polar and parametric curves 769

11.2 Calculus in Polar Coordinates

The previous section introduced the polar coordinate system and dis-
cussed how to plot points, how to create graphs of functions (from
data, a rectangular graph or a formula) and how to convert back and
forth between the polar and rectangular systems. This section examines The results we obtain may appear differ-
ent than the corresponding results from
calculus in polar coordinates: rates of change, slopes of tangent lines,
earlier chapters, but they all follow from
areas and lengths of curves. the approaches used in the rectangular
coordinate system.

Polar Coordinates and Derivatives

dy
In the rectangular coordinate system, the derivative measured both
dx
the rate of change of y with respect to x for a function y = f ( x ) and
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = f ( x ). In the polar
coordinate system other derivatives also commonly appear, and it is dr
The sign of tells us whether r is in-
important that you learn to distinguish among them. If r = g(θ ) then: dθ
creasing or decreasing as θ increases.
dr
• = g′ (θ ) measures the rate of change of r with respect to θ
dθ
dy ∆y
• gives the slope of the tangent line to the graph of r = g(θ )
dx ∆x
dr
The derivative of a polar equation r = g(θ ), = g′ (θ ), tells us how
dθ
dr
r is changing with respect to (increasing) θ. For example, if >0
dθ
then the directed distance r is increasing as θ increases (see margin).
dr
However, = g′ (θ ) is not the slope of the line tangent to the polar
dθ
graph of r = g(θ ). For the simple spiral r = θ (see second margin
dr
figure), = 1 > 0 for all values of θ, but the slope of the tangent line,
dθ
dy
, is sometimes positive and sometimes negative.
dx
dx
Similarly, tells us the rate of change of the x-coordinate of the
dθ
dy
graph with respect to (increasing) θ and tells us the rate of change
dθ
of the y-coordinate of the graph with respect to (increasing) θ.
dx dy dr dy
Example 1. State whether the values of , , and are positive
dθ dθ dθ dx
(+), negative (−), zero (0) or undefined (U) at the points A and B on
the graph in the bottom margin figure.

Solution. As θ increases near A, the x- and y-coordinates of the point

on the graph are both increasing, the radius r (the distance from the
point to the origin) is increasing, and the slope of the line tangent to
the graph is positive, so all four derivatives are positive.
As θ increases near B: the x-coordinate is decreasing, so dx
dθ < 0; the
dy
y-coordinate reaches a maximum, so dθ = 0; the radius r is getting
770 contemporary calculus

dr dy
dx dy dr dy smaller, so dθ < 0; and the tangent line is horizontal, so dx = 0. We can
dθ dθ dθ dx collect these results in the margin table. ◀
A + + + +
B − 0 − 0
C
Practice 1. Fill in the margin table for the points labeled C and D.
D
Slopes of Tangent Lines
If you know that r = f (θ ) for some differentiable function f , you can
dy
calculate , the slope of the tangent line to the graph of r = f (θ ), by
dx
using the polar–rectangular conversion formulas and the Chain Rule:
dy
dy dy dx dy dθ
= · ⇒ = dx
dθ dx dθ dx
dθ

dx dy
so to find the slope of the tangent line we need to computeand .
dθ dθ
From the polar–rectangular conversion formulas, we know that:
dx
x = r cos(θ ) = f (θ ) · cos(θ ) ⇒ = − f (θ ) · sin(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) · cos(θ )
dθ
dy
y = r sin(θ ) = f (θ ) · sin(θ ) ⇒ = f (θ ) · cos(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) · sin(θ )
dθ
and hence:
dy f (θ ) · cos(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) · sin(θ )
=
dx − f (θ ) · sin(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) · cos(θ )
This result may be difficult to memorize, but you should be able to
remember how to obtain the result using the conversion formulas, the
Product Rule and the Chain Rule.

Example 2. Find the slopes of the lines tangent to the spiral r = θ at

the points P π2 , π2 and Q(π, π ).

Solution. Proceeding as above:

dx
x = θ · cos(θ ) ⇒ = −θ · sin(θ ) + cos(θ )
dθ
dy
y = θ · sin(θ ) ⇒ = θ · cos(θ ) + sin(θ )
dθ
dy θ · cos(θ ) + sin(θ )
⇒ =
dx −θ · sin(θ ) + cos(θ )
π
At the point P, θ = , so:
2
dy π
·0+1 2
= 2π =−
dx −2 ·1+0 π

At the point Q, θ = π, so:

dy π · (−1) + 0
= =π
dx −π · 0 − 1
 polar and parametric curves 771

The function r = θ is steadily increasing, but the slope of the line

tangent to the polar graph can be negative or positive or 0 or even
undefined (where?). ◀

Practice 2. Find equations for the lines tangent to the graph of r = θ at

points P and Q in the preceding Example.

Practice 3. Compute the slopes of the lines tangent to the cardioid

r = 1 − sin(θ ) (see margin for graph) when θ = 0, π4 and π2 .

Areas in Polar Coordinates

The formulas for computing areas in rectangular and polar coordinates
may appear quite different, but we obtain them the same way: partition
a region into pieces, compute (approximate) areas of those pieces, add
the small areas together to get a Riemann sum, and take the limit of
that sum to get a definite integral. The chief difference here is the shape
of the pieces: we use thin, almost-rectangular pieces in the Cartesian
system and thin almost-sectors (pieces of pie) in the polar system.
We can obtain the formula for the area of a sector of a circle using
proportions (see margin):

area of sector sector angle θ

= =
area of whole circle angle of whole circle 2π

θ θ  2 1
⇒ area of sector = (area of whole circle) = πr = r2 θ
2π 2π 2
Given a region bounded by the polar curve r = f (θ ) and the rays
θ = α and θ = β, partition the θ-domain into n small pieces of angular
“width” ∆θ. For the k-th polar “slice”, choose an angle θk in that slice
and approximate the area of the k-th slice with a sector of radius f (θk )
1
and angle ∆θ. The area of this sector is [ f (θk )]2 ∆θ, so the approximate
2
area of the region is given by the Riemann sum:
n
1 1
Z β
∑ 2
[ f (θk )]2 ∆θ −→
α 2
[ f (θ )]2 dθ
k =1

We can guarantee the convergence of the Riemann sum to the integral

by requiring that f (θ ) is continuous for α ≤ θ ≤ β.

Area in Polar Coordinates

If f (θ ) is continuous on [α, β], the area of the region bounded by
r = f (θ ) and radial lines at angles θ = α and θ = β is given by:

1 1 2
Z β Z β
[ f (θ )]2 dθ = r dθ
α 2 α 2
772 contemporary calculus

Example 3. Find the area of the region inside the cardioid r = 1 + cos(θ )
(see margin for graph).

Solution. A straightforward application of the area formula yields:

Z 2π Z 2π  
1 2 1 1 2
[1 + cos(θ )] dθ = + cos(θ ) + cos (θ ) dθ
0 2 0 2 2
Z 2π   
1 1 1 1
= + cos(θ ) + + cos(2θ ) dθ
0 2 2 2 2
Z 2π  
3 1
= + cos(θ ) + cos(2θ ) dθ
0 4 4
 2π
3 1 3π
= θ + sin(θ ) + sin(2θ ) =
4 8 0 2

We could also have exploited the symmetry of the region, integrating

instead from 0 to π (to get the area of the “top half” of the region) and
then doubling the result. ◀

Practice 4. Find the area of the region inside one “petal” of the rose
r = sin(3θ ) (see margin for graph).

We can also calculate the area between curves in polar coordinates.

The area of the region (see margin) between the continuous curves
r = f (θ ) and r = g(θ ) for α ≤ θ ≤ β, if f (θ ) > g(θ ) on this interval, is:

1 1h 2
Z β h i Z β i
( f (θ ))2 − ( g(θ ))2 dθ = 2
router − rinner dθ
α 2 α 2

It is a good idea to sketch the graphs of the curves to help determine

the endpoints of integration.

Example 4. Find the area of the shaded region in the margin figure.

Solution. The shaded region lies in the first quadrant, so α = 0 and

β = π2 . On that interval, cos(θ ) ≥ 0 ⇒ 1 + cos(θ ) ≥ 1, so f (θ ) =
1 + cos(θ ) generates the outer curve and g(θ ) = 1 generates the inner
curve. The area of the region between these curves is therefore:
π Z π  
1h 1
Z i
2 2 2 2 2
(1 + cos(θ )) − (1) dθ = cos(θ ) + cos (θ ) dθ
0 2 0 2
Z π    π
2 1 1 1 1 2
= cos(θ ) + + cos(2θ ) dθ = sin(θ ) + θ + sin(2θ )
0 4 4 4 8 0

π
which evaluates to 1 + ≈ 1.393. ◀
8
Practice 5. Find the area of the region outside the cardioid 1 + cos(θ )
and inside the circle r = 2.
 polar and parametric curves 773

Arclength in Polar Coordinates

The formulas for calculating the lengths of curves in rectangular and
polar coordinates look a bit different, but we can obtain both from the
Pythagorean Theorem, following the method we used in Section 5.3
(see margin figure):
s
∆x 2
n q n  2
∆y
 
length ≈ ∑ (∆x )2 + (∆y)2 = ∑ + · ∆θ
k =1 k =1
∆θ ∆θ

If r = f (θ ), a differentiable function of θ, then x = f (θ ) · cos(θ ) and

y = f (θ ) · sin(θ ) will both be differentiable functions of θ so that
∆x dx ∆y dy
→ and → as ∆θ → 0. Hence:
∆θ dθ ∆θ dθ
s s
∆x 2
n  2 Z θ = β  2  2
∆y
 
dx dy
∑ ∆θ
+
∆θ
· ∆θ −→
θ = α dθ
+
dθ
dθ
k =1

Building on results from our earlier derivative computations:

 2
dx dx 2
′
= [ f (θ )]2 sin2 (θ ) − 2 f (θ ) f ′ (θ ) sin(θ ) cos(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) cos2 (θ )

= − f (θ ) sin(θ ) + f (θ ) cos(θ ) ⇒
dθ dθ
 2
dy dy 2
= f (θ ) cos(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) sin(θ ) ⇒ = [ f (θ )]2 cos2 (θ ) + 2 f (θ ) f ′ (θ ) sin(θ ) cos(θ ) + f ′ (θ ) sin2 (θ )

dθ dθ
Adding these quantities and applying a square root yields:
s
 2  2 q
dx dy
+ = [ f (θ )]2 + [ f ′ (θ )]2
dθ dθ
providing a compact formula for arclength in polar coordinates.

Arclength in Polar Coordinates

If r = f (θ ), a differentiable function for α ≤ θ ≤ β, then the
length of the graph of r = f (θ ) between θ = α and θ = β is:
s
Z θ=β q Z θ=β  2
2 2 dr
[ f (θ )] + [ f ′ (θ )] dθ = r2 + dθ
θ =α θ =α dθ

√
Example 5. Find the length of the polar curve r = θ for π ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
√dr 1
Solution. r = = √ so the length is given by:
θ⇒
dθ 2 θ
s
Z 2π √ 2  2 Z 2π r
1 1
θ + √ dθ = θ+ dθ ≈ 6.8287
π 2 θ π 4θ
Like most integrals arising from arclength computations, we are unable
find an antiderivative of the integrand and compute an exact value
for the length, so we resort to technology to provide an approximate
numerical answer. ◀
774 contemporary calculus

11.2 Problems

In problems 1–4, fill in the table below to indicate 9. Graph r = 1 + 2 cos(θ ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
whether the values of the indicated derivatives are (a) Show that the graph goes through the origin
are positive (+), negative (−), zero (0) or undefined when θ = 2π 4π
3 and θ = 3 .
(U) at each point. dy
(b) Calculate when θ = 2π 4π
3 and θ = 3 .
dx
dx dy dr dy (c) How can a curve have two different tangent
dθ dθ dθ dx lines (and slopes) at the origin?
A 10. Graph the cardiod r = 1 + sin(θ ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
B dx
(a) At what points on the cardioid does dθ = 0?
C dy
(b) At what points does dθ = 0?
D dr
E
(c) At what points does dθ = 0?
dy
(d) At what points does dx = 0?
1. See figure below left. 2. See figure below. 11. Show that if a polar graph goes through the ori-
dr
gin when the angle is θ0 (and if dθ exists there,
but is not equal to 0) then the slope of the tangent
line at the origin is tan (θ0 ).
In 12–20, represent the area of the given region as a
definite integral. Then evaluate the integral exactly
(if possible) or approximate using technology.
12. The shaded region in the figure below left.

3. See figure below left. 4. See figure below.

13. The shaded region in the figure above right.

In Problems 5–8, sketch the graph of the given polar 14. The shaded region in the figure below left.
equation for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π; label the points A, B and
dr dy
C; and calculate the values of and at each of
dθ dx
those points.



5. r = 5; A 5, π4 , B 5, π2 and C (5, π )
 √ 

6. r = 2 + cos(θ ); A 2 + 2, π4 , B 2, π2 and C (1, π )

7. r = 1 + cos2 (θ ); A (2, 0), B 23 , π4 and C 1, π2

6  √ 
; A (2, 0), B 3, π2 and C 24−76 2 , π4


8. r =
2 + cos(θ ) 15. The shaded region in the figure above right.
 polar and parametric curves 775

16. The region inside the circle r = 4 sin(θ ). 32. Goat and Round Silo (This problem does require
17. The region in the first quadrant outside the circle calculus.) One end of a 10π-foot-long rope is at-
r = 1 and inside the cardiod r = 1 + cos(θ ). tached to the wall of a round silo that has a radius
18. The region in the second quadrant bounded by of 10 feet, and the other end is tied to a goat.
r = θ and r = θ 2 .
19. One “petal” of the graph of r = sin(3θ ).
20. One “petal” of the graph of r = sin(5θ ).
21. The “peanut” r = 1.5 + cos(2θ ).
22. The “peanut” r = a + cos(2θ ) (for a > 1).
In 23–30, represent the length of the curve as a defi-
nite integral. Then evaluate the integral exactly (if
possible) or approximate using technology.
23. The spiral r = θ from θ = 0 to θ = 2π.
24. The spiral r = θ from θ = 2π to θ = 4π.
25. The cardioid r = 1 + cos(θ ).
(a) Sketch the region that the goat can reach.
26. The circle r = 4 sin(θ ) from θ = 0 to θ = π.
(b) Justify that the area of the shaded region
27. The circle r = 5 from θ = 0 to θ = 2π.
shown below, as the goat goes around the silo
28. The “peanut” r = 1.2 + cos(2θ ). from having θ feet of rope taut against the silo
29. One “petal” of r = sin(3θ ) to having θ + ∆θ feet taut against the silo, is
30. One “petal” of r = sin(5θ ). approximately:
31. Goat and Square Silo (This problem does not
1
require calculus.) One end of a 40-foot-long rope (10π − 10θ )2 · ∆θ
2
is attached to the middle of a wall of a 20-foot-
square silo, and the other end is tied to a goat.

(a) Sketch the region that the goat can reach.

(b) Find the area of the region the goat can reach.
(c) Can the goat reach a region with a bigger area (c) Use the preceding result to help calculate the
if the rope is tied to the corner of the silo? area of the region that the goat can reach.
776 contemporary calculus

11.2 Practice Answers

1. See margin table.
dx dy dr dy
dθ dθ dθ dx π π π π


2. At P, θ = 2 and r
= 2 , so x = r cos( θ ) = 2 cos 2 = 0 and y =
C − − − + dy
D − + + − r sin(θ ) = π2 sin π2 = π2 . From Example 2, we know that dx = − π2
at P, so an equation for the tangent line is y = π2 − π2 ( x − 0).
At Q, θ = π and r = π, so x = r cos(θ ) = π cos(π ) = −π and
dy
y = r sin(θ ) = π sin(π ) = 0. From Example 2, we know that dx = π
at Q, so an equation for the tangent line is y = 0 + π ( x + π ).

3. With r = 1 − sin(θ ), x = r cos(θ ) = (1 − sin(θ )) cos(θ ), so:

dx
= (1 − sin(θ )) (− sin(θ )) + cos(θ ) (− cos(θ ))
dθ
= − sin(θ ) + sin2 (θ ) − cos2 (θ ) = − sin(θ ) − cos(2θ )

Similarly, y = r sin(θ ) = (1 − sin(θ )) sin(θ ), so:

dy
= (1 − sin(θ )) · cos(θ ) + sin(θ ) (− cos(θ ))
dθ
= cos(θ ) − 2 sin(θ ) cos(θ ) = cos(θ ) − sin(2θ )

Therefore:
dy
dy cos(θ ) − sin(2θ )
dθ
= dx
=
dx − sin(θ ) − cos(2θ )
dθ
dy dy √
When θ = 0, dx = −1; when θ = π4 , dx = 2 − 1 ≈ 0.414; and when
Looking at the graph of the cardioid, why θ = π2 , the derivative is undefined.
should the slope be undefined there?
4. The “petals” of the rose r = sin(3θ ) intersect at the origin, where
r = 0 ⇒ sin(3θ ) = 0 ⇒ 3θ = kπ ⇒ θ = k · π3 for any integer k. The
shaded petal corresponds to 0 ≤ θ ≤ π3 , so its area is:
π π    π
1 1 1 1 1 3
Z Z
3 3
sin2 (3θ ) dθ = − cos(6θ ) dθ = θ− sin(6θ )
0 2 0 4 4 4 24 0

π
which equals ≈ 0.2618.
12
5. See margin for graph. The area of the region enclosed by the circle
is π · 22 = 4π, while the area of the region enclosed by the cardioid
3π
is (using the result of Example 3). The shaded region therefore
2
3π 5π
has area 4π − = .
2 2