Flexible AC Transmission Systems(FACTS)

Series Compensator

Dr. Avik Bhattacharya

Assistant Professor
Room No. 227, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Phone: 01332285375
Email: [email protected]

1
 Contents
• Introduction
• Series capacitor compensation
• Converter Series compensation
• Series compensator analysis with application

2
 Introduction
• The shunt compensation is in-effective in controlling the actual
transmitted power, at a defined transmission voltage, is ultimately
determined by the series line impedance and the angle between the end
voltages of line.
• It was recognized that AC power transmission over long lines was primarily
limited by the series reactive impedance of the line.
• Series capacitive compensation was introduced decades ago to cancel a
portion of the reactive line impedance and thereby increase the
transmittable power.

3
 Introduction(Cont…)
• The FACTS initiative, it has been demonstrated that variable series
compensation is highly effective in both controlling power flow in the line
and in improving stability.
• It can be applied to achieve full utilization of transmission assets by
controlling the power flow in the lines, preventing loop flows and, with the
use of fast controls, minimizing the effect of system disturbances, thereby
reducing traditional stability margin requirements.
• The effect of series compensation on the basic factors, determining
attainable maximal power transmission, steady-state power transmission
limit, transient stability, voltage stability and power oscillation damping,
will be examined.

4
Series Capacitive Compensation

5
Series Capacitive Compensation(Cont…)

6
Series Capacitive Compensation(Cont…)

7
Series Capacitive Compensation(Cont…)

8
Series Capacitive Compensation(Cont…)

9
 Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)
• An alternate compensating circuit element may be envisioned as an ac
voltage source which directly injects the desired compensating voltage in
series with the line.
• The function of the series capacitor is simply to produce an appropriate
voltage at the fundamental ac system frequency in quadrature with the
transmission line current in order to increase the voltage across the
inductive line impedance, and
• There by increase the line current and the transmitted power.
The converter will injects directly appropriate voltage at the fundamental ac
system frequency in quadrature with the transmission line current is
converter type series compensator (SSSC)

10
 Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)
• The basic operating principles can be
explained with reference to the
conventional series compensation with
the related voltage phasor diagram.
• The phasor diagram clearly shows that at
a given line current the voltage across
the series capacitor forces the opposite
polarity voltage across the series line
reactance to increase by the magnitude
of the capacitor voltage

11
 Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)
• While it may be convenient to consider series capacitive compensation as a
means of reducing the line impedance, in reality, as explained previously,
• It is really a means of increasing the voltage across the given impedance of the
physical line.
• Therefore that the same steady-state power transmission can be established if
the series compensation is provided by a synchronous ac voltage source,
• whose output precisely matches the voltage of the series capacitor
Vq=Vc=-JIXc=-jKXI
• Where Vc is the injected compensating voltage phasor, I is the line current, xc is
the reactance of the series capacitor, X is the line reactance, k : xc/x is the
degree of series compensation

12
 Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)
• Thus, by making the output voltage of the synchronous voltage source a
function of the line current, the same compensation as provided by the
series capacitor is accomplished.
In contrast to the real series capacitor, it is able to maintain a constant
compensating voltage in the presence of variable line current,
• Or control the amplitude of the injected compensating voltage
independent of the amplitude of the line current.
• For normal capacitive compensation, the output voltage lags the line
current by 90 degrees.
• It can be achieved by , the output voltage can be reversed by simple
control action

13
Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)

14
Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)

15
Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)

Basic two-machine system with synchronous voltage source replacing

the series capacitor.

16
Converter Type Series Compensators (Cont…)

17
 Analysis of series compensator

• Analysis of series compensator based on

1. Voltage Stability
2. improvement of Transient Stability
3. Power Oscillation Damping

18
 Voltage Stability
• Series capacitive compensation can
also be used to reduce the series
reactive impedance to minimize the
receiving-end voltage variation and
the possibility of voltage collapse.
• A simple radial system with feeder line
reactance X, series compensating
Reactance Xc, and load impedance Z

19
 Voltage Stability (Cont…)
• The corresponding normalized terminal
voltage V, versus power P plots, with unity
power factor load at 0, 0.5, and 0.75 series
capacitive compensation
• The "nose point“ at each plot given for a
specific compensation level represents the
corresponding voltage instability.
• So both shunt and series capacitive
compensation can effectively increase the
voltage stability limit

20
 Voltage Stability (Cont…)
• Shunt compensation does it by supplying the reactive load
demand and regulating the terminal voltage.
• Series capacitive compensation does it by canceling a portion of
the line reactance and thereby, in effect, providing a “stiff” voltage
source for the load.
• For increasing the voltage stability limit of overhead transmission,
series compensation is much more effective than shunt
compensation of the same MVA rating.

21
 Improvement of Transient Stability
• The powerful capability of series line compensation to control the
transmitted power can be utilized much more effectively to increase the
transient stability limit and to provide power oscillation damping.
• Suppose that the system with and without series capacitive
compensation, transmits the same power Pm.
• Assume that both the uncompensated and the series compensated
systems are subjected to the same fault for the same period of time.
• Prior to the fault both of them transmit power Pm at angles δ1 andδs1,
respectively
• During the fault, the transmitted electric power becomes zero while the
mechanical input power to the generators remains constant
22
 Improvement of Transient Stability(Cont…)
• Therefore, the sending-end generator
accelerates from the steady-state angles δ1 and
without
δs1 to angles δ2 and δs2 respectively, when the
Com..
fault clears.
• The accelerating energies are represented by
areas A1 andAs1.
• After fault clearing, the transmitted electric
with
power exceeds the mechanical input power and
Com..
therefore the sending-end machine decelerates

23
 Improvement of Transient Stability (Cont…)
• So the accumulated kinetic energy further
increases until a balance between the
accelerating and decelerating energies, without
represented by areas A1, As1and A2, As2, Com
respectively, is reached at the maximum angular
swings, δ3 and δs3 , respectively.
• The areas between the P versus δ curve and the
constant Pm line over the intervals defined by
angles δ3 andδcrit and δs3 and δscrit , respectively,
with
• The margin of transient stability, represented by Com
areas Amargin and Asmargin.

24
 Improvement of Transient Stability(Cont…)
• It shows a substantial increase in the transient stability margin.
• The increase of transient stability margin is proportional to the degree of
series compensation
• However, practical series capacitive compensation does not usually
exceed 75% for a number of reasons, including load balancing with
parallel paths, high fault current, and the possible difficulties of power
flow control.
• Theoretically this increase becomes unlimited approaches 100%.

25
Power Oscillation Damping(Cont…)

26
 Power Oscillation Damping(Cont…)
• The required variation of the degree of series
compensation, with under-damped oscillating
system are shown with undamped and damped
oscillations of angle δ around the steady-state
value δ0 and
• Corresponding undamped and damped
oscillations of the electric power P around the
steady-state value P0,
• Third waveform shows the applied variation of
the degree of series capacitive compensation,
k.

27
Power Oscillation Damping(Cont…)

28
Thank you

29
Flexible AC Transmission Systems(FACTS)
Series Compensator II

Dr. Avik Bhattacharya

Assistant Professor
Room No. 227, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Phone: 01332285375
Email: [email protected]

1
 Analysis of series compensator

• Analysis of series compensator based on

1. Voltage Stability
2. improvement of Transient Stability
3. Power Oscillation Damping

2
 Voltage Stability
• Series capacitive compensation can
also be used to reduce the series
reactive impedance to minimize the
receiving-end voltage variation and
the possibility of voltage collapse.
• A simple radial system with feeder line
reactance X, series compensating
Reactance Xc, and load impedance Z

3
 Voltage Stability (Cont…)
• The corresponding normalized terminal
voltage V, versus power P plots, with unity
power factor load at 0, 0.5, and 0.75 series
capacitive compensation
• The "nose point“ at each plot given for a
specific compensation level represents the
corresponding voltage instability.
• So both shunt and series capacitive
compensation can effectively increase the
voltage stability limit

4
 Voltage Stability (Cont…)
• Shunt compensation does it by supplying the reactive load
demand and regulating the terminal voltage.
• Series capacitive compensation does it by canceling a portion of
the line reactance and thereby, in effect, providing a “stiff” voltage
source for the load.
• For increasing the voltage stability limit of overhead transmission,
series compensation is much more effective than shunt
compensation of the same MVA rating.

5
 Improvement of Transient Stability
• The powerful capability of series line compensation to control the
transmitted power can be utilized much more effectively to increase the
transient stability limit and to provide power oscillation damping.
• Suppose that the system with and without series capacitive
compensation, transmits the same power Pm.
• Assume that both the uncompensated and the series compensated
systems are subjected to the same fault for the same period of time.
• Prior to the fault both of them transmit power Pm at angles δ1 andδs1,
respectively
• During the fault, the transmitted electric power becomes zero while the
mechanical input power to the generators remains constant
6
 Improvement of Transient Stability(Cont…)
• Therefore, the sending-end generator
accelerates from the steady-state angles δ1 and
without
δs1 to angles δ2 and δs2 respectively, when the
Com..
fault clears.
• The accelerating energies are represented by
areas A1 andAs1.
• After fault clearing, the transmitted electric
with
power exceeds the mechanical input power and
Com..
therefore the sending-end machine decelerates

7
 Improvement of Transient Stability (Cont…)
• So the accumulated kinetic energy further
increases until a balance between the
accelerating and decelerating energies, without
represented by areas A1, As1and A2, As2, Com
respectively, is reached at the maximum angular
swings, δ3 and δs3 , respectively.
• The areas between the P versus δ curve and the
constant Pm line over the intervals defined by
angles δ3 andδcrit and δs3 and δscrit , respectively,
with
• The margin of transient stability, represented by Com
areas Amargin and Asmargin.

8
 Improvement of Transient Stability(Cont…)
• It shows a substantial increase in the transient stability margin.
• The increase of transient stability margin is proportional to the degree of
series compensation
• However, practical series capacitive compensation does not usually
exceed 75% for a number of reasons, including load balancing with
parallel paths, high fault current, and the possible difficulties of power
flow control.
• Theoretically this increase becomes unlimited approaches 100%.

9
Power Oscillation Damping(Cont…)

10
 Power Oscillation Damping(Cont…)
• The required variation of the degree of series
compensation, with under-damped oscillating
system are shown with undamped and damped
oscillations of angle δ around the steady-state
value δ0 and
• Corresponding undamped and damped
oscillations of the electric power P around the
steady-state value P0,
• Third waveform shows the applied variation of
the degree of series capacitive compensation,
k.

11
Power Oscillation Damping(Cont…)

12
Variable Impedance Type Series Compensators

• GTO Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)

• Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
• Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

13
GTO Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)
• An elementary GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series
Capacitor (GCSC) was proposed by Karady in1992.
• It consists of a fixed capacitor in parallel with a
GTO thyristor (or equivalent) switch that has the
capability to turn on and off upon command.
• This compensator scheme is interesting in that it
is the perfect combination of the well-established
TCR, having the unique capability of directly
varying the capacitor voltage by delay angle
control

14
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The objective of the GCSC scheme is to control the ac voltage Vc across the
capacitor at a given line current I.
• when the GTO valve (switch) is closed, the voltage across the capacitor is
zero, and when the valve is open, it is maximum.
• For controlling the capacitor voltage, the closing and opening of the valve
is carried out in each half-cycle in synchronism with the ac system
frequency.
• The GTO valve is stipulated to close automatically (through appropriate
control action) whenever the capacitor voltage crosses zero. ( in the
thyristor valve of the TCR opens automatically whenever the current
crosses zero.)

15
GCSC(Cont…)

16
GCSC(Cont…)

17
GCSC(Cont…)

18
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The current of the thyristor-controlled reactor is identical to that derived
above for the voltage GTO thyristor-controlled series capacitor
• It confirms the duality between the GCSC and the TCR
Duality between the TCR and the GCSC
 The TCR is a switch in series with a reactor, the GCSC is a switch in shunt
with a capacitor.
 The TCR is supplied from a voltage source (transmission bus voltage), the
GCSC is supplied from a current source (transmission line current).
 The TCR valve is stipulated to close at current zero, the GCSC at voltage
zero

19
 GCSC(Cont…)
 The TCR is controlled by a turn-on delay with respect to the crest of the applied
voltage, which defines the conduction interval of the valve.
 The GCSC is controlled by a turn-off delay with respect to the peak of the line
current, which defines the blocking interval of the valve.
 The TCR controls the current in a fixed inductor from a constant voltage source,
thereby presenting a variable reactive admittance as the load to this source.
 The GCSC controls the voltage developed by a constant current source across a
fixed capacitor, thereby presenting a variable reactive impedance to this source.

20
GCSC(Cont…)

21
GCSC(Cont…)

V-I characteristics of
the GCSC when
operated in voltage
control

22
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The loss, as percent of the rated Var output, versus
line current characteristic of the GCSC operated in
the voltage compensation mode

Impedance compensation mode,

• The GCSC is to maintain the maximum rated
compensating reactance at any line current up to the
rated maximum
• In this compensation mode the capacitive impedance
is chosen so as to provide the maximum series
compensation at rated current
Vcmax =Xc Imax

23
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The loss versus line current characteristic
of the GCSC for impedance mode
• For zero compensating impedance
(capacitor is bypassed by the GTO valve)
• for maximum compensating impedance
(the GTO valve is open and the capacitor is
fully inserted)
• The impedance and voltage compensating
modes are, of course, interchangeable by
control action

24
GCSC(Cont…)

25
 GCSC(Cont…)

The amplitude variation of the harmonics, expressed as a

percentage of the maximum fundamental capacitor voltage,

26
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The effect of these harmonics may be relatively small, particularly if the
transmission line impedance at the harmonic frequencies considered is
relatively large.
• if necessary, the magnitudes of the harmonics generated by GCSC can be
attenuated effectively by the complementary application of the method of
“sequential control”
• It follows from its duality with the TCR that it requires the use of m (m > 2)
series connected GCSCs, each with 1/m of the total (voltage) rating
required.
• m-1 capacitors are "sequentially" controlled to be inserted (valve is off) or
bypassed (valve is on).
27
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The single capacitor is turn-off delay angle controlled to facilitate
continuous voltage control for the whole GCSC over the total operating
range.
• With this arrangement the amplitude of each generated harmonic is
evidently reduced by a factor of m in relation to the maximum total
fundamental compensating voltage.

28
 GCSC(Cont…)

sequential control GCSC

29
30
 GCSC(Cont…)
• why not replace the GTO valves in the m - 1 modules with the less
expensive conventional thyristor modules because of the conventional
thyristor valves the operation of the total valve would become different.
• Or the conventional thyristor valve cannot imitate GTO valve operation
even for full conduction capacitor switching.
• In order to obtain half-cycle wave, the GTO valve must turn on and off
when the capacitor voltage is zero, at which instant the line current is at
its peak
• The conventional thyristor valve could be turned on at the required
instant of voltage zero, but it would only turn off at a current zero

31
 GCSC(Cont…)
• When the conventional thyristor valve turns off at a current zero,
• It produces a full dc offset for the capacitor voltage, doubling the
maximum voltage
• Stress on the valve and the time delay after which the capacitor could
again be bypassed.

32
Thank you

33
Flexible AC Transmission Systems(FACTS)
GCSC and SSSC

Dr. Avik Bhattacharya

Assistant Professor
Room No. 227, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Phone: 01332285375
Email: [email protected]

1
 GCSC(Cont…)
 The TCR is controlled by a turn-on delay with respect to the crest of the applied
voltage, which defines the conduction interval of the valve.
 The GCSC is controlled by a turn-off delay with respect to the peak of the line
current, which defines the blocking interval of the valve.
 The TCR controls the current in a fixed inductor from a constant voltage source,
thereby presenting a variable reactive admittance as the load to this source.
 The GCSC controls the voltage developed by a constant current source across a
fixed capacitor, thereby presenting a variable reactive impedance to this source.

2
GCSC(Cont…)

3
GCSC(Cont…)

V-I characteristics of
the GCSC when
operated in voltage
control

4
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The loss, as percent of the rated Var output, versus
line current characteristic of the GCSC operated in
the voltage compensation mode

Impedance compensation mode,

• The GCSC is to maintain the maximum rated
compensating reactance at any line current up to the
rated maximum
• In this compensation mode the capacitive impedance
is chosen so as to provide the maximum series
compensation at rated current
Vcmax =Xc Imax

5
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The loss versus line current characteristic
of the GCSC for impedance mode
• For zero compensating impedance
(capacitor is bypassed by the GTO valve)
• for maximum compensating impedance
(the GTO valve is open and the capacitor is
fully inserted)
• The impedance and voltage compensating
modes are, of course, interchangeable by
control action

6
GCSC(Cont…)

7
 GCSC(Cont…)

The amplitude variation of the harmonics, expressed as a

percentage of the maximum fundamental capacitor voltage,

8
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The effect of these harmonics may be relatively small, particularly if the
transmission line impedance at the harmonic frequencies considered is
relatively large.
• if necessary, the magnitudes of the harmonics generated by GCSC can be
attenuated effectively by the complementary application of the method of
“sequential control”
• It follows from its duality with the TCR that it requires the use of m (m > 2)
series connected GCSCs, each with 1/m of the total (voltage) rating
required.
• m-1 capacitors are "sequentially" controlled to be inserted (valve is off) or
bypassed (valve is on).
9
 GCSC(Cont…)
• The single capacitor is turn-off delay angle controlled to facilitate
continuous voltage control for the whole GCSC over the total operating
range.
• With this arrangement the amplitude of each generated harmonic is
evidently reduced by a factor of m in relation to the maximum total
fundamental compensating voltage.

10
 GCSC(Cont…)

sequential control GCSC

11
12
 GCSC(Cont…)
• why not replace the GTO valves in the m - 1 modules with the less
expensive conventional thyristor modules because of the conventional
thyristor valves the operation of the total valve would become different.
• Or the conventional thyristor valve cannot imitate GTO valve operation
even for full conduction capacitor switching.
• In order to obtain half-cycle wave, the GTO valve must turn on and off
when the capacitor voltage is zero, at which instant the line current is at
its peak
• The conventional thyristor valve could be turned on at the required
instant of voltage zero, but it would only turn off at a current zero

13
 GCSC(Cont…)
• When the conventional thyristor valve turns off at a current zero,
• It produces a full dc offset for the capacitor voltage, doubling the
maximum voltage
• Stress on the valve and the time delay after which the capacitor could
again be bypassed.

14
Static Synchronous Series
Compensator
(SSSC)

15
 Introduction

• It has been established by a voltage-sourced converter with its internal

control can be considered a synchronous voltage source (SVS) analogous
to an ideal electromagnetic generator
• it can produce a set of (three) alternating, substantially sinusoidal voltages
at the desired fundamental frequency with controllable amplitude and
phase angle to generate, or absorb reactive power
• It can also exchange real (active) power with the ac system when its dc
terminals are connected to a suitable electric dc energy source or storage.

16
 Introduction (Cont…)
• References Qref and Pref define the
amplitude V and phase angle Ψ of
the generated output voltage
necessary to exchange the desired
reactive and active power at the
ac output.
• If the SVS is operated strictly for
reactive power exchange, by Pref
is set to zero.

A functional representation of the SVS

17
 SSSC
• The voltage-sourced converter-based series
compensator, called Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC),
• The basic operating principles can be explained with
reference to the conventional series compensation
with the related voltage phasor diagram.
• The phasor diagram clearly shows that at a given line
current the voltage across the series capacitor forces
the opposite polarity voltage across the series line
reactance to increase by the magnitude of the
capacitor voltage

18
 SSSC (Cont…)
• While it may be convenient to consider series capacitive compensation as a
means of reducing the line impedance, in reality, as explained previously,
• It is really a means of increasing the voltage across the given impedance of the
physical line.
• Therefore that the same steady-state power transmission can be established if
the series compensation is provided by a synchronous ac voltage source,
• whose output precisely matches the voltage of the series capacitor
Vq=Vc=-JIXc=-jKXI
• Where Vc is the injected compensating voltage phasor, I is the line current, xc is
the reactance of the series capacitor, X is the line reactance, k : xc/x is the
degree of series compensation

19
 SSSC (Cont…)
• Thus, by making the output voltage of the synchronous voltage source a
function of the line current, the same compensation as provided by the
series capacitor is accomplished.
In contrast to the real series capacitor, it is able to maintain a constant
compensating voltage in the presence of variable line current,
• Or control the amplitude of the injected compensating voltage
independent of the amplitude of the line current.
• For normal capacitive compensation, the output voltage lags the line
current by 90 degrees.
• It can be achieved by , the output voltage can be reversed by simple
control action

20
SSSC (Cont…)

21
SSSC (Cont…)

22
Basic two-machine system with synchronous voltage source replacing
the series capacitor.

23
SSSC (Cont…)

24
SSSC (Cont…)

25
Principle of Operation SSSC

26
Principle of Operation SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC to control as well as reverse real power flow.

27
 Principle of Operation SSSC (Cont…)
• Apart from the bi-directional compensation capability, the basic operating
characteristic of the SSSC also have additional advantage
• SSSC could not be tuned with any finite line inductance to have a classical
series resonance at the fundamental frequency,
• SSSC injecting compensating voltage is set by the control and it is
independent of network impedance changes.

28
 Control Range and VA Rating of SSSC
• The SSSC can provide capacitive or
inductive compensating voltage
independent of the line current up to its
specified current rating.
• Thus, in voltage compensation mode the
SSSC can maintain the rated capacitive or
inductive compensating voltage in the
face of changing line current theoretically
in the total operating range of zero to
Iqmax

29
 Control Range and VA Rating of SSSC (Cont…)
• The corresponding loss, as percent of the
(capacitive or inductive) rating of the SSSC,
versus line current characteristic
• The VA rating of the SSSC is simply the
product of the maximum line current (at
which compensation is still desired) and the
maximum series compensating voltage
VA = ImaxVqmax

30
 Control Range and VA Rating of SSSC (Cont…)
• In impedance compensation mode, the SSSC is
established to maintain the maximum rated
capacitive or compensating reactance at any line
current up to the rated maximum
• The corresponding loss versus line current
characteristic is
• For variable impedance type compensators Imax
may be separately defined for the rated
maximum steady-state line current
• The basic VA rating of the major power
components of the SSSC must be rated for these
currents and for the relevant maximum voltages

31
 Hybrid SSSC
• In some practical applications, only capacitive series line compensation is
required.
• In these cause as well as in those which already use or plan to use series
capacitors as part of the overall series compensation scheme,
• The SSSC may be combined cost effectively with a fixed capacitor, eg. SSSC
of 0.5 p.u. VA rating is combined with a flxed capacitor of 0.5 p.u.

32
 Hybrid SSSC (Cont…)

voltage compensation mode Impedance compensation mode

The injected voltage versus line current
characteristic of the SSSC + FC arrangement

33
 Hybrid SSSC (Cont…)

voltage compensation mode Impedance compensation mode

loss vs. line current characteristic of the SSSC +
FC arrangement

34
 Real power Compensation by SSSC
• In contrast to the series capacitor, the SSSC can negotiate both reactive
and active power with the ac system, simply by controlling the angular
position of the injected voltage with respect to the line current.
• As explained previously, the exchange of active power requires that the DC
terminal of the SSSC converter be coupled to an energy source.
• The capability of the SSSC to exchange, simultaneous compensation of
both the reactive and resistive components of the series line impedance in
order to keep the X/R ratio high
• But series capacitive compensation could further reduce the effective
reactive to resistive line impedance ratio

35
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• Line impedance ratio progressively
increasing reactive power demand of the
line, and the associated line losses and
possible voltage depression, would start
to limit the transmittable active power
• For a normal angle-controlled line whose
uncompensated X/R ratio is 7.4.
• By applying or increasing series capacitive
compensation (e.g., 50 and 75 %), the
effective Xeff/R ratio decreases (to 3.7 and
1.85, respectively)
Limitations of line resistance on power transmission
increase by series capacitive compensation.

36
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

37
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

38
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

39
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• The real power compensation capability could also be used effectively in
minimizing loop power flows by balancing both the real and reactive
power flows of parallel lines.
• Simulation of a two machine system compensated by the SSSC with a DC
power supply, illustrate the combined compensation of the line reactance
and resistance.
• The plots show the line current I in phase A together with the
corresponding receiving-end voltage Vr=V2
• It show transmitted power P together with the reactive power Q supplied
by the receiving end

40
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• It also shows the line current I again in phase A together with the voltage
Vq injected by the SSSC,
• The active and reactive power the SSSC exchanged with the ac system via
the series voltage injection for no compensation (Vq = 0), purely reactive
compensation, and reactive plus resistive compensation.
• It can be observed that the additional resistive compensation increases
the transmitted power significantly,
• It also decreases the reactive power demand on the receiving end

41
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC to provide both reactive and resistive series line

compensation.
42
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• Capability of reactive line compensation combined with simultaneous
active power exchange can also enhance power oscillation damping.
• E.g. During the periods of angular acceleration, the SSSC with a suitable
energy storage can apply maximum capacitive line compensation to
increase the transmitted active power and concurrently absorb active
power also.
• During the periods of angular deceleration, the SSSC can execute opposite
compensating actions, that is apply maximum inductive compensation to
decrease the transmitted active power and concurrently supply additional
active power for the line.

43
 Internal Control of SSSC
• As explained, the SSSC is implemented by a voltage-sourced converter.
• SSSC output voltage control, converters may be categorized as “directly”
and “indirectly” controlled.
• For directly controlled converters both the angular position and the
magnitude of the output voltage are controllable by appropriate valve
• For indirectly controlled converters only the angular position of the output
voltage is controllable by valve gating, the magnitude remains
proportional to the DC terminal voltage

44
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)
• The control method of maintaining a quadrature relationship between the
instantaneous converter voltage and line current vectors, to provide
reactive series compensation and handle subsynchronous resonance
(SSR), can be implemented with an indirectly controlled converter.
• The method of maintaining a single-frequency synchronous output
independent of dc terminal voltage variation, requires a directly controlled
converter
• Although high-power directly controlled converters are more difficult and
costly to implement than indirectly controlled converters

45
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

46
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

47
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC employing an indirectly controlled converter

48
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)
Internal control scheme for the directly controlled SSSC
• In this scheme can be used to eliminate the unwanted output voltage
components due to the modulation of the dc capacitor voltage by
subsynchronous or other line current components.
• It is also suitable to provide both reactive and real (resistive) line
compensation if the converter is equipped with a suitable dc power supply
• The control structure is similar to that discussed in connection with the
indirectly controlled converter, except for the continuous and independent
control of both the magnitude and angle of the compensating voltage

49
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)
• The synchronization to the line current is accomplished by a phase-locked
loop
• The control is operated from three reference signals
1. VqQRef, defining the desired magnitude of the series reactive compensating
voltage
2. VqRRef, defining the desired magnitude of the series real compensating
voltage
3. Vdcref defining the operating voltage of the dc capacitor
• The reactive voltage reference VqQRef, (which with the line current
determines the reactive power exchange for series compensation)

50
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

51
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC employing a directly controlled converter

52
 External control circuit for Series
Reactive Compensators
• In the previous sections, variable impedance type and synchronous
voltage source type compensators, comprising the pertinent power circuit
and related internal control, have been described
• These compensators have different operating principles and exhibit
differing compensation and performance characteristics
• They all can provide series reactive compensation and be operated self-
sufficiently from an input reference defining the desired compensating
voltage or reactance
• There for the external control that defines the functional operation of the
compensator same for all types of series compensator discussed

53
 External control circuit(Cont…)
• In external control the main power flow control is executed by a (slow)
closed loop, which is operated from one of the selectable references, XqRef
or IqRef or VRef or PRef
• The corresponding network variable (Xq or Vq or I or P) is derived by the
voltage and current processor and compared to the selected reference
• The amplified error at the output of the PI controller provides the
reference, Xq, or Vq, for the internal control.
• The auxiliary control signals to improve transient and dynamic stability,
and to damp subsynchronous oscillations, are derived from the relevant
system variables.

54
 External control circuit(Cont…)

Functional external (system) control scheme for the SSSC.

55
Thank you

56
Flexible AC Transmission Systems(FACTS)
SSSC II

Dr. Avik Bhattacharya

Assistant Professor
Room No. 227, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Phone: 01332285375
Email: [email protected]

1
SSSC (Cont…)

2
SSSC (Cont…)

3
Principle of Operation SSSC

4
Principle of Operation SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC to control as well as reverse real power flow.

5
 Principle of Operation SSSC (Cont…)
• Apart from the bi-directional compensation capability, the basic operating
characteristic of the SSSC also have additional advantage
• SSSC could not be tuned with any finite line inductance to have a classical
series resonance at the fundamental frequency,
• SSSC injecting compensating voltage is set by the control and it is
independent of network impedance changes.

6
 Control Range and VA Rating of SSSC
• The SSSC can provide capacitive or
inductive compensating voltage
independent of the line current up to its
specified current rating.
• Thus, in voltage compensation mode the
SSSC can maintain the rated capacitive or
inductive compensating voltage in the
face of changing line current theoretically
in the total operating range of zero to
Iqmax

7
 Control Range and VA Rating of SSSC (Cont…)
• The corresponding loss, as percent of the
(capacitive or inductive) rating of the SSSC,
versus line current characteristic
• The VA rating of the SSSC is simply the
product of the maximum line current (at
which compensation is still desired) and the
maximum series compensating voltage
VA = ImaxVqmax

8
 Control Range and VA Rating of SSSC (Cont…)
• In impedance compensation mode, the SSSC is
established to maintain the maximum rated
capacitive or compensating reactance at any line
current up to the rated maximum
• The corresponding loss versus line current
characteristic is
• For variable impedance type compensators Imax
may be separately defined for the rated
maximum steady-state line current
• The basic VA rating of the major power
components of the SSSC must be rated for these
currents and for the relevant maximum voltages

9
 Hybrid SSSC
• In some practical applications, only capacitive series line compensation is
required.
• In these cause as well as in those which already use or plan to use series
capacitors as part of the overall series compensation scheme,
• The SSSC may be combined cost effectively with a fixed capacitor, eg. SSSC
of 0.5 p.u. VA rating is combined with a flxed capacitor of 0.5 p.u.

10
 Hybrid SSSC (Cont…)

voltage compensation mode Impedance compensation mode

The injected voltage versus line current
characteristic of the SSSC + FC arrangement

11
 Hybrid SSSC (Cont…)

voltage compensation mode Impedance compensation mode

loss vs. line current characteristic of the SSSC +
FC arrangement

12
 Real power Compensation by SSSC
• In contrast to the series capacitor, the SSSC can negotiate both reactive
and active power with the ac system, simply by controlling the angular
position of the injected voltage with respect to the line current.
• As explained previously, the exchange of active power requires that the DC
terminal of the SSSC converter be coupled to an energy source.
• The capability of the SSSC to exchange, simultaneous compensation of
both the reactive and resistive components of the series line impedance in
order to keep the X/R ratio high
• But series capacitive compensation could further reduce the effective
reactive to resistive line impedance ratio

13
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• Line impedance ratio progressively
increasing reactive power demand of the
line, and the associated line losses and
possible voltage depression, would start
to limit the transmittable active power
• For a normal angle-controlled line whose
uncompensated X/R ratio is 7.4.
• By applying or increasing series capacitive
compensation (e.g., 50 and 75 %), the
effective Xeff/R ratio decreases (to 3.7 and
1.85, respectively)
Limitations of line resistance on power transmission
increase by series capacitive compensation.

14
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

15
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

16
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

17
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• The real power compensation capability could also be used effectively in
minimizing loop power flows by balancing both the real and reactive
power flows of parallel lines.
• Simulation of a two machine system compensated by the SSSC with a DC
power supply, illustrate the combined compensation of the line reactance
and resistance.
• The plots show the line current I in phase A together with the
corresponding receiving-end voltage Vr=V2
• It show transmitted power P together with the reactive power Q supplied
by the receiving end

18
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• It also shows the line current I again in phase A together with the voltage
Vq injected by the SSSC,
• The active and reactive power the SSSC exchanged with the ac system via
the series voltage injection for no compensation (Vq = 0), purely reactive
compensation, and reactive plus resistive compensation.
• It can be observed that the additional resistive compensation increases
the transmitted power significantly,
• It also decreases the reactive power demand on the receiving end

19
Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC to provide both reactive and resistive series line

compensation.
20
Thank you

21
Flexible AC Transmission Systems(FACTS)
SSSC III and TSSC

Dr. Avik Bhattacharya

Assistant Professor
Room No. 227, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Phone: 01332285375
Email: [email protected]

1
 Real power Compensation by SSSC (Cont…)
• Capability of reactive line compensation combined with simultaneous
active power exchange can also enhance power oscillation damping.
• E.g. During the periods of angular acceleration, the SSSC with a suitable
energy storage can apply maximum capacitive line compensation to
increase the transmitted active power and concurrently absorb active
power also.
• During the periods of angular deceleration, the SSSC can execute opposite
compensating actions, that is apply maximum inductive compensation to
decrease the transmitted active power and concurrently supply additional
active power for the line.

2
 Internal Control of SSSC
• As explained, the SSSC is implemented by a voltage-sourced converter.
• SSSC output voltage control, converters may be categorized as “directly”
and “indirectly” controlled.
• For directly controlled converters both the angular position and the
magnitude of the output voltage are controllable by appropriate value
• For indirectly controlled converters only the angular position of the output
voltage is controllable by valve gating, the magnitude remains
proportional to the DC terminal voltage

3
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)
• The control method of maintaining a quadrature relationship between the
instantaneous converter voltage and line current vectors, to provide
reactive series compensation and handle subsynchronous resonance
(SSR), can be implemented with an indirectly controlled converter.
• The method of maintaining a single-frequency synchronous output
independent of dc terminal voltage variation, requires a directly controlled
converter
• Although high-power directly controlled converters are more difficult and
costly to implement than indirectly controlled converters

4
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

5
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

6
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC employing an indirectly controlled converter

7
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)
Internal control scheme for the directly controlled SSSC
• In this scheme can be used to eliminate the unwanted output voltage
components due to the modulation of the dc capacitor voltage by
subsynchronous or other line current components.
• It is also suitable to provide both reactive and real (resistive) line
compensation if the converter is equipped with a suitable dc power supply
• The control structure is similar to that discussed in connection with the
indirectly controlled converter, except for the continuous and independent
control of both the magnitude and angle of the compensating voltage

8
 Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)
• The synchronization to the line current is accomplished by a phase-locked
loop
• The control is operated from three reference signals
1. VqQRef, defining the desired magnitude of the series reactive compensating
voltage
2. VqRRef, defining the desired magnitude of the series real compensating
voltage
3. Vdcref defining the operating voltage of the dc capacitor
• The reactive voltage reference VqQRef, (which with the line current
determines the reactive power exchange for series compensation)
9
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

10
Internal Control of SSSC (Cont…)

SSSC employing a directly controlled converter

11
 External control circuit for Series
Reactive Compensators
• In the previous sections, variable impedance type and synchronous
voltage source type compensators, comprising the pertinent power circuit
and related internal control, have been described
• These compensators have different operating principles and exhibit
differing compensation and performance characteristics
• They all can provide series reactive compensation and be operated self-
sufficiently from an input reference defining the desired compensating
voltage or reactance
• There for the external control that defines the functional operation of the
compensator same for all types of series compensator discussed

12
 External control circuit(Cont…)
• In external control the main power flow control is executed by a (slow)
closed loop, which is operated from one of the selectable references, XqRef
or IqRef or VRef or PRef
• The corresponding network variable (Xq or Vq or I or P) is derived by the
voltage and current processor and compared to the selected reference
• The amplified error at the output of the PI controller provides the
reference, Xq, or Vq, for the internal control.
• The auxiliary control signals to improve transient and dynamic stability,
and to damp subsynchronous oscillations, are derived from the relevant
system variables.

13
 External control circuit(Cont…)

Functional external (system) control scheme for the SSSC.

14
Variable Impedance Type Series Compensators

• GTO Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)

• Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
• Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

15
 TSSC
• The basic circuit arrangement of the thyristor-switched series capacitor
(TSSC) is consists of capacitors, shunted by an valve (switch) composed of a
string of reverse parallel connected thyristors, in series.
• It is similar to the circuit structure of the sequentially operated GCSC, but its
operation is different due to the imposed switching restrictions of the
conventional thyristor valve

16
 TSSC(Cont…)

• The degree of series compensation is controlled in a step-like manner by

increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitors inserted.
• A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed by turning on the
corresponding thyristor valve.
• A thyristor valve commutates “naturally” that is, it turns off when the
current crosses zero.
• Thus a capacitor can be inserted into the line by the thyristor valve only at
the zero crossings of the line current

17
 TSSC(Cont…)
• Since the insertion takes place at line current zero, a full half-cycle of the
line current will charge the capacitor from zero to maximum and
• The successive, opposite polarity half-cycle of the line current will
discharge it from this maximum to zero
• The capacitor insertion at line current zero, necessitated by the switching
limitation of the thyristor valve, results in a dc offset voltage

18
 TSSC(Cont…)
• In order to minimize the initial surge current in the valve, and the
corresponding circuit transient, the thyristor valve should be turned on for
bypass only when the capacitor voltage is zero.
• With the prevailing dc offset, this requirement can cause a delay of up to
one full cycle, which would set the theoretical limit for the attainable
response time of the TSSC.
• In principle, the TSSC switching could be modulated to counteract sub
synchronous oscillations
• Therefore, the pure TSSC scheme would not be used in critical applications
where a high degree of compensation is required and the danger of sub
synchronous resonance is present.

19
 TSSC(Cont…)
• But , the TSSC could be applied for power flow
control and for damping power oscillation where
the required speed of response is moderate.
• The basic V-I characteristic of the TSSC with four
series connected compensator modules operated
to control the compensating voltage
• For this compensating mode the reactance of the
capacitor banks is chosen so as to produce, on the
average, the rated compensating voltage
Vcmax=4XcImin

20
 TSSC(Cont…)
• As the current Imin is increased toward Imax, the
capacitor banks are progressively by passed by
the related thyristor valves to reduce the
overall capacitive reactance in a step-like
manner
• Thereby maintain the compensating voltage
with increasing line current.
• The loss, as percent of the rated var output,
versus line current characteristic of the TSSC
operated in the voltage compensating mode

21
 TSSC(Cont…)
• For zero voltage injection (all capacitors are
bypassed) and for maintaining maximum rated
voltage injection (capacitors are progressively
bypassed).
Impedance compensation mode
• TSSC is applied to maintain the maximum rated
compensating reactance at any line current up
to the rated maximum,
• In this the capacitive impedance is chosen so as
to provide the maximum series compensation at
rated current 4Xc=Vcmax/Imax

22
 TSSC(Cont…)
• The loss versus line current characteristic for this
compensation mode for zero compensating
impedance (all capacitor banks are bypassed by the
thyristor valves)
• For maximum compensating impedance (all thyristor
valves are off and all capacitors are inserted).
• The maximum rated line current and corresponding
capacitor voltage are design values for which the
thyristor valve and the capacitor banks are rated to
meet the specific application requirements

23
 TSSC(Cont…)
• Constraints imposed by physical device limitation on the turn-on
conditions of thyristors (such as di/dt and surge current magnitude) would
necessitate in practice the use of a current limiting reactor in series with
the TSSC valve to handle bypass operation,
• if a reactor in series with the valve is included in the TSSC structure,
• then, the resulting power circuit offers new control options which can
significantly improve the operating and performance characteristics of the
series compensator.

24
 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
• The Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
scheme, consists of the series compensating capacitor
shunted by a thyristor-Controlled Reactor(TCR)
• In a practical TCSC implementation, several such basic
compensators may be connected in series to obtain the
desired voltage rating and operating characteristics
• This arrangement is similar in structure to the TSSC and,
if the impedance of the reactor, XL, is sufficiently
smaller than that of the capacitor Xc , it can be operated
in an on/off manner like the TSSC

25
TCSC(Cont…)

26
TCSC(Cont…)

27
 TCSC(Cont…)
Two operating ranges TCSC
• capacitive
the α varying from αClim to π/2
with respect peek of capacitor
voltage
• inductive
the α varying from 0 to αLlim with
respect peek of capacitor voltage

The impedance vs. delay angle a characteristic

of the TCSC.
28
 TCSC Operation
• Let Assume that the thyristor valve, is initially open
and the prevailing line current I produces voltage Vco
across the fixed series compensating capacitor.
• Suppose that the TCR is to be turned on at a,
measured from the negative peak of the capacitor
voltage.
• At this instant of turn-on, the capacitor voltage is
negative, the line current is positive and thus
charging the capacitor in the positive direction
• During this first half-cycle (and all similar subsequent
half-cycles) of TCR operation SW is open

29
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
• At the instant of closing switch sw, two substantially
independent events will take place.
• One is that the line current, being a constant
current source, continues to charge (discharge )the
capacitor.
• The other is that the charge of the capacitor will be
reversed during the resonant half-cycle of the LC
circuit formed by the switch closing
• The resonant charge reversal produces a DC offset
for the next (positive) half-cycle of the capacitor
voltage

30
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
• In the subsequent (negative) half-cycle,
this dc offset can be reversed by
maintaining the same α,
• thus a voltage waveform symmetrical to
the zero axis can be produced,
• where the relevant current and voltage
waveforms of the TCSC operated in the
capacitive region are shown.
• Similarly for the inductive operating
range, where the overall impedance of
the TCSC is inductive
31
TCSC Operation(Cont…)

inductive operating range, of the TCSC

32
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
• The time duration of the voltage reversal is
dependent primarily on XL/Xc ratio, but also on the
magnitude of the line current.
• if XL << XC, then the reversal is almost instantaneous,
• The periodic voltage reversal produces a square
wave across the capacitor that is added to the sine
wave produced by the line current
• The steady-state compensating voltage across the
series capacitor comprises an uncontrolled (sin
wave) and a controlled component(square wave)

33
TCSC Operation(Cont…)

34
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
• The small XL is advantageous in providing well-defined charge reversal and
control of the period time of the compensating voltage (important for
handling subsynchronous resonance)
• A small reactor is also advantageous in facilitating an effective protective
bypass for large surge current during system faults.
• But, small XL increases the magnitudes of the current harmonics
generated by the TCR and circulated through the series capacitor,
• Therefore it also introduce harmonics in the capacitor voltage

35
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
• It also decreases the range of actual delay angle control and thus possibly
makes the closed-loop parameter regulations more difficult
• Generally, the XL/XC ratio for practical TCSCs would likely be in 0.1 to 0.3
range, depending on the application requirements and constraints.
• It is important that the natural resonance frequency of the TCSC does not
coincide with, or is close to, two and three times the fundamental.
mechanism of controlling the dc offset by charge reversal the increase
• Let consider ideal case of instantaneous voltage revisal is assumed (with
an infinitesimal XL).

36
TCSC Operation(Cont…)

37
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)

mechanism of controlling the dc offset by charge reversal the increase

38
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
mechanism of controlling the dc offset by charge reversal
the decrease
• It is the opposite process, that is, when the
magnitude
• of the capacitor voltage is decreased by retarding the
periodic gating from the current zeros until the
desired offset voltage level is reached.

39
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)

mechanism of controlling the dc offset by charge reversal the decrease

40
 TCSC Operation(Cont…)
• Therefore continuously variable series capacitive compensation can be
achieved by the TCSC circuit structure
• That is, the effective capacitive impedance of the TCSC can be increased
above the actual reactance of the capacitor bank by increasing the
conduction angle of the TCR.
• This increase of the effective impedance is due to the additional voltage
the TCR produces across the capacitor by repetitive charge reversals.
• The current in the reactor is supplied from the parallel capacitor.
• Thus, the capacitor voltage will change in proportion to the integral of the
reactor current, reversing its polarity (from negative to positive) by the
end of the conduction period
41
 TCSC VI Characteristics
Voltage compensation mode
• The compensating voltage versus line
current (V-I) characteristic of a basic TCSC
• In the capacitive region the minimum
delay angle αCmin sets the limit for the
maximum compensating voltage up to a
value of line current (Imin) and
• At which the maximum rated voltage,
Vcmax, constrains the operation until the
rated maximum current ICmax, is reached.

42
 TCSC VI Characteristics(Cont…)

• In the inductive region, the maximum

delay angle,αLmin, limits the voltage at
low line currents and the maximum
rated thyristor current at high line
currents

43
TCSC VI Characteristics(Cont…)

44
 TCSC VI Characteristics(Cont…)
Impedance compensation mode
• It is applied to maintain the maximum rated
compensating reactance at any line current
up to the rated maximum.
• So that αcmin the maximum capacitive
reactance can be maintained at and below
the maximum rated line current,
• The loss versus line current characteristic for
this operating mode for maximum and
minimum capacitive compensating reactance.

45
 TCSC VI Characteristics(Cont…)
• The voltage and impedance compensation modes are interchangeable by
control action
Draw back
• The TCSC design is complicated by the fact that the internally generated
harmonics aggravate the limit conditions.
• Harmonic currents cause additional losses and corresponding temperature
increase in both the thyristor valve and the reactor.
• The harmonic voltages they produce across the capacitor increase the
crest voltage and the stress on the TCSC power components

46
 Internal Control
• The function of the operating or “internal” control of the variable
impedance type compensators is to provide appropriate gate drive for the
thyristor valve to produce the desired compensating voltage or impedance
as per the reference.
• The reference to the internal control is provided by the external whose
function it is to operate the controllable reactive impedance so as to
accomplish specified compensation objectives of the transmission line
• Thus the external control measure a line impedance, current, power, or
angle reference and, within measured system variables, derives the
operating reference for the internal control

47
 Internal Control(Cont…)
• The power circuits of the series compensators operate by rigorously
synchronized current conduction and blocking control
• It is not only define their effective impedance at the power frequency but
could also determine their impedance characteristic in the critical
subsynchronous frequency band.
• The internal control, include the conversion of the input reference into the
proper switching instants which result in the desired valve conduction or
blocking intervals.
• The internal control is also responsible for the protection of the main power
components (valve, capacitor, reactor) by executing current limitations or
other protective measures

48
 Internal Control(Cont…)
• Structurally the internal controls for the three variable impedance type
compensators (GCSC, TCSC, TSSC) could be similar.
• Their function is simply to define the conduction and/or the blocking
intervals of the valve in relation to the fundamental component of the line
current
• This have to do three basic functions: synchronization to the line current,
turn-on or turn-off delay angle computation, and gate (firing) signal
generation

49
 Internal Control Scheme for GCSC
• Because of the duality between the shunt connected GCSC and the series-connected
TCR arrangements, this control scheme is analogous to that for the TCR
• It has four basic functions.
1. synchronous timing, provided by a phase-locked loop circuit that runs in
synchronism with the line current.
2. The reactive voltage or impedance to turn-off delay angle conversion according to
the relationship discussed.
3. Determination of the instant of valve turn-on when the capacitor voltage
becomes zero. (This function may also include the maintenance of a minimum on
time at voltage zero crossings to ensure immunity to subsynchronous resonance.)
4. Generation of suitable turn-off and turn-on pulses for the GTO valve

50
Internal Control Scheme for GCSC (Cont…)

Functional internal control scheme for the GCSC

51
 Internal Control Scheme for TCSC and TSSC
• The main consideration for the structure of the internal control operating the
power circuit of the TCSC is to ensure immunity to subsynchronous resonance.
• Here discussing two basic control philosophies.
• One is to operate the basic phase locked Loop(PLL) from the fundamental
component of the line current.
• In order to achieve this, it is necessary to provide substantial filtering to
remove the super and in particular, the subsynchronous components from the
line current.
• At the same time, maintain correct phase relationship for proper
synchronization.
52
 Internal Control Scheme for TCSC and TSSC(Cont…)
• ln this arrangement the conventional technique of converting the
demanded TCR current into the corresponding delay angle, which is
measured from the peak of the fundamental line current
• The reference for the demanded TCR current is, usually provided by a
regulation loop of the external control, which compares the actual
capacitive impedance or compensating voltage to the reference given for
the desired system operation.

53
Internal Control Scheme for TCSC and TSSC(Cont…)

A functional internal control scheme for the TCSC based on the

synchronization to the fundamental component of the line current.

54
Internal Control Scheme for TCSC and TSSC(Cont…)
• The second approach also employs a PLL, synchronized to the line current,
for the generation of the basic timing reference
• In this method the actual zero crossing of the capacitor voltage is
estimated from the prevailing capacitor voltage and line current by an
angle correction circuit.
• The delay angle is then determined from the desired angle and the
estimated correction angle so as to make the TCR conduction symmetrical
with respect to the expected zero crossing,

55
Internal Control Scheme for TCSC and TSSC(Cont…)
• The desired delay angle in this scheme can be adjusted by a closed-loop
controlled phase shift of the basic time reference provided by the PLL
circuit
• The delay angle of the TCR, and thus the compensating capacitive voltage,
as in the previous case, is controlled overall by a regulation loop of the
external control in order to meet system operating requirements.
• This regulation loop is relatively slow, with a bandwidth just sufficient to
meet compensation requirements

56
Internal Control Scheme for TCSC and TSSC(Cont…)

A functional internal control scheme for the TCSC based on the prediction
of the capacitor voltage zero crossings
57
THANK YOU

58
 NPTEL
Course Name: FACTS DEVICES
Instructor: Dr. Avik Bhattacharya
Assignment 5, Week 5

1. A single-phase load having ZL = (5.0-j2.0) pu has an input AC voltage of

230 V at 50 Hz with a base impedance of 6.9 Ω. It is to be realized as unity
power factor load on the AC supply system while maintaining the same
rated load terminal voltage using PWM-based SSSC. Calculate the current
rating of the compensator.
a) 6.19 A
b) 2.39 A
c) 8.64 A
d) 9 A
Solution-
 2. A single-phase AC supply has a voltage of 230 V at 50 Hz and a feeder
(source) impedance of 1.0 Ω resistance and 4.0 Ω inductive reactance. It
feeds a single-phase load having ZL=30 Ω. Calculate the voltage drop across
the source impedance.

a) 30.32 V
b) 18.53 V
c) 35.84 V
d) 55.65 V
Solution-
 3. A single-phase load having ZL = (5.0-j2.0) pu has an input AC voltage of
230 V at 50 Hz with a base impedance of 6.9 Ω. It is to be realized as unity
power factor load on the AC supply system while maintaining the same
rated load terminal voltage using PWM-based SSSC. Calculate the VA
rating of the compensator.

a) 600.25 VA
b) 538.4 VA
c) 650.23 VA
d) 500.23 VA

Solution-
 4. A single-phase AC supply has a voltage of 230 V at 50 Hz and a feeder
(source) impedance of 1.0 Ω resistance and 4.0 Ω inductive reactance. It
feeds a single-phase load having ZL=30 Ω. Calculate the voltage across the
load.

a) 220.8 V
b) 240.8 V
c) 230.8 V
d) 210.8 V
Solution-

5. A single-phase AC supply has AC mains voltage of 230 V (rms) at 50 Hz

and a feeder (source) impedance of 0.25 Ω resistance and 3.5 Ω inductive
reactance. It feeds a load having ZL = (25- j15) Ω. If a PWM SSSC is used
to regulate the voltage to the input voltage (230 V) with minimum rating .
Calculate the current rating of the compensator.

a) 10.9 A
b) 7.89 A
c) 5.36 A
d) 9.65 A
Solution-
6. TCR is the ________ of GCSC.
a) dual
b) inverse
c) equal
d) reverse

Solution-

TCR is the dual of GCSC. The wave shape followed by the current of the
thyristor-controlled reactor is identical to that for the voltage GTO thyristor-
controlled series capacitor. This confirms the duality between the TCR and the
GCSC.

7. Which of the following FACTS devices has the capability to turn on and off
upon command?
a) Neither GCSC nor TCSC
b) Either GCSC or TCSC
c) GCSC
d) TCSC

Solution-
Among the given FACTS devices, GCSC has the capability to turn on and off
upon command. This is because GTOs are incorporated in GCSC while
conventional thyristors are employed in TCSC. By its inherent property, GTO
gives the flexibility of switching on or off the required capacitor by turning on
or off its gate as per the command.

8. Which is not the mode of operation of a Thyristor Controlled Series

Capacitor (TCSC)?
a) Bypassed thyristor mode
b) Unblocked thyristor mode
c) Partially conducting thyristor (capacitive-Vernier) mode
d) Partially conducting thyristor (inductive-Vernier) mode

Solution-

There are four different modes of operation of a Thyristor Controlled Series

Capacitor (TCSC), namely bypassed thyristor mode, blocked thyristor mode,
partially conducting thyristor (capacitive-Vernier) mode and partially
conducting thyristor(inductive-Vernier) mode. In blocked thyristor mode of
operation, the thyristor is not triggered and the TCSC operates in blocking
mode. In this case TCSC performs simply as a fixed series capacitor.

9. SSSC is defined as
a. Static synchronous series capacitor
 b. Series synchronous static capacitor
c. Static synchronous shunt capacitor
d. Series synchronous shunt capacitor
10. Choose the right option among the alternatives – The GCSC is controlled by
a turn-on/turn-off delay with respect to the peak of the applied voltage/line
current.
a) Turn-on, applied voltage
b) Turn-on, line current
c) Turn-off, applied voltage
d) Turn-off, line current

Solution-

The GCSC is controlled by a turn-off delay with respect to the peak of the line
current. The GCSC controls the voltage generated by a constant current source
across a fixed capacitor. Therefore, GCSC presents a variable reactive
impedance to this source.