CHAPTER 5 original positions when stress is removed.

The extent to
which the atoms can move and still return to their original
positions is the limit of elastic deformation. Beyond this
IRON AND STEEL extent, the pattern cannot be distorted without slippage
Iron in its various forms, including steel, is by far the along a plane or parallel planes through the grains. Any
most important of the metals used in the construction distortion in this range is plastic or permanent.
industry. All forms of iron and steel are included in the term The final temperature and rate of heating do not affect
ferrous metals. They are manufactured to meet a wide the internal structure at the time materials are melted to
variety of specifications for various uses. Chemical make pig iron or when pig iron is melted to make iron or
composition and internal structure are accurately controlled steel. However, the rate of cooling is important. Rapid
during manufacturing. Therefore, strength and other cooling causes large
mechanical properties can be determined with a high degree
of reliability.
Ferrous products are fabricated in shops to desired size
and shape. The finished products are ordinarily delivered to a
construction site ready to be installed, with inspection and
testing completed. Ferrous metals are seldom damaged
during transportation because of their strength and
hardness. Therefore, people in the construction field have
little opportunity to control the quality of iron or steel.
Compared to aggregates, asphalt concrete, or port-land
cement concrete, all of which are partially "manufactured"
during installation at the construction site, there is little that
can be done to improve or harm a ferrous metal product
once it leaves the fabrication shop.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION crystals. Metal with large crystals is more brittle and does not
Iron and steel appear to be smooth and uniform, yet they have the strength, ductility, or shock resistance of metal with
consist of particles called grains or crystals that can be the smaller crystals caused by slower cooling.
distinguished under a microscope. The grains are formed as However, large crystals produce better machinability. Any
the metal passes from the liquid to the solid state. This elongation and alignment of grains in one direction will
internal crystalline structure called the constitution increase the strength of the metal to resist stresses in that
determines to a great extent what mechanical properties the direction. The means of producing ferrous metals, both the
metal has. refining with heat and the working into final shape, affect the
mechanical properties of the material.
Each grain consists of a symmetrical pattern of atoms No ferrous metal is pure iron. All include the elements
which is the same in all iron and steel. The grains are not all shown in Figure S-1, which have great effect on the
similar because they press on each other as they form, properties of the metal, even if present in very small
causing variations in size, shape, and arrangement. The size, amounts. Phosphorus occasionally may not be included.
shape, and arrangement of grains account for many of the Chemical content is determined by the composition of the
differences in the behavior of various irons and steels. iron ore, the way in which the metal is heated, and the
Some types of iron and steel also contain a different elements added. Iron ore contains varying percentages of
kind of grain interspersed among the typical grains. These manganese, silicon, and sulfur, and may or may not contain
have an influence on the material's behavior. The internal some phosphorus. Carbon comes from the burning coke, and
structure is determined by the way the metal is cooled and additional carbon may be added to the molten metal. Excess
by the way the metal is given its final shape. Grain size, sulfur may be removed by the addition of manganese.
shape, and arrangement are generally the same throughout a Generally speaking, longer or hotter treatment in a
finished piece of metal, but special procedures can be used to furnace decreases the percentages of carbon, manganese,
make them different in different areas of the same piece. phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. Increases are made by adding
The strength of the metal depends on the cohesion of the desired element to the liquid metal. Other elements also
the atoms in each crystal and the cohesion between adjacent may be added to the liquid metal (refer to Figure 5-7).
crystals. In this respect, the structure is somewhat like that of
aggregate surrounded by adhesive to make concrete. Instead PRODUCTION OF FERROUS METALS
of adhesion holding the crystals or grains together, an atomic The first step in the manufacture of iron or steel is to
bond which is much stronger holds them. Iron and steel produce a low grade of iron in a continuously operating
therefore have a higher tensile strength than any aggregate- furnace called a blast furnace. These furnaces are about 200
adhesive combination. ft high and about 50 ft in diameter (Figure 5-2). Iron ore,
Strain of any kind consists of movement of the atoms, coke, and limestone are loaded continuously at the top. Iron
closer together in compression or farther apart in tension. ore is an oxide of iron found in nature mixed with rock or soil
Atoms arranged close together allow more stretching or, in called gangue. Coke is produced by heating coal to drive the
other words, more ductility than less-concentrated atomic impurities out. It then burns with greater heat than coal.
arrangements. As long as the atoms retain their spatial Limestone is a type of rock that occurs in nature. Burning the
relationships, even in a distorted way, they return to their coke and supporting the combustion with a strong blast of
hot air melt the iron ore and limestone at a temperature of prevents this type of iron from being one of the major
about 1500°F (815°C). The heat melts the iron, frees it of construction materials.
oxygen, and forms carbon monoxide gas, which imparts
carbon to the liquid iron.
Melting permits separation of iron from the gangue,
which combines with the molten limestone to form slag. Iron
is much heavier than slag, so there is a natural separation of
the two as they melt. Iron flows to the bottom of the furnace
and molten slag floats on the iron. Iron is removed from a tap
near the bottom and slag from a tap slightly higher. These are
removed a half dozen times per 24 hours of op-eration. Use
of the slag as an aggregate is discussed in Chapter 2. The iron The types of iron more common to the construction
flows into molds and is allowed to solidify into shapes called industry are gray and white cast iron, malleable cast iron, and
pigs, or it is taken in a ladle while still liquid to be refined into wrought iron. Cast iron is a general term denoting ferrous
steel or a better grade of iron. In either case, the product of metals composed primarily of iron, carbon, and silicon, and
the blast furnace is called pig iron. shaped by being cast in a mold. They are too brittle to be
The makeup of the iron resulting from this process is not shaped any other way. The brittleness is caused by the large
accurately controlled. amount of carbon, which also increases strength.
It contains about 4 percent carbon, about 2 percent silicon, Wrought iron is highly refined iron with slag deliberately
about 1 percent manganese, and about 0.05 percent sulfur. It incorporated but not in chemical union with the iron. The
may contain up to 2 percent phosphorus depending on the slag forms one-directional fibers uniformly distributed
type of ore used. throughout the metal. Chemical compositions of various
Pig iron is not useful for construction because it is weak types of iron are shown with cast steel in Figure 5-3.
and brittle, although it is very hard. The general term iron Pig iron is remelted in small furnaces to make the cast
refers to a ferrous metal that is of a higher quality metals. Chemical composition is controlled by the addition of
scrap iron or steel of various kinds and of silicon and
manganese as needed. The molten metal flows from the
furnace to a ladle from which it is poured into molds to be
formed into useful shapes. This operation is called casting.
The materials of which molds are made are listed here:

molding sand: a cohesive mixture of sand and clay.

loam: a cohesive mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
shell mold: a mold consisting of a mixture of sand and resin
that hardens when heated prior to the casting.
metal dies: molds machined to the proper mold shape.

The first three types of mold are used once and broken
to remove the casting. The dies may be used thousands of
times. The first two types are formed around a pattern, which
is usually made of wood. For a shell mold the pattern is made
of metal which is heated to solidify the mold material. The
size of the pattern in all cases must allow for cooling
shrinkage of the casting. Patterns may be reused, whether
wood or metal.
The mold material is packed around the pattern, which
FIGURE 5-2 Typical blast furnace. has been heated in the case of a shell mold. Removal of the
pattern leaves a mold of the desired shape. The molds,
than pig iron. To produce useful iron or steel, a second except a few very simple ones, are made in two parts and
melting is needed for further purification. In the future, iron placed together for.
and steel will be produced in one operation, but it is not yet
economically feasible.

Iron
It is possible to refine pig iron until it is nearly pure iron
containing little more than traces of impurities. In this form,
iron is suitable for construction. It is highly resistant to
corrosion, highly ductile, and readily machined. It is drawn
into wires and rolled into sheets for roofing, siding, and
corrugated pipe. Vitreous enamel coatings adhere well to this
type of iron. Despite these qualities, the high cost of refining

FIGURE 5-4 Mold and casting.

the casting. Sometimes more than two parts are needed and and resistance to abrasion. There is then a loss of ductility
intermediate sections are placed between the upper and and toughness. Brittleness is eliminated by removal of carbon
lower molds. Cores are inserted to supplement the mold from solution, and machinability is improved by the carbon
when necessary. A typical mold is shown in Figure 5-4. lumps. Malleable iron is used for pipe fittings, guardrail
Manhole frames and covers, storm water inlet grates, pump fittings, and other items which require machining and which
casing, fire hydrants, sinks, and bathtubs are made of iron are subject to shock loads.
castings. Wrought iron is made by refining pig iron in a furnace in
Iron is also cast in centrifugal molds, which are of a manner similar to the refining of steel. The iron silicate slag
cylindrical shape with metal or sand linings. They are spun is melted, and the relatively pure molten iron is poured into
rapidly as the molten iron is poured, forcing the metal to the the slag. A pasty mixture of the two is formed, with the slag
outside by centrifugal force and causing it to solidify as a evenly distributed as individual particles. The mixture forms a
hollow cylinder. Iron pipe for water, sewage, and gas is made semisolid ball, which is dumped out and pressed into a
this way. rectangular block, squeezing the excess slag out in the
The projections shown in Figure 5-4 must be broken off process. The block is rolled to the desired shape, aligning the
and machined smooth. After casting, the metal surface has slag as strings or ribbons in the direction of rolling. It is then
the roughness of the mold material. Even if die cast, the readily shaped further by drawing, bending, or forging, and
surface is not smooth because of cooling shrinkage. Certain can be made into thin, intricate shapes. It is easily welded
areas of a casting may be required to fit tightly against and machined.
another surface. These areas must be machined to a smooth The fibrous structure of wrought iron results in a
finish. Often castings are made in two parts and bolted material with different mechanical properties parallel and
together. perpendicular to the fibers or the axis of the grains.
The contact surfaces are machined for a tight fit, and bolt Tensile strength is 10 to 15 percent lower across the fibers
holes are drilled through the flanges of the two castings than parallel to them, and ductility is only about 20 percent
(Figure 5-5). as much. Shearing strength across the fibers is much
Gray cast iron, the most widely used type of iron, has a
high carbon content and contains large numbers of graphite
flakes. The flakes give a gray appearance to a fractured
surface. Properties of gray iron include low viscosity when
molten (so that fairly intricate castings can be made),
excellent machinability, high resistance to abrasion, and
rather poor ductility and toughness. ASTM A48, Gray Iron
Castings, contains specifications for gray cast iron.

White cast iron contains its carbon completely

combined with the iron. A fractured surface appears bright greater than shearing strength along the fibers. A rod,
white. The advantages of white iron over gray iron are that it twisted until it fails in torsion, comes apart along the axis,
is harder and more resistant to wear from abrasion. separating between fibers.
However, it is more difficult to machine, less resistant to Wrought iron has excellent corrosion resistance which is
corrosion, more brittle, and more difficult to cast. greater on faces that have been rolled than on sheared or
By controlling chemical composition and cooling rate, machined faces. Wrought iron pipe is used extensively where
castings with cores of gray iron and surfaces of white iron can corrosion resistance is needed. This type of pipe has
be made. These are called chilled iron castings. White iron is threaded joints because wrought iron is easily machined. Cast
used in machinery such as crushers, grinders, chutes, and and ductile iron pipe joints must be of another kind. Wrought
mixers where resistance to abrasion is critical. iron is also used extensively for ornamental ironwork, as well
Cast iron with the carbon reformed from flakes into tiny as for miscellaneous ironwork where corrosion resistance,
spheroids by the addition of magnesium to the molten iron is machinability, or ductility and malleability are needed (Figure
known as ductile iron. The basic nature of the iron is not 5-6).
changed, except that tensile strength, ductility, and the
ability to withstand shock loads are greatly increased. Ductile
iron pipe is used for water, sewage, and gas.
Steel
Malleable cast iron consists of white iron made tough Pig iron is further oxidized in another furnace at about
and ductile by anneal-ing, which consists of heating to about 3000°F (1650°C) to produce steel. Most steel is made by the
1600°F (870°C), holding that temperature for a time, and basic oxygen process, electric-arc process, open-hearth
cooling very slowly to about 1275°F (710°C). This process process, or vacuum process. Each has unique features, but in
requires several days. During the entire process, carbon is all cases, pig iron, scrap steel, and sometimes iron ore are
precipitated from the solution as small lumps in the metal melted together with a flux of limestone or lime. The process
until there is no combined carbon. Some carbon may be is a repetition of the blast-furnace operation with variations.
allowed to remain combined to increase hardness, strength,
The purpose is the same to remove impurities. Impurities are
removed as gases and in the slag. Steels are identified according to a classification system
Phosphorus and sulfur are reduced to less than 0.05 of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Each type of
percent of the steel. Manganese content is reduced to an steel is designated by a group of numbers. The first digit
amount from 0.2 to 2.0 percent; silicon from 0.01 to 0.35 indicates the class of steel. For example, carbon steel is
percent. The final amounts depend on the specifications for designated by No.
the steel. Carbon is the key element in controlling the 1 and nickel steel by No. 2. The next one or two digits
properties of ordinary steel called carbon stel. indicate the approximate percentage of the major alloying
Strength and hardness increase with an increase in carbon up element for alloy steels. The last two or three digits indicate
to about 1.2 percent. Bit-teness increases and ductility the carbon content in hundredths of a percent. The
decreases as carbon increases. Usually an amount less than classification system is outlined in Figure 5-8.
1.2 percent is specified in order to obtain a product Besides the key information shown directly by the
satisfactory in all respects. classification number, percentage ranges for all impurities
Carbon in an amount up to 2 percent is completely and alloying elements are also designated indirectly when the
soluble in molten iron, and when cooled, the mixture forms a system is used. The system provides a simplified way to
solid chemical solution. Carbon in greater amounts forms specify steel. For ex-ample, a 1018 steel is a carbon steel
separate grains of graphite or iron carbide throughout the containing 0.15 to 0.20 percent carbon, 0.60 to 0.90 percent
metal. manganese, 0.040 maximum percent phosphorus, and 0.050
Steel is detined as a chemical union of iron and carbon maximum percent sulfur; and 4320 steel is a molybdenum
(carbon is, therefore, less than 2 percent by weight) plus steel containing 0.17 to 0.22 percent carbon, 0.45 to 0.65
other elements. This definition does not exclude every kind percent manganese, 0.040 percent phosphorus, 0.040
of iron. However, almost all iron contains carbon in excess of percent sulfur, 0.20 to 0.35 percent silicon, 1.65 to 2.00
2 percent and steel usually contains less than 1.2 percent percent nickel, 0.40 to 0.60 percent chromium, and 0.20 to
carbon. Therefore, it is usually obvious whether a ferrous 0.30 percent molybdenum.
metal is iron or steel. Customary terminology should be used The American Iron and Steel Institute has adopted the
for borderline cases. The term iron is used to refer to cast SAE system with some variations and has added letter
iron, malleable cast iron, ductile iron, wrought iron, or pure prefixes to designate the steel-making process used and
iron. As can be seen in Figure 5-3, some of these metals may other letters to designate special conditions. These
have less than 2 percent carbon. designations are also shown in Figure 5-8.
Carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur are Figure 5-13 shows the American Institute of Steel
considered impurities because generally they must all be Construction, Inc. (AISC) system of designating structural
reduced below the amount found in iron ore. steel. Each steel is known by the number of the ASTM
However, when present in the correct amount, each one standard that describes it. However, manufacturers may call
improves the final product. them by trade names. The figure shows which rolled plates,
In some cases, due to the characteristics of the iron ore, bars, and shapes are made of each type of steel. As an
there is a deficiency of one or more of these elements, and example, it can be seen that A529 steel is carbon steel with a
they must be added to the molten steel. yield stress of 42 Ksi or more and ultimate tensile stress of 60
Any added element is considered an alloying element, to 85 Ksi, and that only shapes listed in group 1, table A of
but when only these five elements are involved, the steel is ASTM A6 and plates and bars up to z in. thickness are
not considered an alloy steel. Other elements may be added manufactured. ASTM AS29 specifies manufacturing methods,
to impart certain properties to steel. These are also called chemical content, and mechanical properties required of
alloying elements, and the steel that results is called alloy steel to be supplied when A529 steel is specified.
steel. Figure 5-7 shows the effects of alloying The chemical composition of steel is determined by the
elements. composition of the materials used, the temperature, the
length of time in the furnace, the medium surrounding the
steel (where air oxygen or vacuum) and whether open fame
or heat. The surrounding medium depends on the process
used, and the other variables can be controlled for each
process. The steel is tested at intervals during the process,
and adjustments are made. Alloying elements are added just
before the melt is tapped to flow from the furnace to a ladle.
The steel may be poured directly from the ladle into molds to
make castings. Steel castings are made the same way and
used for the same purposes as iron castings. Steel is stronger
and tougher, but more expensive.
Most of the steel is poured into ingot molds prior to
further shaping. The ingots are of various sizes and shapes,
depending on future plans for them. Their weight ranges
from hundreds of pounds to many tons. They are tall
compared to their cross sections, Which are square or
rectangular. A common size is about 6 it tall with a cross
section ft by 2 ft and a weight over 4 tons. An ingot is cooled
to a uniform temperature throughout in a soaking pit, which
is a furnace where the steel temperature is allowed to Rolling consists of compressing and shaping an ingot
decrease to about 2300°F (1260°C). It is then taken to a mill into a useful shape by squeezing it through a succession of
to be given its final shape. rollers, each succeeding set of rollers squeezing the material
Steel properties are influenced to a great extent by the smaller in cross section and closer to the final shape. The
mechanical operations that change an ingot of steel into a piece being rolled becomes longer and wider as it is
useful shape. The operations are rolling, extruding, compressed. It may be made narrower by cutting or by rolling
after turning 90° so that the rolling reduces the width. A wide
variety of cross sections useful for construction of buildings
and bridges can be rolled in long pieces by means of specially
shaped rollers (Figure 5-9). Flat sheets can be rolled by rollers
of a constant diameter. Corrugated sheets can be rolled from
flat sheets by using corrugated rollers. Corrugated steel roof
deck can be seen in Figure 5-21. Hot rolling usually precedes
cold rolling until the steel is close to its final shape. Hot rolling
is usually the first step in reducing the size of an ingot prior to
extruding, drawing, or forging.
Extrusion consists of forcing a billet of hot, plastic steel
through a die of the desired shape to produce a continuous
length of material of reduced cross section in the shape of
the die. The resulting product has the shape of a rolled
product. That is, it is long with a constant cross section.
However more intricate shapes can be formed by extrusion
than rolling, and the surface is of higher quality. An extrusion
is made in one operation rather than repetitive operations as
in the case of rolling. An extruded section can sometimes be
used in place of a section that requires several operations if
formed any other way (Figure 5-10). Extrusions can be made
with cross sections having a maximum dimension of nearly 2
ft.
Drawing consists of pulling steel through a small die to
form wire or a small rod of round, square, oval, or other cross
section. Steel is hot rolled to form a rod of a size not much
larger than the shape to be drawn. It is then finished by cold
drawing, forging, and casting. All except casting may be draw-ing. Seamless steel pipe may also be finished by cold
performed while the steel is in a plastic condition at a drawing over a round, bullet-shaped mandrel to form a
temperature of about 2000°F (1090°C), or as low as room hollow center and through a die to form the outside. The and
temperature. The operations are called hot working or cold better machinability.
working. advantages of cold drawing are a smoother
Hot working breaks up coarse grains and increases
density by closing tiny air holes and forcing the grains closer
together. Cold working elongates grains in the direction of
the steel elongation, increases strength and hardness, and
decreases ductility. Cold working results in more accurately
finished products, because there is no cooling shrinkage to be
estimated. The surfaces are smoother, because oxide scale
does not form as it does during hot working. Overworking,
whether hot or cold, causes brittleness.
For all but very large objects, working to final shape is
done in two stages. The first stage consists of squeezing the
ingot into a smaller cross section between two rollers, called
blooming rolls, which exert a very high pressure. This
operation is always performed while the steel is hot. The
ingot is rolled into a much longer piece with a square or
rectangular cross section closer to its final size. The desired
cross section is obtained by turning the ingot 90° to be rolled
on the sides as it is passed back and forth through the rolls. If
it is approximately square in cross section, it is called a bloom
if large (over 36 sq in.) and a billet if smaller. It is called a slab
if the width is twice the thickness or more. The appropriate
shape is used to manufacture beams, rails, plate, sheets, FIGURE 5-9 Typical rolled sections (AISC).
wire, pipe, bolts, or other items by one of the following Forging consists of deforming steel by pressure or blows
methods. into a desired shape. The forging may be made from an ingot
or from a rolled shape. The steel is usually heated to a rolling, or after fabri-cation. Specimens for testing are poured
semisolid state at a temperature over 2000°F (1090°C). In separately as an ingot is being made or are cut from the
some cases it is forged cold. It is forced to fill the shape waste material of a rolled member. Specimens may be of
between dies by pressure or blows of the upper die upon the various sizes.
lower one. The shape may be formed more accurately by
successive forgings, each succeeding operation performed
with smaller dies closer to the desired final shape.
Instead, the final shape may be achieved by machining. Many
shapes can be either cast or forged. Economics often
determine which method is used. However, forging is
preferred if strength of the part is important. Forging
improves the mechanical properties of the metal, as does
other hot working or cold working, and produces a stronger,
more ductile, more uniform product with smaller grain size
than is produced by casting.
After steel cools and is given its final shape, further
heating and cooling processes can change the internal
structure and thereby impart certain properties.
The typical tensile test specimen is a 0.500-in.-diameter
cylinder machined to a smooth, accurate circular cross
section. The specimen is clamped at each end or threaded
into a testing machine that applies an axial pull at a uniformly
increasing rate until the specimen breaks. As the pulling
proceeds, the force is constantly indicated in digits or by a
dial on the machine. Tensile stress is calculated by dividing
the force by the original cross-sectional area.
Before the force is applied, two marks are made on the
specimen 2 in. apart in the direction of the applied force. The
Heat treatment consists of heating, holding the metal at two marks are drawn farther apart as the specimen deforms
the high temperature, and cooling. Even here the rate of under the tension. Strain is calculated by dividing the
heating is not important, except for high-carbon alloyed increase in distance between the marks by the original 2-in.
steels. The metal is held at the upper temperature so that it distance.
can be heated to a uniform temperature throughout. The Stress and strain are determined at regular intervals
rate of cooling is very important. from readings of force and the measured increase in distance
Normalizing consists of heating the steel to a between the marks. A curve of stress versus strain is plotted
temperature of about 1500°F (815°C) or higher, depending to determine whatever information is desired. The yield
on the type of metal, and cooling several hundred degrees stress and rupture stress are often specified as lower limits
slowly in air. This process increases uniformity of structure. for acceptance of steel. (Refer to Figure 1-4a for a typical
Annealing consists of heating the steel to a temperature stress-strain diagram for steel.) In many cases, a complete
slightly lower than for normalizing and cooling it several stress-strain curve is plotted by an automatic recorder as the
hundred degrees very slowly, usually in a furnace. Methods test proceeds.
vary somewhat depending on the purpose, which may be to Automatic devices are available to determine yield
soften the metal, produce a special structure, facilitate strength by noting the strength at the correct plastic
machining, facilitate cold shaping, or reduce stresses. (permanent) deformation as the sample is being tested
Quenching consists of cooling steel very rapidly in oil, without plotting a stress-strain curve.
water, or brine from a temperature of about 1500°F (815°C).
Quenching increases hardness and strength, but reduces
ductility and toughness. Residual stresses are introduced by STEEL PROTECTION
quenching and should be relieved by tempering. Rusting is oxidation or combining of the iron with
Tempering consists of reheating the quenched steel to a oxygen, which occurs in the presence of moisture. It
temperature of 300 to proceeds more rapidly where there is noticeable dampness,
1200°F (150 to 650°C) and cooling in air to reduce the but it occurs in any air with a relative humidity higher than 70
residual stresses and increase ductility. Heating to the lower percent. It progresses more rapidly in salt air and in an
temperature range produces greater hardness, strength, and industrial atmosphere. The thickness of metal lost by rusting
wear resistance, while higher heat produces greater is 1/2 mil (a mil is 0.001 in.) or less per year in average
toughness. conditions. It may be much higher in the presence of
industrial air pollution. The rust is formed from the solid
metal, reducing its size so that the member becomes weaker
STEEL TENSILE TEST and loses any decorative finish it might have. The rust
Mechanical tests for steel include tension, bending, hardness, penetrates deeper as time goes on. Painting the steel
and impact. For structural steel the tension, or tensile, test is prevents rust. However, painting is expensive and paint must
the most important (Figure 5-11). The purchaser may specify be replaced periodically at additional cost. Carbon steel may
that the test be performed on steel from the furnace, after
be made more rust resistant by the addition of copper as an over the surface. Stainless steel may be made harder at a
alloying element. sacrifice of some of the corrosion resistance.
Ordinary steel cannot be used where it is exposed to Stainless steels are available with various
high temperatures. At a very high temperature it melts to the characteristics, such as good corrosion resistance at high
liquid state, and it begins the process of liquifying at temperatures, no magnetic property, good weldability, and a
moderately high temperatures. Steel weakens at 800 to low coefficient of thermal expansion. For some kinds of
900°F (430 to 480°C) and cannot support any load at 1200°F stainless steel, the tendency toward galvanic corrosion when
(650°C). Steel may be used economically for structural in contact with other metals and a higher than normal
support of industrial furnaces, incinerators, and other heat- coefficient of thermal expansion can lead to trouble unless
producing de- precautions are taken in design.
vices, but it must be insulated from the heat. Heat-resisting steel contains chromium as the primary
Structural steel that is ordinarily subjected to normal alloying element. This steel does not lose a significant
temperatures may be subjected to great heat during an amount of strength at temperatures up to 1100°F (590°C). It
accidental fire. The steel will then melt or at least become can be hardened by heat treatment.
soft from the heat unless protected by insulation. Usually the
steel is encased in concrete to insulate it.
A fire must always be considered a possibility. However,
STRUCTURAL STEEL
if the possibility is remote and the cost of insulating is high Structural steel includes rolled shapes and plates used in
compared to the cost of failure from heat, it may be decided structural frames, connec-tors, plates, or bracing needed to
to leave the steel unprotected. A steel highway bridge, for hold the frame in place, and most other steel attached
example, is protected from the burning of an automobile by directly to the frame. Exceptions are grating and metal deck,
the concrete pavement, and the possibility of a damaging fire open-web steel joists, ornamental metal, stacks, tanks, and
under the bridge is usually very slight. Adding the weight of a steel required for assembly or erection of materials supplied
heat-protective covering over all the steel would greatly by trades other than structural steel fabricators or erectors.
increase the required bridge size and cost. Therefore, the Figure 5-12 shows a typical structural steel frame
steel is not insulated for fire protection. building under construction.
The protection of ordinary steel in a moderately Steel erection consists of connecting precut pieces of
corrosive atmosphere requires thorough cleansing of the rolled sections (see Figure 5-9) together as shown on
steel followed by the application of three coats of various construction drawings to form a structure.
types of oil-based paint with a total thickness of 4 mils (0.004 Yield stress (see Figure 1-4 for explanation) is used as a
in.). The prevention of rust can be made easier by careful basis for the design of all steel structures. It is the yield point
design to avoid pockets or crevices that hold water, spots for all structural steels that produce a yield
that are inaccessible for repainting, and sharp edges that are
difficult to coat with the required thickness of paint.
Another type of protection commonly used is
galvanizing, or coating with zinc or with zinc-pigmented
paints. Zinc adheres readily to iron or steel to form a tight
seal against the atmosphere. It prolongs the life of iron and
steel because it corrodes much more slowly than they do.
Zinc continues to protect the iron or steel even after it has
been eaten through in spots, because corrosion will take
place in the zinc in preference to the ferrous metal. The zinc
coating has a shiny, silvery appearance which is not suitable
for all uses.
Bituminous coatings are used to protect iron and steel
from the effects of atmosphere, water, or soil. The usefulness
of bitumens as protective coatings is dis cussed in Chapter 3.
The appearance and odor of bitumens make them unsuitable point on their stress-strain curves. This includes most
for many applications structural steels. It is the yield strength determined at a
Stainles steels, which are known as high-alloy steels, plastic (permanent) strain of 0.002 (0.2 percent) for steel
have chromium and nickel as their chief alloying elements. having no yield point. Of the steels listed in Figure 5-13, only
They contain 16 to 28 percent chromium and may contain up A514 is of this type. Yield stresses range from 24 to 100 Ksi
to 22 percent nickel. Chromium may be used alone or in for structural steels.
combination with nickel. Adding manganese increases Maximum allowable stresses (described in Chapter 1) in
ductility and acid resistance. Stainless steels have high compression, tension, and shear for various types of
resistance to corrosion, and their wide variety of finishes, structural members and connections and for various types of
from dull to mirrorlike, last indefinitely. They are used where loads are published by the American Institute of Steel
appearance or sanitation is important, such as in kitchens, Construction, Inc.
laboratories, and exterior building trim. They are also used (AISC), American Association of State Highway and
for mechanisms in wet or corrosive atmospheres, such as Transportation Officials (AASHTO), and other organizations.
rockers and rocker plates for bridges, water valves and gates, These published stresses are all computed by reducing the
and smokestack controls. Corrosion resistance is due to the yield stress for each type of steel by a safety factor. (Safety
forming of a thin, transparent coating of chromium oxide factors are discussed in Chapter 1.) The designer selects the
type of steel and the size and arrangement for each member
and connection so that the expected loads are carried
economically, without exceeding the published allowable
stresses.
Structural steels designated as carbon steel in Figure S-
13 are mild carbon steels containing 0.29 maximum percent
carbon, 1.20 maximum percent manganese, 0.04 maximum
percent phosphorus, and 0.05 maximum percent sulfur.
Silicon is required only for plates at 0.15 to 0.40 percent.
These steels have yield stresses from 32 to 42 Ksi. Strength of
these steels is closely related to carbon content. Corrosion
resistance may be doubled by adding copper. A36 is all-
purpose steel, widely used for buildings and bridges.
Alloying elements added to steel can impart properties
impossible to impart by heating and cooling or by working
(see Figure S-7). An important reason for adding alloys is to
improve mechanical properties. High-strength, low-alloy
steels contain alloying elements that improve mechanical
properties and resistance to rust. The total amount of
alloying elements added is 2 or 3 percent. Specifications for
these steels require that they meet certain performance stresses range from 42 to 50 Ksi. These steels also attain high
standards rather than certain chemical formulas. Each strength through finer structure occurring during cooling.
manufacturer has his own method of producing a product Those designated as quenched and tempered alloy steel
that meets the standards. in Figure S-13 are available only as plates. They also have the
Those designated as high-strength, low-alloy steel in carbon content of mild-carbon steel or low-carbon steel and
Figure 5-13 have the carbon content of mild carbon steel alloys of silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium,
with columbium, vanadium, nitrogen, or copper, or titanium, zirconium, copper, and boron. These steels have
combinations of them added as alloys in small amounts. yield stresses of 90 or 100 Ksi. These steels are intended for
Maximum percentages are as follows: carbon, 0.26; use in welded structures, and special precautions must be
manganese, 1.65; phosphorus, 0.04; sulfur, 0.05; and sili-con, taken to weld them. The steel is fully killed, fine grain. It must
0.40. These steels have yield stresses from 40 to 65 Ksi. be heated to at least 1650°F then quenched and tempered by
Strength is increased be--yond that of ordinary carbon steel reheating to not less than 1150°F and allowed to cool slowly.
by means of a finer structure that occurs during cooling with Quenching produces martensite causing great strength and
no additional heat treatment. hardness along with brittleness. Tempering greatly improves
Those designated as corrosion-resistant, high-strength, ductility and toughness, but at the cost of some reduction in
low-alloy steels in Figure 5-13 have four times the corrosion strength and hardness.
resistance of carbon structural steel or two times that of Judging by the high strengths of the alloy steels in Figure
carbon structural steel with copper and are also known as S-13, one might wonder why carbon steel is still used. Carbon
weathering steels. steel is so much cheaper by the pound that a member made
Exposure to the atmosphere forms a thin, rust-colored, of it may be cheaper than a smaller member of the same
protective coating of iron oxide, which eventually becomes strength made of stronger, more expensive steel. In addition
blue-gray and which prevents any further corrosion. to this, the size of many members
Two or three years are required for the coating to form
completely. The coating does not protect against corrosion
from concentrated, corrosive industrial fumes, from wetting
with salt water, or from being submerged in water or buried
in the ground. During the early stages of weathering,
rainwater dripping from the steel carries corroded materials
which stain concrete, brick, and other light-colored, porous
materials.
Weathering steels have the carbon content of mild-
carbon steel or low-carbon steel with various small
percentages of chromium, nickel, silicon, vanadium, tita-
nium, zirconium, molybdenum, copper, and columbium
added as alloys. Yield
is dictated by considerations other than strength, and they Steel, especially the more complicated shapes, may cool
cannot be smaller, no matter how strong the material is. In unevenly while being rolled. The final cooling then causes a
these cases, the least expensive material is used unless variation in the amount of shrinkage of various areas, which
corrosion resistance or heat resistance is of great results in curved or twisted members. These are straightened
importance. in the mill after rolling. Shapes that are to be used as beams
Steel is produced in mills to standard shapes; plates and are then deliberately curved upward so that when they
bars of standard thicknesses; pipe, tubing, plain rods, deflect downward in use they will be approximately straight.
deformed rods, and wire of standard diameters; and various The curve or camber is a smooth curve, roughly part of a
rolled shapes of standard dimensions. Figure 5-14 lists these circle, and may be applied over almost the entire length of
products. Designers ordinarily select standard shapes that the beam or between any two points specified, depending on
best suit their purposes and adapt their designs to conform how the beam is expected to deflect in use. The designer
to the shapes that are available. In some cases they modify specifies the curvature by designating the ordinate (also
standard shapes to conform to their design requirements. called camber) at the middle of the curve.
Some examples of modified standard shapes are T shapes cut Usually sufficient camber is induced to balance the
from W or S shapes, L's cut from C shapes, and tapered expected dead load deflection so that in use the beam will be
members fabricated from various shapes. straight except when deflected by live load. Camber is
Steel produced in a mill is not sent directly to a induced by bending the beam while the steel is cold.
construction project. It goes next to a fabricating shop. Detail Approximately a quarter of the mill-induced camber is lost
drawings that show exactly how separate parts fit together to before the beam reaches the construction site. The
form a structure are used to determine the finished lengths remainder is permanent.
and any fabrication needed to facilitate the assembly of the Camber for complicated loading arrangements may be
parts at the jobsite. Fabrication takes place in the shop as built into beams and also trusses at the fabricating shop. It is
much as possible to make field work simpler. done by rapid heating with a blowtorch of a short section of
the bottom of the beam, which attempts to expand but is
restrained by the cold steel on each side, resulting in
sufficient compression to cause permanent plastic shortening
in the heated area when it cools. As a result of the bottom
flange shortening, the beam or truss bows upward. This
method is also used in the shop and field to straighten
members that are accidentally bent.
Steel is painted in the fabricating shop with a "shop
coat" of paint having the required dry film thickness in mils
(one thousandth of an inch). The shop coat is the prime coat
of the protective paint system and will not protect against
corrosive atmospheres nor against prolonged exposure to
normal atmosphere. It is meant to protect the steel until it is
erected and painting can be completed.
The steel must be cleaned by wire brushing or
comparable means before painting. The paint may be applied
with a brush or roller or by spraying, dipping, or flow coating.
Required dry thickness of the paint film may be 1 mil or
The operations performed in the fabricating shop
more. Touch-up painting required to replace paint removed
include cutting or shearing to the correct length. Steel is cut
by handling after the shop coat is applied is the responsibility
with an oxygen torch machine or sheared with a mechanical
of the builder.
cutting device with a large blade that drops onto the steel to
Paint thickness may be measured with a dial
shear it to the correct length. When smoother ends are
comparator, dial indicator, or micrometer by measuring the
needed, the cut or sheared surfaces are finished by planing
thickness of painted metal, removing a small portion
or grinding to a smooth surface. Holes for rivets or bolts are
thickness. of paint, and measuring the thickness of bare
drilled through thick sections and punched through thinner
metal. The difference is the paint.
ones. Holes may also be punched and reamed smooth. If
Another method depends on the reduction in magnetic
connections are to be made by welding, the work is partially
force caused by a non-magnetic coat of paint between a
done in the fabricating shop. As a general rule, the less
permanent magnet and the magnetic metal covered by the
riveting, bolting, or welding left for the field, the more
paint. The thicker the coating, the greater the reduction in
efficient the entire operation is. Examples of fabrication are
magnetic force. A small magnet is placed in contact with the
shown in Figure 5-15.
paint, and its force field, which passes through the paint in
Open-web steel joists are fabricated of angles and rods
order to reach the steel, is measured. The value obtained is
and are stocked in standard lengths, grouped according to
converted to paint thickness by referring to a calibration
the roof load or floor load that they are able to support. They
curve for that apparatus. A variation of this method is to
are Warren trusses with a top chord fabricated to support a
measure the impedance to electric eddy currents set up by
roof deck or floor. They are designed to be spaced close
magnetism. Impedance to the flow of electricity through the
together and are available in lengths from 4 to 96 ft. Open-
paint is proportional to its thickness.
web steel joists can be seen in Figure 5-21.
 two pieces to be welded. A portable electric generator is
STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS connected to the
Steel members must be connected to form a structure.
They may be connected by riveting, welding, or bolting. A
connection is not designed on a purely rational basis as the
structural members are. Stresses at connections are so
complex that the connections are designed according to
empirical methods based on successful experience. A
connection includes a group of rivets or bolts or a
predetermined length of weld.

Riveting
Riveting was once the most common method of making
connections. It is now used only for shop connections, and
there only seldomly. Holes are punched or drilled through the
members to be connected, and a steel rivet (Figure 5-16)
slightly smaller than the holes is heated to a cherry red color
(1000 to 1950°F) and inserted through the holes. The head is
braced and the shank end is hammered until it flattens to a
head, compressing the members between the two rivet
heads, as shown in the figure.
Cooling of the rivet causes the rivet to shorten, compressing structural steel and to the welding rod, and either an
the members still further. alternating or a direct current is passed through the rod and
Welding the structural members when the rod touches or nearly
touches the members. The tip of the rod and some depth of
A welded connection is neat in appearance, and the
the base metal, called penetration, are melted. The two
metal of a weld is stronger than the metal being connected.
metals combine and harden upon cooling. The liquid metal
Weld metal is manufactured to more demanding
rapidly absorbs oxygen and nitrogen, which causes it to be
specifications than structural steel and is protected from the
brittle and lose its resistance to corrosion unless it is
atmosphere while cooling. The weld metal also benefits
protected from the atmosphere.
somewhat by combining with constituents of the welding rod
Four welding methods are allowed by the American
coating. The result is a steel with better crystalline structure
Institute of Steel Construction for structural work. In the
and higher mechanical properties.
shielded metal-are method, the metal welding rod is coated
Figure 5-17 shows typical welding arrow symbols used
with a flux, which melts as the weld metal melts and covers
to describe required weld properties. Chemical and
the molten metal, shielding it from the atmosphere. The flux
mechanical properties of weld metal must be matched to the
is partially converted to gas, which surrounds the working
metal being welded. Therefore, a wide variety of welding
area, helping to protect the weld from oxygen and nitrogen.
electrodes is avail-able. The American Welding Society and
Shielded metal-arc welding is a manual method suited for
ASTM have established a numbering system for electrodes.
field use.
All designations begin with the letter E, which is followed by a
The three other methods discussed here are suitable for
four- or five-digit number. The first two or three digits
semiautomatic or automatic use.
indicate the minimum tensile strength in kips per square
In the submerged-arc method, powdered flux is
inch. The next digit indicates the recommended welding
automatically spread ahead of the electrode and completely
positions. Digit 3 is for flat only; 2 is for flat and horizontal,
covers the welding arc and also protects the new weld metal.
and 1 is for all positions including vertical and overhead. The
In gas metal-arc welding, a coil of electrode wire is
next digit indicates current supply and recommended
constantly fed to a holder as the electrode melts. The new
welding techniques. The four welding positions are shown in
weld metal is protected from the air by COz or other gas
Figure S-18.
constantly fed to the location as the welding proceeds.
Welding consists of heating the two pieces to be joined
In flux-cored arc welding, the welding rod consists of a
until they melt enough to fuse. The heat comes from an
core of flux surrounded by weld metal. This is used to
electric arc that is formed between a welding rod and the
facilitate continuous feeding of the electrode as welding applied, and particle accumulations must be observed and
takes place. evaluated.
The fillet weld is the most frequently used type. Other The part may be magnetized by passing an electric
types commonly used are the butt or groove weld and the current through it or by placing it within a magnetic field
plug or slot weld. All are shown in Figure 5-19. The fillet weld from a separate source. A narrow crack parallel to the lines of
is triangular in cross section and is placed at a right-angle force may not be detectable. The test must often be
joint formed by the pieces to be connected. performed twice or more in different directions to catch all
For a butt or groove weld, the ends to be connected are the cracks.
butted together and welded. The abutting edges may be Finely divided ferromagnetic particles, colored and even
smooth, flat surfaces, or they may be shaped to form a fluorescent for visibility, are used dry or suspended in a
groove. Grooves of several shapes are used. Flat edges and liquid. To give a clear picture, they must have high attraction
the two most common grooves are shown in the figure. Most to a discontinuity in the material and low attraction to each
butt welding is done to join plates edge to edge. Butt welding other. For field inspection, dry powder sprayed or dusted
requires that the pieces to be welded be cut precisely to size onto the object is commonly used. Particles suspended in
or they will not meet properly. This expensive, precise cutting water or oil are used normally indoors with a reservoir and
is avoided if the pieces are lapped and welded with fillet recirculation of the particle-bearing liquid. The liquid may
welds. This economy accounts for the greater popularity of also be sprayed for use only once. Wet particles are more
fillet welds, even though butt welds are stronger sensitive to very small discontinuities because of their smaller
size, but dry particles are less affected by heat or cold and
more easily carried and applied on the jobsite. Fluorescent
particles require a black light for viewing so are not often
used on a construction site. Fluorescent particles are the
easiest to see against any background, so they are often used
in liquid indoors.
Heavy oil containing flake-like particles may be brushed
into overhead or steeply inclined surfaces before
magnetizing. Because of its high viscosity, the suspension
remains in place long enough to be tested. It may even be
used under water.
Particle-bearing liquid polymers that solidify in place
forming a thin permanent record are useful for investigating
hard-to-see areas. The thin coating containing the particles
gathered at discontinuities is removed for examination.
A plug or slot weld consists of filling with weld metal a When dry particles are used, the part is magnetized before
circular or oblong hole in one piece, which is positioned on the particles are applied because they do not move readily
top of the piece to which it is to be connected. This type of once in contact with the metal to be tested. With wet
weld is useful for joining pieces that must act together over particles it is more convenient to flood the part with the
an area too large to be satisfactorily connected at the edges, suspended particles and then magnetize the part briefly.
such as elements of the flange of a plate girder. They are also
used on plate joints that are overlapped to avoid overhead The magnetic field must be strong enough to cause all
welding in the field. Fillet welds may be used inside the discontinuities larger than allowable to be discovered and
plugged or slotted holes. must be reasonably consistent for the same rea-son. Strength
Welds, and also any other ferrous materials, are tested depends on the source of magnetism (electric current or
for cracks or any other discontinuity by magnetic particle magnetic field) and on the size, shape, and type of steel being
examination. Methods are described in ASTM E709. This type tested.
of test is useful for testing welds or steel members for Determining and holding the proper strength can be
acceptance. It is useful for checking ferrous products from pig difficult. It may be necessary to experiment with identical
iron to finished castings or forgings. It is also useful for pieces of material having discontinuities of known size in
preventive maintenance examinations of structures already order to set the proper strength.
in use. The method is accurate enough to test whether or not
a specimen meets measurable
standards. Bolts
The test method depends on the principle that magnetic A bolt is manufactured with a head at one end and
lines of force are distorted by a discontinuity in the material threads at the other end to which a nut can be threaded.
through which the lines of force pass. Magnetic particles Washers may be used. They fit loosely on the shank of the
spread loosely on a ferrous metal surface will collect at points bolt at either or both ends and increase the area that bears
of discontinuity at or near the surface when magnetic lines of on the member when the nut is tightened. When the bolt is
force are present in the ferrous material. An entire object or in position to hold two members together, a tightening of the
any part of it may be tested with proper size equipment and nut pulls the bolt with a tensile force and presses inward on
proper placing. the two members, causing friction between them to resist
Three steps are required: the part to be tested must be movement (Figure 5-20).
magnetized, the proper type of magnetic particles must be
 percent of the specified minimum tensile strength of the
bolts. The designer must select the number and size of bolts
so that the friction required at that joint is provided when all
bolts are under the minimum allowable tension.
Bolts are tightened with wrenches powered by electricity or
compressed air. These power wrenches operate by impacting
against the object to be turned and are called impact
wrenches. The nut is usually turned, but the bolt may be
turned by its head if more convient. The opposite end is held
with a hand wrench while tightening take place.
Each nut in a group of high-strength bolts must be
tightened until bolt tension is equal to or greater than that
specified for the bolt size by the American Institute of Steel
Construction. Three methods of obtaining the required bolt
tension are approved. The turn-of-nut method depends on
the fact that tightening of the nut elongates the bolt,
inducing tension in the bolt and therefore friction between
A bolted joint is subject to two types of loading from the the members in proportion to the bolt elongation. All nuts
structure. Tension tends to pull the plates apart in a line are first tightened as tight as they can be by one person using
parallel with the bolt axis, and shear tends to make the plates an ordinary spud wrench. This snug-tight position is the
slip against the friction between their surfaces in a direction starting position for all methods of final tightening and may
perpendicular to the bolt axis. The friction available to resist also be obtained by a few impacts of an impact wrench. Any
shear is proportional to the bolt tension. Movement turning of the nut beyond this original tightening draws the
perpendicular to the bolt axis cannot occur until the friction end of the bolt into the nut, thereby stretching the bolt. All
between the members is overcome. If the friction is nuts are then rotated the additional amount prescribed by
overcome, there is slight movement, and both members bear AISC (1/3 turn to one full turn, depending on bolt size) to
on the bolt. A bearing connection is satisfactory, provided obtain correct elongation and tension.
slight movement is permissible and the load is static. If the Tightening may be done with a calibrated wrench. To
joint is subject to load changes, stress reversal, impact, or calibrate a wrench, at least three bolts of each size to be used
vibration, a bearing connection is unsatisfactory, because it on that job are tightened in a calibrating device that indicates
may loosen. The joint must then be designed so that the tension in each bolt. Torque delivered by the wrench
sufficient friction is developed between the members to becomes greater as the nut is turned. The wrench is set to
resist any load perpendicular to the bolt axis and so that the stall at the average torque load that produces the correct
load parallel with the bolt is not sufficient to stretch it and tension. Each bolt on the job is then turned until the wrench
thereby reduce that friction. stalls.
Like rivets, common bolts have an uncertain tension, Tightening may also be controlled by the use of a direct
and therefore the friction caused between members cannot tension indicator on each bolt as it is tightened. One type of
be accurately determined. Nevertheless, common bolts and indicator is a load indicator washer manufactured by
rivets have been and still are used successfully. In many Bethlehem Steel Corporation. The washer has small
connections where little strength is required and there are no projections on one of its flat faces that bear against the bolt
vibrations, impact loads, or stress cycles, common bolts head (or nut if the bolt head is to be turned).
should be used because they are less expensive and easier to As the nut is turned, the washer projections are
install than high-strength bolts. However, common bolts are compressed, causing the washer to move closer to the bolt
much weaker than high-strength bolts; they loosen under head. The width of the gap can be related to bolt tension.
vibration, impact loads, or cyclic loads, especially if there is The gap will be a predetermined width at proper bolt
stress reversal. tension. The gap is measured with a feeler gauge to
determine when proper tension is reached.
High-Strength Bolts Inspection of high-strength bolt installation starts with
High-strength steel bolts can be installed to produce a witnessing the calibration of the wrench and proper
predetermined tension greater than that of a common bolt. tightening of each bolt. After completion of the bolting, the
Because of the great friction developed between mem-bers, inspector also checks to see that no bolt is skipped. Nut
there is very little movement between them when loads are surfaces are examined to determine that none was missed.
applied to the mem-bers. High-strength bolts are several The impact wrench almost always leaves its mark on the nut
times as strong in tension as common bolts. or bolt head.
They are the most recently developed fastening devices, but A torque wrench is used to inspect a percentage of bolts
have become the most popular by far, especially for field chosen at random. A torque wrench is a long, hand-operated
connections. wrench that includes an indicator dial to indicate torque
Tables of minimum tension loads for various size high- while the wrench is used. The wrench is calibrated to
strength bolts have been prepared by AISC. In a properly determine the torque needed to produce the required bolt
constructed joint, nuts are tightened until each bolt has at tension. This wrench is applied to each bolt to be tested until
least the minimum tension. Greater tension is permitted the bolt moves slightly in the tightening direction. The torque
because the tabulated minimum tension loads are only 70 required to do this must be as large as the torque
determined by calibration.
 Bolts installed using load-indicating washers are tested available in sizes from #2, or 1/4 in. diameter, to #18, or 2 1/4
by the insertion of a metal feeler gauge. If the gauge fits into in. diameter. A table of rebar sizes and weights is given in
the opening, the washer projections have not been Chapter 4.
compressed enough and nuts must be tightened until the gap Rebars are made from Bessemer or open-hearth carbon
is too narrow for the gauge. steel with 0.40 to 0.70 percent carbon; from scrap carbon
High-strength bolts are of two types: A325, described in steel axles of railroad cars; and from standard section T rails.
ASTM A325, and A490, described in ASTM A490. The A325 The bars are hot rolled and furnished in the grades shown in
bolts are of carbon steel and the A490 bolts are of alloy steel. Figure 5-24. Standard reinforcing bars are referred to as black
There are four types of A325 bolts: medium-carbon steel, bars and are used in most reinforced concrete. Reinforcing
low-carbon martensite, weathering steel, and hot-dip steel is also available with epoxy or galvanized coatings,
galvanized. There are two types of A490 bolts: alloy steel and which are used where corrosion of the rebars may cause
weathering steel. An A325 bolt has the strength of one and structural and other problems with the concrete.
one-half rivets of the same size, and an A490 bolt has the
strength of one and one-half A325 bolts of the same size. Figure S-25 shows steel reinforcing bars being bent.
Figure 5-21 shows a typical connection made with high-
strength bolts. Clip angles were shop welded to the beams,
and the angles were bolted to the column in the field. Also
shown are open-web steel joists and corrugated sheet steel
roof decking.

REINFORCING STEEL FERROUS METAL PIPE

Both gray cast iron and ductile iron have been used
Steel is used as the reinforcing in combination with
extensively for pipe installed un-derground. Ductile iron has
portland cement concrete for reinforced concrete structural
all but replaced cast iron for this purpose because of its
members. Members are constructed so that steel resists all
greater ability to withstand the stresses of handling and
tension, and compression is resisted by concrete or by
underground installation. It is used to carry liquids or gases
concrete and steel together. Reinforcing steel is shown being
under pressure and also to carry non-pressurized flows of
tied in place for a concrete wall in Figure 5-22.
liquid. Water, sewage, and natural gas are frequently
Reinforcing bars are made either plain or deformed.
transported through iron pipe.
Figure 5-23 shows standard bar markings. Deformed bars
Pipe is cast in a cylindrical, water-cooled steel mold,
create a better bond between concrete and steel. They are
with or without resin lining, and with no core. The mold is
designated by the number of eighths of an inch in their
nearly horizontal but is inclined slightly so that liquid metal
diameter and are
flows toward one end. At the other end, molten metal is
poured into a trough that is suspended inside the mold and
extends to the opposite, lower end. As the molten iron flows
out the lower end of the trough into the mold, the mold spins
rapidly, forming a uniform layer on the inside surface of the
mold. The mold is withdrawn horizontally from the trough at
a rate matched to the rate of flow so that the desired pipe
wall thickness is obtained.
Unequal settling and shifting of the earth may subject
buried pipes to tensile stresses under beam or arch loading
conditions. Handling pipe between the manufacturing plant
and the jobsite often causes impact or shock loads due to
bumping and jarring the pipe. The ability of ductile iron to
withstand these stresses is very high compared to its cost.
Corrosion resistance is important for any material to be
buried underground. Ductile iron and gray cast iron are much
more resistant to corrosion than steel, though not as rate of discharge of mortar so that the desired thickness of
resistant as clay and plastics that are also used for pipes. The mortar is applied. Centrifugal force and vibration combine to
two are about equal in corrosion resistance, with ductile iron form a dense lining of uniform thickness with the entrapped
possibly a little more resistant. It is, nevertheless, standard air and excess water driven out.
manufacturing procedure to coat the outside of both types of A wide variety of materials can be used to line iron and
pipe with a 1-mil (one thousandth of an inch)-thick coat of steel pipe when special protection is needed. Polypropylene,
bituminous material. polyethylene, and glass linings are among those available.
A loose tube of polyethylene has proved to be an Steel, usually a copper or other rust-resisting alloy, is
effective deterrent to all types of corrosion in gray cast iron also used for corrugated pipe up to 10 ft in diameter for
or ductile iron pipe. The tube is inserted over the pipe at the storm drains, sanitary sewers, and other non-pressurized
time of installation. The covering need not be watertight, flows. The pipe is made of thin metal sheets (from 0.05 to
although contact between soil and pipe must be prevented. 0.17 in. thick) which have been corrugated between rollers.
Groundwater that seeps between the polyethylene sheet and They are made of rectangles curved to circular shape and
the pipe surface does not cause a measurable amount of riveted together or of long, narrow strips wound spirally and
corrosion. Sheets of polyethylene may be wrapped around joined with one long, spiral lock seam.
the pipe and secured with tape. However, use of the tubes is The strength of corrugated steel pipe comes partly from
usually more economical. Standards for protection with loose the deep section given to it by the corrugations. The
polyethylene encasement are contained in American Water corrugations cause the pipe to be much stronger than a
Works Association Standard C105. noncorrugated pipe of the same wall thickness. However,
Steel pipe is also used as an underground conduit for most of its strength is due to the fact that it is flexible. The
liquids and gases under pressure. Narrow, rolled sheets of thin metal deflects extensively under load before it breaks.
steel are wound spirally and are butt welded at the spiral To achieve its potential strength, it must be confined all
joint to form a tube. Steel pipe is also fabricated with one around by soil. A heavy weight on flexible, corrugated pipe
straight, longitudinal joint butt welded. Steel has a greater flattens the top and bottom and bulges the sides outward
tensile strength, toughness, and ductility than ductile iron, unless they are restrained. A properly constructed pipeline is
but is not as resistant to corrosion as gray cast iron or ductile surrounded by solidly tamped soil so that the sides cannot
iron. bulge and, therefore, the top cannot deflect. Non-flexible
However, all these characteristics in a pipeline depend on pipe cracks before it deflects noticeably, and therefore soil
wall thickness, bedding and backfill conditions, and corrosion pressure from the sides causes very little increase in its
protection. All must be properly designed to suit the resistance to loading.
installation conditions. That is, the pipe wall must be thick Corrugated steel pipe is protected from corrosion by
enough not to be over-stressed by the external load or the galvanizing as a standard procedure for ordinary usage. It is
internal pressure of the liquid or gas; the soil must be coated inside and out by dipping in hot asphalt in addition to
arranged under, around, and over the pipe so that it does not the galvanizing for protection from corrosive soil or corrosive
concentrate forces on the pipe; and the material must be water. Asbestos fibers may be used to join the zine and
protected from external and internal corrosion. asphalt, thereby improving the bond between them
The interior may be paved with asphalt thick enough to
Steel pipe is protected from external corrosion by a cover the corrugations with a smooth surface to decrease
coating of coal tar enamel. The coal tar enamel is protected resistance to flow and to protect the inside of the pipe from
from scratches or abrasion by tough paper or fabric wrapped corrosion or erosion by solid particles carried in the liquid.
tightly around the enamel. The paving may cover the entire circumference or just the
Coal tar is also used as a lining for iron and steel pipe. lower part, depending on where flow improvement and
However, cement mortar made of port-land cement and sand protection are needed.
is much more popular for coating pipe interiors. A lining is Elliptical cross sections and cross sections approximating
necessary to protect the ferrous metal from being corroded a circle with the bottom flattened are popular for special uses
by some of the many substances that are transported and are easily fabricated of corrugated steel. Very large sizes
through pipes. of all the cross sections are shipped as curved plates
Many natural waters contain dissolved iron on which completely fabricated for erection by bolting the plates
iron bacteria feed and multiply, forming solid deposits on together at the jobsite.
iron or steel pipe walls. These deposits, called tuberces, look
somewhat like rust and grow nearly large enough to fill the
pipe so that flow is inadequate. Tuberculation does not take
place if the metal is protected from contact with the water.
Most water and sewer pipe is cement-mortar lined to
prevent tuberculation and corrosion. A tube full of mortar is
inserted into a rapidly spinning horizontal length of pipe, and
the mortar is dumped uniformly along the pipe length. The
pipe continues to spin, compacting the mortar to a uniform
thickness by centrifugal force. The finished thickness is 3/16
in. or thinner, depending on the pipe size.
The mortar may instead be discharged from the end of
the tube and spread with a trowel attached to the tube as the
pipe spins; the tube is withdrawn at a rate matched to the