Metal working processes

• Cold Working
• Hot Working
Cold working: Cold working cold working is defined as a plastic deformation that is
carried out at a temperature below recrystallisation temperature where recovery process are
not effective. cold working is usually carried out at room temperature

Below Recrystallisation Temperature

At room temp.

Effect of cold working Effect of annealing

 Advantages
• Smooth finish is possible
• closer dimensional tolerance can be maintained
• no surface oxidation of scaling results
• strength and hardness are increased
Disadvantage
• required high power
• only suitable for ductile materials
• required intermediate annealing for large deformation
Hot working
Hot working is defined as a plastic deformation that is carried out at the temperature above
recrystallisation temperature where recovery processes occurs simultaneously during the
deformation. Due to hot working grains refined which result in an increase in ductility and
toughness.
Above recrystallisation temperature
Grains are refined
Increase ductility and toughness
 Advantage
• Extensive deformation is possible because of increased plasticity.
• Intermediate annealing is not required because of no strain hardening.
• Power requirements for the process are less.
• Mechanical properties and improved as a result of grain refinement.
• The porosity is largely eliminated and impurities are uniformly distributed throughout the
volume.
Disadvantages
• Tool cost is high.
• Surface finish is usually poor because of the scale formation on the surface of the metal.
• Close dimensional tolerance cannot be maintained
Cold work anneal cycle
The sequence of repeated cold working and annealing is referred as cold work anneal cycle.
The typical variation of strength and ductility in cold worked anneal cycle systematically
illustrated in figure

Cold work anneal cycle

 WARM WORKING

• Warm working plastic deformation carried out at temperature below recrystallisation and
above room temperature is called warm working. when compared to hot working it offers the
advantage of improved dimensional control and higher quality surfaces; and compared to cold
working it offers advantages of extensive deformation without intermediate annealing
• The temperature range for cold warm and hot working of metals in terms of their melting
points are given below
cold working T<0.3Tm
warm working T= 0.3 to 0.5Tm
hot working T>0.6 Tm
 STRAIN HARDENING

The most important result of cold work in strengthening of metals. with increasing amount of
deformation the resistance of metal for further deformation constantly increases. Thus
strength and hardness increases while ductility decreases. this phenomena called strain
hardening on work hardening. The strain hardening is due to distorted grains and induced
residual stresses. the effect of cold work can be eliminated by process called and annealing
with consists of heating and cold worked metal to a suitable temperature.

Recovery Recrystallisation and Grain Growth

1. Recovery: Recovery it is the initial stage in which internal stresses are eliminated and there is
no appreciable reduction in strength and hardness. Further, it will not effect the structure.

Internal stress are removed are eliminated

Not affect the strength and hardness
Not affect the structure
2. Recrystallisation: Recrystallisation follows recovery. This stage results in the formation of new
stress free grain. Thus the process of creating new grains in a cold worked metal is known as
expression known as recrystallisation and the temperature at which new grains are formed is called
recrystallisation temperature.

Creating new grain in a cold worked metal

This temp. recrystallisation temp.
Pure metal Recrystallisation temp. less
This temperature below the melting point (.3 Tm )
Recrystallisation at room temperature for alloy (.5Tm)
Tensile strength reduced ,ductility reduced , improve corrosion resistance

3 Grain growth: results due to further increasing the temperature or keeping the structure at higher
temperature for longer duration. Large grain size metals are highly ductile but of low strength and
hardness. Therefore coarse grain are not desirable in final structure.

Increase temperature, keeping the structure at high temp for long duration
Large grain size metals are highly ductile low strength and hardness
Coarse grains are not suitable for final structure
 Recrystallisation temperature

Metal Minimum Recrystallisation Melting Point (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Lead Below 0°c 327

Tin Below Room Temp. 232

Cadmium Approx. Room Temp. 321

Zinc 20 To 120 419

Copper 120 To 240 1,083

Magnesium 120 To 160 650

Aluminium 160 To 280 660

Silver 280 960

Gold 280 1,060

Iron 450 1,540

Platinum 450 1,773

Nickel 600 1,455

Molybdenum 950 2,622

Tantalum 1000 2,996

Tungsten 1200 3,410

Effect of three stages
DEFORMATION OF METAL
Deformation
The material undergoes a change in shape or dimensions under
the action of applied stress. The change in the form of material
under the action of applied force is called deformation. The
degree to which material deforms depends on the magnitude of
force
Types of deformation 1-Changes in the inter 2-Deform beyond the
1. Elastic deformation atomic spacing and the
stretching of inter
elastic limit permanent
or non recoverable
2. Plastic deformation atomic bonds deformation occurs
1. Elastic Deformation:
Elastic deformation is non permanent i.e. the piece of metal returns to its original
shape when the applied force is removed. Thus deformation that disappear after
release of deforming force is elastic deformation. Elastic deformation is manifested as
small changes in the inter atomic spacing and stretching of inter atomic bonds. When
the deforming force is released, the atoms return to its original position and crystal
restores to its original shape.
2. Plastic Deformation:
when a piece of metal is deformed beyond on the elastic limit, permanent or non
recoverable deformation occurs. Permanent deformation which remains even after the
deforming force is removed is called is called plastic deformation. Plastic deformation
corresponds to the large displacement relative to one another and upon removal of
deforming force they do not return to their original positions.
 Mechanism of plastic deformation

The plastic deformation in metal occurs by 2 mechanisms.

1. Slip and
2. Twinning
Plastic Deformation by Slip
In slip mechanism one portion or block of crystal slides over the other under the action of
shear stress. This displacement takes place on a crystallographic plane of higher atomic
density, and in the direction of higher linear density. This plane is called slip plane and the
direction in which slip takes place is called slip direction. Plastic deformation by slip is
illustrated in figure. It may be noted that applied tensile stress can also produce a shear
stress within the crystal. This stress is resolved component of tensile stress on slip plane
along the slip direction.

Slip of atoms on a slip plane

Tensile stress produce shear stress with in the
crystal shear stress is the resolved component
of tensile stress on slip plane along the slip
Slip in tension direction
Slip system :The combination of slip plane and slip direction is called slip system

Crystal structure Slip system Slip system No. of slip places

(Slip plane ) (Slip direction)
FCC (111) [110] 12
BCC (110) [111] 12
HCP (001) [1120] 3

BCC HCP
FCC
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Plastic deformation in the certain metals can also occur by mechanics of twinning. In
twinning shear stress can produce and atomic displacements such that the orientations
of parts of crystal lattice forms the mirror image of original lattice ( undeformed part
of lattice).
The plane of symmetry between two portions is called twinning plane.
In twinning shear stress
can produce atomic
displacements that is
orientations of part of
crystal lattice forms a
mirror image of the
original lattice.
The plane of symmetry
between two portions is
called twinning plane.
Twinning occurs in BCC
and HCP crystal
structures.
Undeformed crystal Twinned crystal
Plastic deformation by twinning occurs in metals having BCC and HCP crystal
structure at low temperatures and at high rate of loading, it may be denoted slip
process restricted under the conditions

Difference between slip and twinning

slip Twinning
 TABLE

Slip Twinning
 Involves shear displacement of an entire  Every atomic plane is displaced by and
block of the Crystal definite distance
 slipped portion of Crystal has the same  Twinned portion of Crystal is the mirror
orientation as the original lattice image of the original lattice
 Required low stress to cause  Requires more stress to cause
deformation deformation
 The atomic movement are over a large  The atomic moments are over fraction of
atomic distance . atomic distance

Critical resolved shear stress

Consider a single crystal subjected to a tensile stress. The stress can be resolved along the slip plane
in the slip direction. This is termed as resolved shear stress. The shear stress required to produce slip
called critical resolved shear stress. Its value depends not only on the applied Stress, but also on the
orientation of slip plane and direction within the plane.

let Φ =angle between normal to slip plane and tensile axis and
λ = angle between slip direction and tensile axis
 Critical resolved shear stress
Area of slip plane =

Component of applied force along slip plane =

Critical resolved shear stress =

……………………………….(i)

Equation (i) gives critical resolved shear stress and is known as Schmid’s law
The shear stress is max. when
 Table

Metal Structure Slip system critical resolved

Slip plane slip shear system
direction
Copper FCC (111) [110] 0.5
Aluminium FCC (111) [110] 0.8
Iron BCC (110) [111] 27.5
Molybdenum BCC (110) [111] 72
Cobalt HCP (0001) [1120] 6.7
Magnesium HCP (0001) [1120] 0.45
 Section 5
Significance of Dislocations
 Plastic deformation refers to irreversible
deformation or change in shape that occurs
when the force or stress that caused it is
removed.
 Elastic deformation - Deformation that is fully
recovered when the stress causing it is
removed.
 Dislocation density - The total length of
dislocation line per cubic centimeter in a
material.

20
 Section 6
Schmid’s Law
 Schmid’s law -The relationship between shear stress, the
applied stress, and the orientation of the slip system—
that is,    cos  cos 
 Critical resolved shear stress - The shear stress required
to cause a dislocation to move and cause slip.

21
 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a
trademark used herein under license.

Figure 14 (a) A resolved shear stress τ is produced on a slip

system. (Note: (ø + λ) does not have to be 90°.) (b)
Movement of dislocations on the slip system deforms the
material. (c) Resolving the force.

22
 Example 10
Calculation of Resolved Shear Stress
Apply the Schmid’s law for a situation in which the single
crystal is at an orientation so that the slip plane is
perpendicular to the applied tensile stress.
/ Thomson Learning
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing

Figure 15 When the slip

plane is perpendicular to
the applied stress σ, the
angle λ is 90° and no shear
stress is resolved.

23
Example 10 SOLUTION
Suppose the slip plane is perpendicular to the
applied stress σ, as in Figure 4.15. Then, ø = 0o, λ =
90o, cos λ = 0, and therefore τr = 0. As noted before, the
angles f and l can but do not always add up to 90o. Even
if the applied stress s is enormous, no resolved shear
stress develops along the slip direction and the
dislocation cannot move. Slip cannot occur if the slip
system is oriented so that either λ or ø is 90o.

24
 Example 11
Design of a Single Crystal Casting Process
We wish to produce a rod composed of a single crystal of
pure aluminum, which has a critical resolved shear stress of
148 psi. We would like to orient the rod in such a manner
that, when an axial stress of 500 psi is applied, the rod
deforms by slip in a 45o direction to the axis of the rod and
actuates a sensor that detects the overload. Design the rod
and a method by which it might be produced.
Example 11 SOLUTION
Dislocations begin to move when the resolved shear stress
τr equals the critical resolved shear stress, 148 psi. From
Schmid’s law:
τr = σ cos λ cos ø; or
148 psi = (500 psi) cos λ cos ø

25
Example 11 SOLUTION (Continued)

Because we wish slip to occur at a 45o angle to the axis of

the rod, λ = 45o, and:

Therefore, we must produce a rod that is oriented such

that λ = 45o and ø = 65.2o. Note that ø and λ do not
add to 90o.
We might do this by a solidification process. We
would orient a seed crystal of solid aluminum at the
bottom of a mold. Liquid aluminum could be introduced
into the mold. The liquid begins to solidify from the
starting crystal and a single crystal rod of the proper
orientation is produced.
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 Section 7
Influence of Crystal Structure
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
 Number of Slip Systems
 Cross-slip - A change in the slip system of a
dislocation.

27
28
 Strengthening Mechanisms
Dislocation Motion
 Contd…
The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of
dislocations to move.
Hardness and strength (both yield and tensile) are related to the ease
with which plastic deformation can be made to occur.
By reducing the mobility of dislocations, the mechanical strength can
be increased in materials.
All strengthening mechanisms rely on this simple principle:
Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material
harder and stronger.
Strengthening mechanisms for single-phase metals
• Grain size reduction,
• Solid-solution alloying, and
• Strain hardening
 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
Grain boundary acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for 2 reasons:
1. Because the two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing
into grain B will have to change its direction of motion; this becomes
more difficult as the crystallographic misorientation increases.
2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in a
discontinuity of slip planes from one grain into the other.

A fine-grained material (one that

has small grains) is harder and
stronger because the it has a
greater total grain boundary area
to impede dislocation motion
Also called Grain boundary
Strengthening

Hall Petch Equation:

 Example
Design of a Mild Steel

The yield strength of mild steel with an average grain size of

0.05 mm is 20,000 psi. The yield stress of the same steel with
a grain size of 0.007 mm is 40,000 psi. What will be the
average grain size of the same steel with a yield stress of
30,000 psi? Assume the Hall-Petch equation is valid and that
changes in the observed yield stress are due to changes in
dislocation density.
Example 13 SOLUTION

Thus, for a grain size of 0.05 mm the yield stress is

20  6.895 MPa = 137.9 MPa.
(Note:1,000 psi = 6.895 MPa). Using the Hall-Petch equation
32
Example 13 SOLUTION (Continued)

For the grain size of 0.007 mm, the yield stress is 40 

6.895 MPa = 275.8 MPa. Therefore, again using the Hall-
Petch equation:

Solving these two equations K = 18.43 MPa-mm1/2, and

σ0 = 55.5 MPa. Now we have the Hall-Petch equation as
σy = 55.5 + 18.43 d-1/2
If we want a yield stress of 30,000 psi or 30  6.895 =
206.9 MPa, the grain size will be 0.0148 mm.
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 Solid Solution Strengthening
Strengthening and hardenening of metals by alloying with impurity
atoms that may form either substitutional or interstitial solid
solution.

Impurity atoms can be smaller or larger than the host atoms.

 Contd…
• An impurity atom smaller than
host atom, exerts tensile strains
on the surrounding crystal lattice

• A larger substitutional atom

imposes compressive strains
in its vicinity

• Lattice strain field

interactions between dislocations
and the impurity atoms occurs,
and, consequently, dislocation
movement is restricted.
 Strain Hardening
• Phenomenon whereby a ductile metal
becomes harder and stronger as it is
plastically deformed
• It is also called work hardening or
cold working
 Contd…
• During plastic deformation, the number of dislocations increases
dramatically.
• Consequently, the average distance of separation between
dislocations decreases
• On the average, dislocation–dislocation strain interactions are
repulsive. The net result is that the motion of a dislocation is
hindered by the presence of other dislocations.
• As the dislocation density increases, the resistance to dislocation
motion by other dislocations becomes more pronounced.
• Thus, the imposed stress necessary to deform a metal increases
with increasing cold work.
• Strain hardening is often utilized commercially to enhance the
mechanical properties of metals during fabrication
 Two mechanisms in multi phase materials
Precipitation Hardening & Dispersion Hardening

Precipitation Hardening
• Strength and hardness of some metal alloys are enhanced by the
formation of extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a
second phase within the original phase matrix
• This is accomplished by phase transformations that are induced
by appropriate heat treatments
• The process is called precipitation hardening because the small
particles of the new phase are termed precipitates
• Age hardening is also used to designate this procedure because
the strength develops with time or as the alloy ages. This increase
in strength is due to precipitation hardening mechanism
 Contd…
Age Hardened Aluminum Alloy System
 Dispersion Strengthening
Tiny particles of one phase (usually hard and strong) are introduced
into a second phase which is weaker and ductile.
The soft phase is usually continuous and present in larger amounts is
called matrix

The hard strengthening phase is called the dispersed phase.

The matrix bears the major portion of an applied load
The small dispersed particles hinder or impede the motion of
dislocations.
Thus, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and tensile
strengths & hardness improve.