of the High Court Of Justice, and
Local Master of the Supreme Court of Judicature, was born at
Toronto, on the 29th March, 1830, and took up his abode in Cobourg
in 1838, with his parents, William Weller and Mercy Wilcox Weller,
now both deceased. Judge Weller received his education at the
Cobourg Seminary (now Victoria College), and at Upper Canada
College, Toronto. Having determined to adopt the profession of law,
he studied with Boulton & Cockburn, and Hector & Weller, barristers,
in Toronto. In 1852 he was admitted as an attorney, and the
following year was called to the bar of Upper Canada. Having
removed to Peterborough in 1852, he began the practice of his
profession and soon succeeded in building up a good business. In
February, 1857, he received the appointments of county crown
attorney and clerk of the peace for Peterborough; and in March,
1875, that of master in chancery for the same place. In March,
1886, Mr. Weller was created judge of the County Court, retaining
the master’s office. Since that period he has won golden opinions for
himself as a just and upright judge, and one who takes a deep
interest in all that pertains to the building up of the town in which he
has so long resided, and the welfare of his fellow citizens. On the
20th October, 1852, he was married to Martha, eldest daughter of
the late Dr. Gilchrist, of Colborne. The fruit of the union was two
children, a son and daughter, Henry Boucher, late of Millbrook,
barrister, deceased; and Eliza, who is married to H. B. Dean,
barrister, Lindsay, and son of Judge Dean.

Belanger, Louis-Charles, Advocate, Sherbrooke,

Quebec province, was born on 19th May, 1840, at Rapide Plat,
province of Quebec (Flat Rapids), on the Yamaska river, about seven
miles below the city of St. Hyacinthe, in the parish of Ste. Rosalie,
county Bagot. He is the eldest son of Charles Belanger, farmer and
master blacksmith, and Angélique Renault-Blanchard. The subject of
our sketch, Mr. Belanger, has six brothers and six sisters, all living,
ten of whom are in the province of Quebec, and two in Worcester,
Mass. The last named two brothers edit Le Courrier de Worcester, a
leading French newspaper in New England. One of his brothers,
Louis-Arthur, is the managing editor of Le Progrès de l’Est, a lively
newspaper published at Sherbrooke, and the only bi-weekly paper in
the Eastern Townships. His paternal grandfather, Paul Belanger,
came from Beauce, and was one of the pioneer settlers in the St.
Hyacinthe district. The late Louis Renault-Blanchard, his maternal
grandfather, sat in the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, before
1841. This gentleman took an active part in the troubles of 1837-’38,
and was forced to take refuge in the United States, along with one
of his sons, the late L. P. R. Blanchard, C.E. and P.L.S. Mr. Belanger
studied at St. Hyacinthe College from 1853 until 1860, when he
removed to Sherbrooke, and spent two years as professor in the old
Commercial French College of those days, and in this town he has
resided ever since. He began the study of law in 1862, with the late
William-Locker Felton, Q.C., who sat in parliament for Richmond and
Wolfe, during the years 1854-’58, and took an active part in the
separate school bill then before the house,—his wife being a Roman
Catholic and one of the most accomplished women of her time—and
was admitted to the bar of Quebec province, in October, 1866. On
the 13th October, 1866, he entered into partnership with H. C.
Cabana, now joint prothonotary of the Superior Court for the district
of St. Francis, as advocates, etc., and with him established the
Pionnier de Sherbrooke newspaper, being the first French newspaper
published in the Eastern Townships. In July, 1874, the partnership
was dissolved, and Mr. Belanger practised law alone for a while. In
the autumn of that year, he and his brother, L. A. Belanger,
purchased the Sherbrooke News and started the Progrès, both of
which they published until May, 1878, when they sold their
establishment to a company by which the Pionnier has been
published ever since. In 1882, he started the Progrès de l’Est, which
he handed to his brother now with him, and to which he is an active
contributor. He was a member of the 53rd battalion from 1882 until
1885, as active captain of No. 4 company, composed chiefly of
French Canadians. From 1881 until 1883, he occupied a seat in the
council, and was president of the St. Jean Baptiste Society in 1874,
at the time of the National Convention at Montreal, and also in 1884,
when the great celebration took place in the same city. Was one of
the organizers of the St. Joseph Society, a Workingmen’s Mutual
Benefit Society, in 1874. He has also been a school commissioner
ever since 1865. In August, 1874, he was made honorary member of
the St. Patrick’s Society, of Sherbrooke and vicinity. In 1876, he
contested Richmond and Wolfe with Lieutenant-Colonel Hanning for
the House of Commons, secured a majority of 114 in Wolfe, but was
defeated by a larger majority against him in Richmond. Again, in
February 1887, he contested the seat in Sherbrooke with R. N. Hall,
the sitting member. There had been no contested election in that
constituency for the Commons up till this time, since 1867, but after
a most gallant fight, he was defeated. He had conducted the Crown
business (French cases), ever since 1878, and he is now the sole
Crown Prosecutor for the district of St. Francis, since February, 1887.
In religion, he is a Roman Catholic, but well-known for his liberal
views in religious and educational matters. In politics, he is an
independent Conservative, but separated from the present
government on account of the North-West troubles. On October
23rd, 1865, whilst studying law, he married Margaret Henrietta
Bradshaw Unsworth, daughter of the late James Unsworth, who
came from England to this country about the year 1852, and was
engaged on the editorial staff of the Montreal Gazette for a while,
after which he removed to St. Hyacinthe, where he held the office of
agent for the Grand Trunk Railway Company, and died of cholera in
1854. Mr. Unsworth left four sons, one of whom, Joseph, is
superintendent of the government railway on Prince Edward Island.
His widow, still living in Sherbrooke, is the sister of the well-known
English composer, John Hatton, who died a couple of years ago, in
London. Mr. Belanger has only one child, a daughter, having lost two
in their infancy. Mr. Belanger’s motto is “Live and let live!” He stands
up for equal rights to all men, and is a thorough Canadian. In 1867,
Mr. Belanger’s father and family removed from Ste. Rosalie to
Cookshire, county of Compton, where he purchased a large farm,
now carried on by Mr. Belanger and his youngest brother. His father
died two years ago, much regretted by a large circle of friends.

Berryman, John, M.D., M.P.P., of St. John, N.B., is of Irish

extraction, his father, John Berryman, being a native of Antrim, who
emigrated to St. John, and married Miss Wade, a lady of U. E.
Loyalist parentage. Dr. Berryman was born in St. John, 9th
December, 1828, and received his early education at the grammar
school in that city. After leaving school he began life as a clerk in a
flour store in St. John, then in a hardware shop, and for a half year
in a flouring mill owned by his father. In 1848 he visited the West
India Islands of Trinidad, Jamaica, and Cuba; Santa Fe De Bogata
and Rio Hacha in New Granada. In 1849 he built, in St. John, a
steam meal mill for grinding corn, and ran it until the fall of 1851,
when he sold out and left for the Cape of Good Hope, and
subsequently Australia, where he resided for five years, and carried
on business as a miner, merchant, truckman, builder, and carpenter.
Having early manifested a strong bent for the profession of
medicine, after his return from Australia he entered upon a careful
course of studies, at first in St. John and afterwards at the University
of Edinburgh, where he assisted, in his professional labors, Professor
Sir J. Y. Simpson, and resided in his house for two years. It is part of
the course of a good student to engage in actual work either in the
city of Edinburgh or at the university. In this way a medical student
acquires in the rough duties of a city physician a practical knowledge
of the minutiæ of his arduous employment, which must afterwards
be of great service to him, especially when, as so often happens, he
elects his field of labor in some remote country town, or on the
outskirts of civilization, where books are not to be had, and
consultations with other physicians are necessarily few and far
between. Students at Edinburgh frequently attend to outside
patients, furnish statistics of mortality to the official registrars, and
deliver lectures on professional subjects. It so happened that Dr.
Berryman’s fate cast him very soon into a field of work which tested
his practical knowledge and his natural resources to the utmost. The
war of the United States rebellion broke out in 1861, and the
demand for men and scientific skill of all kinds, but particularly for
skilled physicians, became enormous. Dr. Berryman went to the front
and tendered his services, which, being accepted, found a large
field. He was appointed by Surgeon-General Hammond a member of
an examining board in connection with Professors Stillie, DeCosta,
Weir, Mitchel, and Gross, of Philadelphia, and Dr. Smith, an army
surgeon, to decide what disposition should be made of the three
thousand soldiers under treatment in the hospital. He saw many
thrilling scenes in the field of battle and in the crowded war hospital.
In the rough exigencies of army life, and amid the countless horrible
cases which war engendered, he had an ample field for his abilities,
and at the same time had opportunities of perfecting himself as a
surgeon in most difficult and delicate surgical operations. The
training so acquired has been of inestimable value to him in his
subsequent career in St. John and elsewhere. After the war was over
he settled down in his native city and speedily worked up an
extensive and lucrative practice. There was a great demand for the
services of an army doctor. He took an interest in the volunteer
movement, and served as surgeon of the garrison artillery of St.
John from 18th April, 1864, to September, 1875. He was also
surgeon of police from 1863 to 1875. Besides these appointments
and the calls of his large city practice, he has frequently been sent
for to attend severe cases of disease in other parts of New
Brunswick and also Nova Scotia. Dr. Berryman first came before the
public in the role of a candidate at the general election held on the
26th of April, in 1886. He and his colleague, John V. Ellis, were
elected to represent the city of St. John in the House of Assembly,
the vote standing, Ellis, 1673; Berryman 1611; defeating E. McLeod,
1500; and R. F. Quigley, 1220. Dr. Berryman is a Liberal and will, no
doubt, before long give a good account of himself on the floor of
parliament. His large practical experience of men and manners gives
him a great advantage in politics. In 1850 he was made a Mason in
Hibernia Lodge, St. John. He married, on the 16th March, 1864,
Mary A., daughter of G. S. Brodie, of London, England.

Jaffray, Robert, Toronto, is a Scotchman by birth, having

been born at Bannockburn, Scotland, in 1832. He is the second son
of William Jaffray and Margaret Heugh. His father carried on farming
near the celebrated battlefield where King Robert Bruce defeated the
English army of invasion led by King Edward, and gave Scotland her
freedom. Here Robert passed his early days, and when only twelve
years of age, his father dying, he was thrown on his own resources.
After attending school at Stirling, until he was about fifteen years of
age, he entered the service, as an apprentice, of J. R. Dymock,
grocer and wine merchant, Edinburgh, Scotland, where he remained
for five years. At the expiration of this time, he sailed for Canada,
and arrived in Toronto in the fall of 1852. Here he joined his brother-
in-law, John B. Smith, grocer and wine merchant, and was appointed
as his manager. The establishment was situated on the site now
occupied by Jaffray & Ryan, corner of Yonge and Louisa streets, then
the most northern shop on Yonge street. Three years later Mr.
Jaffray became a partner in his brother-in-law’s business, and the
new firm traded under the name of Smith and Jaffray. In 1858 a
disastrous fire swept away Mr. Smith’s lumber yard and sash and
door factory on Niagara street, by which a great loss was sustained,
and shortly after this event, Mr. Smith retired from the firm, leaving
Mr. Jaffray to carry on the business alone. Being possessed of great
energy and perseverance, he soon succeeded in building up a
lucrative trade, and such was his success that in 1883 he was able to
retire with a competency, handing the business over to his brother,
George Jaffray, and James Ryan, who now carry it on. During Mr.
Jaffray’s residence in Toronto he has been, outside his own business
connected with many successful enterprises. He was appointed by
the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, one of the directors of the Northern
Railway Company, in which capacity he served three years looking
after the country’s interests, the government of Canada having
advanced a large sum of money to that corporation at various times.
From information furnished by Mr. Jaffray, a royal commission was
appointed by the government to look into the affairs of the
“Northern,” which resulted in a satisfactory settlement of the then
existing claims. He was afterwards chosen a director of the Midland
Railway Company, of which board he is at present an efficient
member. In 1874 he took an active part in organizing the Toronto
House Building Society (now the Land Security Company), of which
he is vice-president. He is president of the Toronto Real Estate
Investment Company; and is also a director of the Toronto Trust
Company, director of the Globe Printing Company, director of the
Sovereign Insurance Company, director of the North America Life
Insurance Company, director of the Peterborough Real Estate
Investment Company, director of the Central Canada Land
Investment Company, director of the Ontario and Sault Ste. Marie
Railway Company, director of the Imperial Bank, and director of the
Homewood Retreat or Private Asylum for Inebriates and Insane at
Guelph. He is a member of the Caledonian and St. Andrew’s
societies. In politics, Mr. Jaffray has identified himself with the
Reform party, and although often solicited to accept nominations for
civic and parliamentary honors, he has invariably declined.
Immediately after the exciting political campaign of 1879, one of the
most daring attempts was made to kidnap several of the leading
men of the Reform party, ostensibly with the object of, extorting
from them a large ransom. Among those marked for this object were
the late Hon. George Brown, Hon. Oliver Mowat, and the subject of
this sketch. Through a chain of circumstances, Mr. Jaffray was drawn
into the snare, and taken from his residence at a late hour at night
under pretence of arrest, he giving himself up to his captors on their
producing a document purporting to be signed by Judge Wilson,
acting for the minister of justice at Ottawa, directing him to be
immediately brought to the judge’s residence for examination
relative to certain charges of a grave character. Mr. Jaffray went with
his captors, having no suspicion of foul play; but instead of being
taken to Judge Wilson’s home, he was driven to a lonely spot on the
east side of the Don and Danforth road, where, it afterwards
appeared, his captors intended to imprison him in a cave they had
previously prepared for his reception. The place was afterwards
discovered by two detectives while they were searching in the
neighborhood. It was dug out of the hill on a farm owned by Mr.
Playter, and was capable of accommodating several persons. Mr.
Jaffray, on alighting from the carriage, in the neighborhood of the
cave, and finding himself the victim of a dastardly plot against his
personal liberty, struggled with his captors and managed to get out
of their clutches. He then succeeded in awakening the inmates of a
house in the neighborhood, when his abductors made their escape.
The officers of the law at once made great efforts to discover the
perpetrators of the outrage, and suspicion having fallen on two
brothers—Thomas and Ross Dale, they were arrested and tried for
the crime. Thomas was found guilty, and sentenced by Judge Burton
to two years in the county jail, Ross Dale being discharged. Thus
ended one of the boldest plots to deprive several leading citizens of
their liberty ever known in the province of Ontario. In 1860, he
married Sarah, youngest daughter of John Bugg, by whom he has
two sons and two daughters.

Jamieson, Philip, Clothier and Outfitter, Toronto, is a

native of Scotland, having been born in Edinburgh, on the 31st July,
1850. His father, Hugh Jamieson, carried on the tailoring business in
“Auld Reekie,” and his mother, Elizabeth Marshall, was born near
Musselburgh. Young Jamieson received his education in Bell’s School
in his native city, and after receiving a fair commercial education,
was apprenticed to a jeweller. Here he served seven years, and at
the end of his term was considered a first-class workman. After
working a short time at his trade in Edinburgh he left for Canada,
and reached Toronto in March, 1873. He brought with him a stock of
ready-made clothing, and shortly afterwards opened a store on
Queen street west. Business succeeding, he opened a branch store,
further west on the same street. At this time he had a partner
named Spain, and they traded under the name of Spain and
Jamieson. This partnership continued about two years, when Mr.
Jamieson elected to carry on the business alone, and from this time
may be dated the success of his business, now grown to large
dimensions. He shortly afterwards secured the large premises he
now occupies on the corner of Yonge and Queen streets, and further
extended his operations by opening branch establishments on Queen
street west, and in the city of Hamilton. And Mr. Jamieson has now
the largest retail clothing and outfitting establishment in the
Dominion of Canada. He employs eight salesmen in his retail shop,
five cutters, and over one hundred and fifty operative tailors. In
politics, Mr. Jamieson, like the majority of the intelligent Scotch in
Canada, is a hard-working and enthusiastic Reformer, and does not
hesitate when the occasion calls for it to spend both time and money
for party purposes. In religion he is an adherent of the Presbyterian
church. On the 11th of March, 1873, he was married to Dorcas
Wilson Menzies, daughter of William Menzies, of Edinburgh, and has
a family of six children, four girls and two boys.

Schiller, Charles Edward, Montreal.—The late Mr.

Schiller was a descendant of an old family which originally came
from Hamburg, and was related to the great poet of that name. His
grandfather, Augustus Schiller, was the first of the family to arrive in
Canada, having come in the capacity of surgeon to one of the
Hessian regiments in 1778. His father, Benjamin Schiller, served with
great distinction and valor in the Voltigeurs Canadien at the battle of
Chateauguay, under Colonel de Salaberry, and was promoted from
lieutenant to captain on the field of battle for bravery in carrying his
captain when wounded to the ambulance under a heavy fire. Charles
Edward Schiller was born on the 17th September, 1819, at Rivière du
Loup (en haut), and was educated at Benjamin Workman’s Academy,
Montreal. He entered the court house in 1835, where he soon
became chief clerk, and in 1847 was appointed deputy clerk of the
crown and peace. He assisted at the famous trial of Jalbert, who was
accused of the murder of Lieutenant Weir at St. Denis, during the
rebellion of 1837. He also took a prominent part as officer of the
court in the trial of the St. Alban’s raiders, in 1864, as well as in the
trial of the Fenians after the invasion of 1866. Mr. Schiller was
appointed joint clerk of the peace with Mr. Carter. On Mr. Carter’s
leaving the office, Mr. Schiller was appointed clerk of the crown, and
acted as such for a number of years. At the advent of the Joly
government, at Quebec, in 1880, Mr. Brehaut, the then acting police
magistrate, was appointed jointly with Mr. Schiller, as clerk of the
crown. On the sudden death of Mr. Brehaut in 1882, the present
clerk of the crown, L. W. Sicotte, was named Mr. Schiller’s partner.
Mr. Schiller was, without doubt, the person who possessed the
largest criminal experience in the Dominion, having had cognizance
of the most important trials that took place since 1853. He was an
excessively hard worker, and the only holidays he took during his
term of office of fifty years, was one month when he went to New
Orleans. Holidays and Sundays, from morning to night, he continued
his labors. His time was so much taken up during the week in giving
information and advice to gentlemen of the bar, that the routine
work naturally fell behind, but when the new week began, the work
of the past one was always completed. The employés in the offices
of the clerk of the crown always found a true and kind friend in him,
and when the supplies were refused by the Legislative Council in
1880 to the Joly government, Mr. Schiller paid the salaries of the
clerks of the police court and of his own office out of his private
means. The late Judge Ramsay, as well as Justice Johnson and
Justice Aylwin, were warm personal friends of the deceased, and
placed unbounded confidence in his experience. Judge Ramsay
frequently consulted Mr. Schiller in criminal matters, and every crown
officer who prosecuted for the crown, always found him willing to
supply them with any information. In his entire public career, Mr.
Schiller won the confidence and esteem of all with whom he dealt,
and counted as his friends many of the most influential public men
of the day. Always a staunch Conservative, he was a special protégé
of the late Sir George Cartier, who had great confidence in him, and
of the Hon. Mr. Chapleau. Mr. Schiller at one time took an active part
in the local militia, and held the rank of captain. He nearly lost his
life in the Gavazzi riots in 1853, having been in the midst of the
firing by the troops. He leaves one sister, married to M. P. Guy,
Montreal’s oldest notary. He died 25th April, 1887, after fifty-two
years of consistent attendance to his active duties.

Ouellette, Rev. J. R., President of St. Hyacinthe College,

Quebec province, was born at Sandwich, Ontario, on the 26th of
December, 1830. He received his education in the college he now so
ably presides over. Father Ouellette was ordained a priest at Paris,
on the 20th of December, 1856, and in 1857 was appointed assistant
at St. Mary’s Church, Toronto, under the Rev. John Walsh, now
bishop of London, Ontario. Shortly after his settlement in St. Mary’s,
he was transferred to St. Michael’s Cathedral, in the same city, as
assistant, and later on was appointed rector. Two years afterwards,
in 1859, he resigned his position in St. Michael’s Cathedral, and
joined the teaching staff of St. Hyacinthe College. In 1882, on the
retirement of the Rev. Joseph Sabin Raymond, who had been
president of the college for a great number of years, he was chosen
to fill the vacancy, and has since successfully conducted this popular
institute of learning. He is one of the titular canons of the cathedral
chapter of St. Hyacinthe.

Grant, Henry Hugh, Collector of Inland Revenue, Halifax,

Nova Scotia, was born at Newport, Hants county, N.S., on the 15th
April, 1839. His parents were John Nutting Grant and Margaret
McCallum. Captain John Grant, grandfather of John N., first came to
America with his regiment, the 42nd Highlanders, or “Black Watch.”
He married in New York, and having retired from the army, he
settled in Brooklyn, N.Y. He afterwards served, under Sir William
Johnston, in some provincial corps raised in New York for operations
against the Indians, and saw some hard service in Western New
York, as well as in Ohio, where he distinguished himself in a number
of engagements with the famous chief, Pontiac. His wife’s family
favoring the rebels at the breaking out of the American revolution,
induced him to leave for the West Indies, where, however, his loyalty
and sense of duty did not allow him to remain. He soon returned
and finding his regiment in New York ready to receive him, he joined
again as captain, and with it fought at the battle of Long Island,
when Washington was defeated, in 1776. At the conclusion of the
war he removed to Nova Scotia, his property in Brooklyn having
been confiscated. On his arrival there the Crown granted him a tract
of land in Kempt, Hants county, and the part of this property on
which he resided he named “Loyal Hill,” and here he remained until
his death. Margaret McCallum was the granddaughter of Jean
Baptiste Moreau, who came out to Halifax as chaplain and secretary
to Lord Cornwallis. He was the first Episcopal clergyman to land in
Halifax, and his son, Cornwallis Moreau, was the first male child born
there after its settlement. Mr. Moreau was a relative of Napoleon’s
celebrated general of that name. He was a convert from the Roman
Catholic faith, having been educated for and taken priests’ orders in
that church in France, Mr. Grant, the subject of our sketch, received
his academic education in the Collegiate School at Wolfville, N.S. He
afterwards spent some years as clerk in mercantile establishments,
first in Windsor, N.S., and afterwards in New York. He returned from
New York in 1871, and engaged in shipbuilding and mining
enterprises, at the old homestead, Loyal Hill. In October, 1879, he
was appointed to the civil service as exciseman, and served in the
Toronto division until September, 1880, when, after passing a first-
class examination, he was removed to Halifax, and promoted to the
collectorship in October, 1882. He served several years in the 7th
regiment of militia in the county of Hants, and holds a captain’s
commission dated October 10th, 1867. Mr. Grant was appointed
United States consular agent at Kempt in April, 1873, but resigned
the office, on his removal from there, in 1877. He was made a
master Mason, in Walsford Lodge, No. 924, Windsor, N.S., in 1866,
and has ever since taken a deep interest in the order. He is a
Conservative in politics, and in religion leans towards the Episcopal
church. Mr. Grant was married at Newport, Hants county, on January
25th, 1872, to Georgie, daughter of George Allison. The fruit of this
union has been five children, only two of whom are living, viz.,
Marion Allison, aged 13, and Frank Parker, aged 8.

Webster, Walter Chester, Hardware Merchant,

Coaticook, Quebec province, was born in Hatley, P.Q., on the 27th
November, 1841. His father, Oscar F. Webster, was a farmer. His
mother, Eliza Watson, was a native of Antrim, Ireland. Mr. Webster
received a sound commercial education at Hatley Academy. Before
settling down to business he devoted some time to travel, and spent
about three years in California. On his return to Canada, he turned
his attention to farming, which he successfully prosecuted for eight
years, and then adopted a mercantile life. In 1876 he opened a
hardware and crockery store in Coaticook, and through close
attention to business he has succeeded to his entire satisfaction. In
1873 Mr. Webster was appointed a justice of the peace by the Joly
government, and for a number of years he has been a member of
the municipal council of Coaticook, and also that of the township of
Barnston. He was one of the original promoters of the Coaticook
Knitting Company; and holds a considerable amount of this
company’s stock. He is also a director of the Stanstead and Compton
Agricultural Society. Mr. Webster takes a deep interest in the
Independent Order of Oddfellows, and is an active member of this
benevolent organization. Recently he was offered the position of
mayor of the town by his fellow citizens, but owing to the pressure
of business he was forced to decline the proffered honor. But,
nevertheless, though refusing to take office, it is not to be presumed
he lacks public spirit. There is no man in the community that does
more to promote the prosperity of the place of his adoption than he
does. He is always to be found amongst its workers, and is often
consulted by both political parties when anything is on the tapis for
the promotion of the interests of either town or county. In politics,
Mr. Webster is a Liberal, and in religion, a member of the Episcopal
church. He was married, on the 20th September, 1865, to Adella A.
Kennedy, second daughter of Washington Kennedy, of Hatley, and to
them have been born six girls and one boy, a very promising youth
of eighteen years, and named after his grandfather.

Papineau, Hon. Louis Joseph, was born in Montreal,

7th October, 1786. He was the son of Joseph Papineau, a well-
known notary of his day, and one of the principal promoters of the
constitution of 1791, and a member of the first parliament after the
conquest. Louis Joseph was educated chiefly at the seminary of
Quebec, and having studied law was admitted to the bar of Lower
Canada in 1811. So brilliant were his prospects and his talents even
before this that in 1809, and while still a student, he was elected to
the Legislative Assembly for the county of Kent, now Chambly, and
in 1815 was appointed speaker of the house. This office Mr.
Papineau held, with only two years’ intermission during his mission
to England as delegate of the Assembly in 1822-’23, for the long
period of twenty years, or until the year 1837, the year of the
unfortunate troubles, when he threw himself heartily into what he
considered the right and lawful course of action to gain that which
the present generation enjoys, through his and his confrères’
endeavors then,—Responsible Government—and all the liberties of
the British Constitution which had so long been denied in practice. In
1820, when Lord Dalhousie became governor, he appointed Mr.
Papineau to a seat in the Executive Council, but this post was soon
declined by him, when he found it a vain honor without the influence
the council should have had on the determination of the governor. In
1822, the union of Upper and Lower Canada having been upon the
tapis, and the subject being distasteful to many, Louis Papineau and
John Neilson went to England, and were successful in getting the
union postponed for the next two years. In 1827, unfortunate
difficulties arose between the governor and Mr. Papineau, and to
such a height did they reach that the former refused to acknowledge
Mr. Papineau as speaker, though duly elected to that high office by a
large majority of the Assembly. The Assembly triumphed, and Lord
Dalhousie resigned his office as governor, after having dissolved the
Assembly. He was succeeded by Sir James Kempt, who, after the
next election, duly accepted Mr. Papineau as the speaker again
appointed, and giving him, perhaps, one of the greatest triumphs
ever achieved by any person in the political arena of any country.
Political troubles grew worse as years rolled on, and in 1836 they
culminated in the events of that and the next two years, which for
the time threw Canada into a state of turmoil and anxiety, now
happily all passed away, leaving only the fruits so bravely and
indomitably sought for, constitutional government and unbiased
representation. The so-called leaders of the disturbance having had
rewards for apprehension placed on their heads, Mr. Papineau, as
one, fled to the United States, where he resided from 1837 to 1839.
He then removed to Paris, France, where he lived till 1847, when the
issue of the amnesty proclamation enabled him to return to his
native land. He again entered parliament, and was continued there
until 1854, when he retired into private life, and for the next
seventeen years enjoyed the calm of a green and sturdy old age, the
love of books and horticulture, and the personal esteem of those
who best knew his character. His death took place on Saturday, the
23rd September, 1871, at his residence at MonteBello, at the
patriarchal age of eighty-five. His son, Louis Joseph Amédée
Papineau, is the present joint-prothonotary of Montreal.

Greenwood, Stansfield, Manager of the Coaticook

Cotton Company, Coaticook, Quebec province, was born in
Lancashire, England, on the 28th of June, 1853. His father, Edward
Greenwood, was a manager of a large cotton mill in Lancashire, His
mother was Mary Chadwick, a descendant of the celebrated Sir
Joshua Chadwick, of Lancashire. Mr. Greenwood, the subject of our
sketch, was educated at Longholme Normal School, receiving an
elementary education. After leaving school he entered the cotton mill
in which his father was manager, and there learned all the details of
the business. At the age of twenty-two, he came to Canada, and
took charge of one of the departments of the Valleyfield Cotton Mills,
which position he filled for six years. After that period he entered
into a partnership with Wallace Bros., and started the Chambly
Cotton Company at Chambly Canton, P.Q. This partnership lasted a
year, when it was turned into a limited liability company. After
another term of two years he retired from that company and took
entire charge of the works of the Coaticook Cotton Company. Their
mill, under the skilful management of Mr. Greenwood, has paid a
good dividend, and still continues to do so. Mr. Greenwood is a
Liberal of the Gladstone style, and in religion a Methodist. He was
married on the 12th August, 1874, to Mary Ann Bury, daughter of
John Bury, of Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire, and the fruit of the union
has been three sons and a daughter.
 Smith, Rev. James Cowie, M.A., B.D., Pastor of St.
Andrew’s Church, Guelph, province of Ontario, was born in
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, on the 17th January, 1834. His father,
James Smith, followed the calling of a farmer. His mother was
named Jane Cowie. The future divine received his elementary
education at Smith’s Classical Academy, at Fordyce, Scotland, and on
coming to Canada entered Queen’s University, Kingston, where he
graduated, taking the degrees of B.A. in 1862, M.A. in 1864 (holding
the first place in the university examinations), and B.D. in 1880. He
was licensed to preach the gospel by the presbytery of Kingston, and
was inducted into the pastorate of Cumberland and Buckingham
Presbyterian congregations, July 11th, 1864. During this pastorate,
he discharged the duties of local superintendent of schools, in the
township of Cumberland, and acted as chairman of the Grammar
School board. He was translated, in 1868, to St. Andrew’s Church,
Belleville, where he remained some years, acting as inspector of
schools in the town, in addition to his ministerial duties. About this
time, having met the requirements for county school inspector, he
was officially declared eligible for such a position by the chief
superintendent of education of Ontario. Having been called to the
vacant pastorate of St. Paul’s Church, Hamilton, Rev. Mr. Smith was
translated thither about 1872, when he was again called to succeed
the Rev. Dr. Hogg, deceased, in his pastorate charge, St. Andrew’s
Church, Guelph. At different times Rev. Mr. Smith has served, in the
capacity of stated clerk, successively in the presbyteries of Ottawa
and Kingston; and while pastor in St. Paul’s Church, Hamilton, was
appointed moderator of the Synod of Hamilton and London. For
several years he has also been chosen to, and still holds at present,
the responsible position of member of university council, Queen’s
University, Kingston. He was at one time called to St. Andrew’s
Church, Peterborough, and twice to St. Andrew’s Church, St. John,
New Brunswick, both of which invitations he declined. Rev. Mr. Smith
is very popular among his congregation, and takes a deep interest in
all matters calculated to improve the social and spiritual condition of
the people among whom his lot has been cast. He is in full harmony
with the doctrines of his church, and can always be depended on to
defend its standards. He was married, June 21st, 1866, to Emily
Georgina, third daughter of the late Captain Archibald Petrie, R.N., of
Cumberland, Ontario.

Carling, Hon. John, London, Ontario, Minister of

Agriculture of the Dominion, M.P. for the City of London, Ontario, is
the youngest son of Thomas Carling, a native of Yorkshire, England,
who came to Canada in 1818, and settled in the county of Middlesex
the following year. The future minister of state was born in the
township of London, on the 23rd of January, 1828, and received his
education in the public school of his native city. While quite young he
became a member of the brewing firm of Carling & Co., London, and
was an active member of it for a number of years. He took part in
nearly all public matters, and was for several years a director of the
Great Western Railway Company; the London, Huron & Bruce
Railway Company; the London & Port Stanley Railway Company, and
was also chairman of the Board of Water Commissioners of the city
of London. In 1857 Mr. Carling aspired to parliamentary honors, on
the Conservative side, and was returned by a considerable majority
over the Liberal candidate, Elijah Leonard, and continued to
represent London in the Legislative Assembly of Canada continuously
down to the time of confederation. In 1862 Mr. Carling made his first
appearance as a cabinet minister, having been appointed receiver-
general that year. At the general election, after the consummation of
confederation, Mr. Carling was elected to the House of Commons,
and was likewise returned as a member of the Legislative Assembly
of Ontario. In the Ontario Assembly he was appointed minister of
agriculture and public works, under the Sandfield-Macdonald
administration, and this portfolio he retained till 1871, when fortune
went against the administration, and it was forced to resign. In 1878
Hon. Mr. Carling was again returned to parliament, and took his seat
in the House of Commons, at Ottawa, but he did not hold a portfolio
in the new cabinet. However, in 1882, he was made postmaster-
general, and this office he held until the 25th September, 1885,
when he became minister of agriculture, and he has held this office
ever since. At the general election of 1887 he was re-elected to the
House of Commons, after a lively contest with Charles S. S. Hyman,
a local Liberal, his majority over his opponent being thirty-nine
votes. Hon. Mr. Carling is not a demonstrative member, but the same
clear-headedness and calm judgment that had served him so well in
his important successful business affairs has stood him in good stead
as a parliamentary representative. He has proved himself a capable
minister of the crown, and although he seldom makes a speech in
the House of Commons, yet when he does he always speaks to the
point. In politics Hon. Mr. Carling is a Liberal-Conservative, and in
religion he belongs to the Methodist church. He is married to
Hannah, eldest daughter of the late Henry Dalton of London,
Ontario.

Smith, Arthur Lapthorn, B.A., M.D., Montreal, member

of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, fellow of the Obstetrical
Society of London, lecturer on diseases of women in the medical
faculty of Bishop’s College, Montreal, consulting physician to the
Montreal Dispensary, is the second son of William Smith, deputy
minister of marine, Ottawa, and was born on the 6th June, 1855, at
St. John, New Brunswick, where his father was at that time
comptroller of customs. His mother was Jane Busby, a
granddaughter of the late Colonel Bayard, of Nova Scotia, at one
time on the staff of the Duke of Kent. He received his early
education at private schools, and from tutors in St. John and
Chatham, New Brunswick, and in Melrose and Galashiels, in
Scotland. He then entered the classical course at the University of
Ottawa, where, after four years’ study, he graduated as B.A. in 1872.
He then began his medical studies at Laval University, Quebec. At
the end of his second year he took the degree of B.M., and at the
end of his fourth year he obtained the degree of M.D., and the
Sewell prize in 1876. He then proceeded to London, and studied
during two winter sessions at Guy’s and the London hospitals, after
which he passed the examinations of the Royal College of Surgeons.
He spent two summers in Paris and Vienna. During six months of his
stay in London, he held the position of resident clinical assistant at
the East London Children’s Hospital. On his return to Canada, in
1878, he began practice in Montreal, where he has ever since
remained. Shortly after his arrival he was appointed assistant
demonstrator of anatomy in Bishop’s College Medical School, and
attending physician to the Montreal Dispensary. He was also elected
a member of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, in whose proceedings
he has always taken an active part. He was for some time treasurer
of this society. He soon became demonstrator of anatomy, and two
years later he was appointed professor of botany, and held this
position for two years, when he was given the chair of medical
jurisprudence. In 1887 he was appointed lecturer on the diseases of
women in the same university. He has always taken great interest in
temperance matters, and was twice elected president of the Band of
Hope, and for three years he was president of the Young Men’s
Association of St. Andrew’s Church, of which he is now the youngest
elder. He has long been a Mason, and has held the position of
secretary of Royal Albert Lodge for several years. He has also
reached the eighteenth degree in the ancient and accepted Scottish
rite. He has been surgeon of the 6th Regiment of Cavalry for the
past eight years, and has regularly camped out with his regiment
when it was necessary to do so. Although he has a large practice as
a specialist for diseases of women, he still finds time to contribute
numerous articles to the medical journals, to deliver an occasional
lecture on popular science before the Young Men’s Association, as
well as to take an active interest in everything that concerns the
welfare of his adopted city. As an instance of his energy, we may
mention that, having heard of a new application of electricity to the
treatment of hitherto incurable diseases of women, he immediately
started for Paris, and remained with the inventor, Dr. Apostoli, until
he had become thoroughly acquainted with all its details, and he
subsequently published a translation of Dr. Apostoli’s latest work on
this subject. Dr. Smith’s amiable manner and sympathetic nature has
won for him the affection and esteem of his pupils and patients,
especially among the poor. In politics, he is an ardent supporter of
the policy of the Conservative party, which he considers will be the
means of ultimately building up, in the north-west part of this
continent, a great and wealthy nation. In 1884 he was married to
Jessie Victoria, third daughter of Alexander Buntin, of Montreal, by
whom he has had a son and a daughter.

Boak, Hon. Robert, Halifax, N.S., President of the

Legislative Council of Nova Scotia, was born in Leith, Scotland, on
the 19th of September, 1822. His father was Robert Boak, of Shields,
in the county of Durham, England, who, on his retirement from the
army, became an officer in her Majesty’s Customs, in Halifax in 1839,
and retained that position until he was superannuated. His son,
Robert Boak, the subject of our sketch, came to Halifax in 1831, and
in 1847 became a member of the firm of John Esson & Co.,
wholesale grocers. In 1854 he retired from that firm, and formed the
firm of Esson, Boak & Co., and engaged in the West India trade. In
1864 this latter firm was dissolved, and he then continued business
in his own name, and under the firm style of Robert Boak & Son,
until 1875, when he retired from business. Mr. Boak was president of
the Nova Scotia Repeal League in 1869; became a member of the
Legislative Council in 1872, and president of that body in 1878; and
a member of the government, being treasurer of the province from
December, 1877, to October, 1878. At present he is president of the
Acadia Fire Insurance Company; vice-president of the Union Bank,
and the Nova Scotia Sugar Refinery; also a director of the Gas Light
Company. He has always been a Liberal in politics, and has done
yeoman service for that party in the maritime provinces during the
last decade.

Normand, Telesphore Euzebe, Contractor, Three

Rivers, Quebec, was born on the 18th August, 1833, at Quebec city.
His father, Edward Normand, was a well-known contractor of that
city, and was the leading contractor of his time, having built the St.
Maurice bridge in 1832, and again in 1841; also Montmorency,
Chaudière and other bridges, as well as the greater part of the
wharves at Quebec. His mother was Louise Martin, of Quebec. He
was educated at Nicolet College; stood high in his class, and
exhibited considerable promise as a student. On leaving the college,
he went to Three Rivers, in 1851, and has resided there since then.
He began life as a notary clerk under V. Guillet, with whom he was
engaged from 1853 to 1858; and concurrently with this he was
engaged in the office of the St. Maurice public works. In 1858 he set
up for himself as a public notary, but in 1871 abandoned the legal
profession for the purpose of following his father’s business. From
1861 to 1865 he was city councillor and school board commissioner
at Three Rivers. He was elected mayor in 1873, defeating Mr. Bureau
in the contest, after which he was elected by acclamation each year
for the three following years, when he resigned. During the time he
was mayor he was the means of consolidating the city debt, and
carried out other important matters. He was captain of the city
volunteers from 1863 to 1865. In politics he is a Conservative, and
has given valuable assistance to his party. In 1871 he contested the
seat for Champlain, but was defeated, by Senator Trudel, by forty-
eight votes. As a contractor he stands in the foremost rank, and has
a deservedly high reputation for first-class work. He was the
contractor for the bridge over the St. Maurice, which is considered
one of the most skilful pieces of workmanship—so far as wood
bridges are concerned—in the province, if not indeed in the
Dominion. The bridge in question is built in two sections, one of
which is 1,400 feet, and the other 700 feet in length. The whole
structure is built of the best material obtainable, and is a most
excellent specimen of first-class work. Mr. Normand has constructed
many other public works, such as wharves, piers, booms and
railways, at Three Rivers, Quebec and Crane Island. Among other
projects he carried out was that of the system of water-works which
the city of Three Rivers possesses—a system which is inferior to
none in the Dominion. Not only is Mr. Normand entitled to great
credit for the energetic manner in which he pushed the work to
completion, but also, what was even more needful, for obtaining the
money wherewith to carry on the work—which he did by securing
subscriptions in Quebec and England. He is held in the highest
regard by the community, and is deservedly popular with all classes,
not only in Three Rivers, but in Quebec city, where he is well-known.
He was married in October, 1856, to Alphonsine, daughter of Joseph
Giroux, one of the wealthiest and most prominent merchants in
Three Rivers, who died in 1856, universally regretted. By this
marriage there have been born nine children, five of whom survive.

Duhamel, Most Rev. Joseph Thomas, Roman

Catholic Archbishop of Ottawa, is a native of Quebec province,
having been born at Contrecœur, Quebec, on the 6th November,
1841. His parents were François Duhamel and Marie Joseph Audet-
Lapointe, both of whom were born in Quebec province, but died in
Ontario. The future archbishop’s father was a farmer, and having
removed to Ottawa, sent his son to the college there, where he was
educated under the direction of the Oblate Fathers, receiving a
thorough classical education. On the completion of his studies, he
decided to consecrate his life entirely to God, and accordingly
entered the Ottawa Seminary, where, in prosecuting his theological
studies, he evinced wonderful powers of mind. He was ordained sub-
deacon, on the 21st June, 1863; deacon, 2nd November of the same
year, and on the 19th December he was ordained priest. He was
then appointed to the vicarage of Buckingham, county of Ottawa,
where he proved himself to be possessed of many noble virtues and
rare administrative qualities. On the 10th November, 1864, he went
to St. Eugene, in the township of East Hawkesbury, county of
Prescott, to reside as parish priest. At that time the parish of St.
Eugene was one of the poorest in the diocese, and hence the young
priest found it hard to carry on his work, especially as he had the
difficult task before him of completing a church which was left
unfinished by his predecessor. He found many obstacles to