WELL LOGGING AND DRILLING Fluid Circulation System

Purpose of Logging Water/air for shallow holes Drilling mud - water base with
1) Lack of Core (older wells) colloidal and silt particles.
2) Driller's logs - poor and subjective Additives:
3) Core/geol. logs - limited to well bore (1) bentonite - viscosity control
4) See behind casing (2) barite - density control
5) Qualitative measurement in-situ (3) salt - retards clay swelling & evaporite dissolution
6) Correlation (SP, natural gamma) - objective record
"Geophysical", "wireline", "E-logs" generally refer to the Mud Serves Many Purposes
same thing - they are a part of the process of well a) Lubrication (drill bit and string)
production - mud logs, DST's and production tests may also b) Cuttings removal
be run with geophysical logs. c) Maintain borehole pressure (prevents blowouts, fluid
escape, breakouts)
3 Basic Types d) Entrained hydrocarbons in cuttings (mud logging)
i. electrical (resistivity, conductivity, SP) e) Permeable formation identification
ii. nuclear (density, porosity, natural radioactivity)
iii. sonic (acoustic-porosity, fractures, correlation Drilling Artifacts That Affect Well Logs
with seismic section)  Rugosity - hole diameter varies with depth
Others  Sloughing - swelling of clay into hole
Caliper, magnetic, gravity  Keyseats - wider hole where it intersects joints
Fluid column logs --> temperature, flowmeter, fluid
conductivity Well Completion
Water Wells: flushing, screen installation, gravel pack,
Properties sought grout or bentonite backfill, development, pump installation.
 porosity Oil Wells: hydrofracturing or acid injection, casing, bottom
 composition (rock and fluid) plug, perforation, pump installation (logs may be run
 degree of saturation several times during these phases).
 permeability
 metal content Logging Procedure
 heat flux Logging truck contains:
 rock quality a. measure wheel (has magnetic markers on cable)
 in-situ stress b. cable or wireline (armored and insulated)
c. logging tool (hangs from end of cable)
Important Dates Logging tool consists of:
1927-1931: Doll, Schlumberger brothers - France, 1st a. bridle (may contain electrodes)
resistivity, SP b. cable head (with weak pt.)
1935 - Dipmeter c. cartridge (power supply, amps, microprocessors)
Late 1940's - Gamma-ray, neutron d. sensors or sonde
1950's - Focused resistivity tools, induction tools - oil field sondes are often 20 ft or longer
1960's - Digital recording, full waveform sonic (3D - for hydrological or geotechnical they are a few feet
velocity) - slimline sonde less than 2 inches in diameter
1970's - Borehole televiewer, VSP, Slimline sondes, e. spring or centering device
integrated circuitry f. a gamma ray sensor may be added between the head
1980's - Borehole radar, EM propagation, cross-hole and cartridge
tomography, deep logs Depth Monitoring
Common oil well reference point: top of the K.B (Kelly
Costs (1986) Bushing)
Basic suite - $5-10 per foot plus mobilization charge Water well depths may be referenced to top of casing or
Municipal water well - $8000 for 700 ft. running SP, ground level.
gamma, neutron, induction, sonic, and density
Methods of measuring depths
Drilling Methods - count rotations of the measure wheel - recording
1) Cable tool odometer
2) Rotary - check with magnetic marks on cable armor

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 - corrections for cable stretching every 100 ft. 5) Units - industry standards
- gamma-ray marker beds and casing collars may be used 6) Receive basic measurements in digital format for
(calibrate depth with known formations) your own replotting. (e.g. #cps instead of neutron
porosity)
Common errors in depth Definitions
1. sticking of tool or cable (see tension log) Wellbore environment: Figure 1 in A and G
2. sloppiness - operator inattendance Mud cake - deposited by invading fluid
3. error in tool length Mud filtrate - fluid that invades formation
4. memorizer error Flushed zone - no formation water left, completely
invaded (some hydrocarbons may be left though)
Typical Logging Procedure Transition zone - mud filtrate and formation fluid
- Usually log from the bottom of the hole to the top to keep Uninvaded - virgin formation fluid
cable tension more even (exceptions are temperature and General symbols to be used
fluid conductivity logs where you want minimal fluid Porosity: phi = pore volume / total volume (interconnected
disturbance) and to check the total depth of the hole to see pores = effective P)
if depth error exists before logging Degree of saturation: Sw = volume pore water / total pore
Header - needs to be filled out before logs are completed (in volume
the field!) Sh = volume hydrocarbons / total pore volume
Calibration of logs Hydraulic Conductivity - K = water volume / unit area in
Basic principles unit time
- calibrate before and after logs are run Kclay ~ 10-8 cm/s
- calibrate over the entire range of measured values Ksand ~ 10-4 cm/s
- should be presented with log or on separate log Permeability: ka (intrinsic or absolute), the ease of
transmission for any fluid
Calibration for various types of log techniques Relative permeability-- permeability when 2 pore fluids are
(a) electrical logs - standard resistor present
(b) nuclear logs - blocks placed around detectors in field, K = ka(rho)g / mu where rho = density, mu = dynamic
to mimic laboratory response, aluminum or paraffin viscosity
jigs measured in Darcy's (D) = 1 cm3 fluid / 1 cm2 * 1 s
(c) sonic logs - downhole is best, using a known oil/gas reservoirs - mD
formation
(d) caliper - use steel rings of set diameter DRILLING FLUID
- or by repeated runs over a standard hole In geotechnical engineering, drilling fluid is a fluid used to
aid the drilling of boreholes into the earth. Often used while
Log Presentation drilling oil and natural gas wells and on exploration drilling
- may be linear, linear-log, or log scale rigs, drilling fluids are also used for much simpler
- if linear resistivity, usually have at least 2 scales for boreholes, such as water wells. Liquid drilling fluid is often
overshoot and conductivity called drilling mud. The three main categories of drilling
Track 1 will contain one of the following: fluids are water-based muds (which can be dispersed and
caliper, SP, natural gamma, fluid conductivity/resistivity, non-dispersed), non-aqueous muds, usually called oil-based
cable tension mud, and gaseous drilling fluid, in which a wide range of
Tracks 2 & 3 will each have one of the following: gases can be used.
density (increasing right), porosity (increasing left), The main functions of drilling fluids include providing
resistivity (increasing right), conductivity (increasing left), hydrostatic pressure to prevent formation fluids from
travel time (increasing left), compensation corrections, entering into the well bore, keeping the drill bit cool and
tension clean during drilling, carrying out drill cuttings, and
Quality control on logs suspending the drill cuttings while drilling is paused and
1) Be there when the log is run. when the drilling assembly is brought in and out of the hole.
2) Check for headers, scales, remarks, scale changes The drilling fluid used for a particular job is selected to
3) Supervise calibration - have some idea of what to avoid formation damage and to limit corrosion.
expect from the log
4) Use a service company with a good reputation and
whose operators are also interpreters. Do not accept
"black-box" technology.

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Types of drilling fluid (depending on viscosity). The clay (called "shale"
Function in its rock form) is usually a combination of native
2.1 Remove cuttings from well clays that are suspended in the fluid while drilling,
2.2 Suspend and release cuttings or specific types of clay that are processed and sold
2.3 Control formation pressures as additives for the WBM system. The most
2.4 Seal permeable formations common of these is bentonite, frequently referred
2.5 Maintain wellbore stability to in the oilfield as "gel". Gel likely makes
2.6 Minimizing formation damage reference to the fact that while the fluid is being
2.7 Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling pumped, it can be very thin and free-flowing (like
assembly chocolate milk), though when pumping is stopped,
2.8 Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit the static fluid builds a "gel" structure that resists
2.9 Ensure adequate formation evaluation flow. When an adequate pumping force is applied
2.10 Control corrosion (in acceptable level) to "break the gel", flow resumes and the fluid
2.11 Facilitate cementing and completion returns to its previously free-flowing state. Many
2.12 Minimize impact on environment other chemicals (e.g. potassium formate) are added
 3 Composition of drilling mud to a WBM system to achieve various effects,
 4 Mud engineer including: viscosity control, shale stability, enhance
 5 Compliance engineer drilling rate of penetration, cooling and lubricating
 6 See also of equipment.
 7 References  Oil-based mud (OBM): Oil-based mud can be a
 8 Further reading mud where the base fluid is a petroleum product
The main functions of drilling fluids include; such as diesel fuel. Oil-based muds are used for
Providing hydrostatic pressure, many reasons, some being increased lubricity,
To prevent formation fluids from entering into the well enhanced shale inhibition, and greater cleaning
bore, Keeping the drill bit cool and clean during drilling, abilities with less viscosity. Oil-based muds also
Carrying out drill cuttings and suspending the drill cuttings withstand greater heat without breaking down. The
while drilling is paused and the drilling assembly is brought use of oil-based muds has special considerations.
in and out of the hole. The drilling fluid used for a These include cost and environmental
particular job is selected to avoid formation damage and to considerations.
limit corrosion.  Synthetic-based fluid (SBM): Synthetic-based fluid
is a mud where the base fluid is a synthetic oil. This
Types of drilling fluid is most often used on offshore rigs because it has
Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day-to-day basis. the properties of an oil-based mud, but the toxicity
Some wells require that different types be used at different of the fluid fumes are much less than an oil-based
parts in the hole, or that some types be used in combination fluid. This is important when men work with the
with others. The various types of fluid generally fall into a fluid in an enclosed space such as an offshore
few broad categories:[1] drilling rig.
 Air: Compressed air is pumped either down the On a drilling rig, mud is pumped from the mud pits through
bore hole's annular space or down the drill string the drill string where it sprays out of nozzles on the drill bit,
itself. cleaning and cooling the drill bit in the process. The mud
 Air/water: The same as above, with water added to then carries the crushed or cut rock ("cuttings") up the
increase viscosity, flush the hole, provide more annular space ("annulus") between the drill string and the
cooling, and/or to control dust. sides of the hole being drilled, up through the surface
 Air/polymer: A specially formulated chemical, casing, where it emerges back at the surface. Cuttings are
most often referred to as a type of polymer, is then filtered out with either a [shale shaker], or the newer
added to the water & air mixture to create specific shale conveyor technology, and the mud returns to the mud
conditions. A foaming agent is a good example of a pits. The mud pits let the drilled "fines" settle; the pits are
polymer. also where the fluid is treated by adding chemicals and
 Water: Water by itself is sometimes used. other substances.
 Water-based mud (WBM): A most basic water- The returning mud can contain natural gases or other
based mud system begins with water, then clays flammable materials which will collect in and around the
and other chemicals are incorporated into the water shale shaker / conveyor area or in other work areas.
to create a homogenous blend resembling Because of the risk of a fire or an explosion if they ignite,
something between chocolate milk and a malt special monitoring sensors and explosion-proof certified

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equipment is commonly installed, and workers are advised rotation are the best methods in high angle and
to take safety precautions. The mud is then pumped back horizontal beds.
down the hole and further re-circulated. After testing, the 2. Suspend and release cuttings
mud is treated periodically in the mud pits to ensure  Must suspend drill cuttings, weight materials
properties which optimize and improve drilling efficiency, and additives under a wide range of conditions.
borehole stability, and other requirements listed below.  Drill cuttings that settle can causes bridges and
fill, which can cause stuck-pipe and lost
Drilling fluids depends on geological factors such as rocks circulation.
that are going to be drilled and anticipated down hole  Weight material that settles is referred to as
temperatures and pressures, where the level of inhibition is sag, this causes a wide variation in the density
one of the key parameters. of well fluid, this more frequently occurs in
The selection of fluid type can be influence by technical high angle and hot wells
requirements, cost, availability and environmental concerns.  High concentrations of drill solids are
detrimental to:
FUNCTIONS o Drilling efficiency (it causes increased mud
The main functions of a drilling mud can be summarized as weight and viscosity, which in turn
follows: increases maintenance costs and increased
1. Remove cuttings from well dilution)
Drilling fluid carries the rock excavated by the drill o Rate of Penetration (ROP) (increases
bit up to the surface. Its ability to do so depends on horsepower required to circulate)
cutting size, shape, and density, and speed of fluid o Mud properties that suspended must
traveling up the well (annular velocity). These balanced with properties in cutting removal
considerations are analogous to the ability of a stream by solids control equipment
to carry sediment; large sand grains in a slow-moving  For effective solids controls, drill solids must
stream settle to the stream bed, while small sand be removed from mud on the 1st circulation
grains in a fast-moving stream are carried along with from the well. If re-circulated, cuttings break
the water. The mud viscosity is another important into smaller pieces and are more difficult to
property, as cuttings will settle to the bottom of the remove.
well if the viscosity is too low.  Conduct a test to compare the sand content of
Other properties include: mud at flow line and suction pit (to determine
 Most drilling muds are thixotropic (that is, they whether cuttings are being removed).
become a gel under static conditions). This
characteristic keeps the cuttings suspended 3. Control formation pressures
when the mud is not moving during, for  If formation pressure increases, mud density
example, maintenance. should also be increased, often with barite (or
 Fluids that have shear thinning and elevated other weighting materials) to balance pressure
viscosities are efficient for hole cleaning. and keep the wellbore stable. Unbalanced
 Higher annular velocity improves cutting formation pressures will cause an unexpected
transport. Transport ratio (transport velocity / influx of pressure in the wellbore possibly
lowest annular velocity) should be at least 50%. leading to a blowout from pressured formation
 High density fluids may clean hole adequately fluids.
even with lower annular velocities (by  Hydrostatic pressure = density of drilling fluid
increasing the buoyancy force acting on * true vertical depth * acceleration of gravity. If
cuttings). But may have a negative impact if hydrostatic pressure is greater than or equal to
mud weight is in excess of that needed to formation pressure, formation fluid will not
balance the pressure of surrounding rock flow into the wellbore.
(formation pressure), so mud weight is not  Well control means no uncontrollable flow of
usually increased for hole cleaning purposes. formation fluids into the wellbore.
 Higher rotary drill-string speeds introduce a  Hydrostatic pressure also controls the stresses
circular component to annular flow path. This caused by tectonic forces, these may make
helical flow around the drill-string causes drill wellbores unstable even when formation fluid
cuttings near the wall, where poor hole pressure is balanced.
cleaning conditions occur, to move into higher
transport regions of the annulus. Increased

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  If formation pressure is subnormal, air, gas, 5. Maintain wellbore stability
mist, stiff foam, or low density mud (oil base)  Chemical composition and mud properties must
can be used. combine to provide a stable wellbore. Weight
 In practice, mud density should be limited to of the mud must be within the necessary range
the minimum necessary for well control and to balance the mechanical forces.
wellbore stability. If too great it may fracture  Wellbore instability = sloughing formations,
the formation. which can cause tight hole conditions, bridges
The hydrostatic head produced by the mud in psi is and fill on trips (same symptoms indicate hole
= 0.052 x G xH cleaning problems).
Where G = density of mud in ppg  Wellbore stability = hole maintains size and
cylindrical shape.
H = depth of the hole in feet.  If the hole is enlarged, it becomes weak and
difficult to stabilize, resulting in problems such
This hydrostatic head will counter the formation as low annular velocities, poor hole cleaning,
pressure in order to avoid a blowout while drilling. solids loading and poor formation evaluation
 In sand and sandstones formations, hole
For example, Lets say a well is being drilled in a salt- enlargement can be accomplished by
water basin (pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft), the mechanical actions (hydraulic forces & nozzles
pressure in the formation at 10,000 feet would be velocities). Formation damage is reduced by
expected to be: conservative hydraulics system. A good quality
10,000 x 0.465 = 4,650 psi filter cake containing bentonite is known to
limit bore hole enlargement.
The weight of mud required to counter this pressure is  In shales, mud weight is usually sufficient to
calculated as follows. balance formation stress, as these wells are
P = 0.052GH usually stable. With water base mud, chemical
4,650 = 0.052 x G x 10,000 differences can cause interactions between mud
G = 8.94 ppg & shale that lead to softening of the native
rock. Highly fractured, dry, brittle shales can be
4. Seal permeable formations extremely unstable (leading to mechanical
 When mud column pressure exceeds formation problems).
pressure, mud filtrate invades the formation,  Various chemical inhibitors can control mud /
and a filter cake of mud is deposited on the shale interactions (calcium, potassium, salt,
wellbore wall. polymers, asphalt, glycols and oil – best for
 Mud is designed to deposit thin, low water sensitive formations)
permeability filter cake to limit the invasion.  Oil (and synthetic oil) based drilling fluids are
 Problems occur if a thick filter cake is formed; used to drill most water sensitive Shales in
tight hole conditions, poor log quality, stuck areas with difficult drilling conditions.
pipe, lost circulation and formation damage.  To add inhibition, emulsified brine phase
 In highly permeable formations with large pore (calcium chloride) drilling fluids are used to
throats, whole mud may invade the formation, reduce water activity and creates osmotic
depending on mud solids size; forces to prevent adsorption of water by Shales.
o Use bridging agents to block large opening,
then mud solids can form seal. 6. Minimizing formation damage
o For effectiveness, bridging agents must be  Skin damage or any reduction in natural
over the half size of pore spaces / fractures. formation porosity and permeability (washout)
o Bridging agents (e.g. calcium carbonate, constitutes formation damage
ground cellulose).  Most common damage;
 Depending on the mud system in use, a number o Mud or drill solids invade the formation
of additives can improve the filter cake (e.g. matrix, reducing porosity and causing skin
bentonite, natural & synthetic polymer, asphalt effect
and gilsonite). o Swelling of formation clays within the
reservoir, reduced permeability

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 o Precipitation of solids due to mixing of  Drilling fluids also support portion of drill-
mud filtrate and formations fluids resulting string or casing through buoyancy. Suspend in
in the precipitation of insoluble salts drilling fluid, buoyed by force equal to weight
o Mud filtrate and formation fluids form an (or density) of mud, so reducing hook load at
emulsion, reducing reservoir porosity derrick.
 Specially designed drill-in fluids or workover  Weight that derrick can support limited by
and completion fluids, minimize formation mechanical capacity, increase depth so weight
damage. of drill-string and casing increase.
Some of the most common mechanisms for formation  When running long, heavy string or casing,
damage are: buoyancy possible to run casing strings whose
 a) Mud or drill solids invading the formation matrix, weight exceed a rig's hook load capacity.
plugging pores.
 b) Swelling of formation clays within the reservoir, 8. Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit
reducing permeability.  Hydraulic energy provides power to mud motor
 c) Precipitation of solids as a result of mud filtrate for bit rotation and for MWD (measurement
and formation fluids being incompatible. while drilling) and LWD (logging while
 d) Precipitation of solids from the mud filtrate with drilling) tools. Hydraulic programs base on bit
other fluids, such as brines or acids, during completion nozzles sizing for available mud pump
or stimulation procedures. horsepower to optimize jet impact at bottom
 e) Mud filtrate and formation fluids forming an well.
emulsion, restricting permeability.  Limited to:
 The possibility of formation damage can be o Pump horsepower
determined from offset well data and studies of o Pressure loss inside drillstring
formation cores for return permeability. Drilling fluids o Maximum allowable surface pressure
designed to minimize a particular problem, specially o Optimum flow rate
designed reservoir drill-in fluids or workover and o Drill string pressure loses higher in fluids
completion flu- ids, all can be used to minimize higher densities, plastic viscosities and
formation damage. solids.
 Low solids, shear thinning drilling fluids such
7. Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling as polymer fluids, more efficient in transmit
assembly hydraulic energy.
 Heat is generated from mechanical and  Depth can be extended by controlling mud
hydraulic forces at the bit and when the drill properties.
string rotates and rubs against casing and  Transfer information from MWD & LWD to
wellbore. surface by pressure pulse.
 Cool and transfer heat away from source and
lower to temperature than bottom hole. 9. Ensure adequate formation evaluation
 If not, the bit, drill string and mud motors  Chemical and physical mud properties and
would fail more rapidly. wellbore conditions after drilling affect
 Lubrication based on the coefficient of friction. formation evaluation.
Oil- and synthetic-based mud generally  Mud loggers examine cuttings for mineral
lubricates better than water-based mud (but the composition, visual sign of hydrocarbons and
latter can be improved by the addition of recorded mud logs of lithology, ROP, gas
lubricants). detection or geological parameters.
 Amount of lubrication provided by drilling  Wireline logging measure – electrical, sonic,
fluid depends on type & quantity of drill solids nuclear and magnetic resonance.
and weight materials + chemical composition  Potential productive zone are isolated and
of system. performed formation testing and drill stem
 Poor lubrication causes high torque and drag, testing.
heat checking of the drill string, but these  Mud helps not to disperse of cuttings and also
problems are also caused by key seating, poor improve cutting transport for mud loggers
hole cleaning and incorrect bottom hole determine the depth of the cuttings originated.
assemblies design.  Oil-based mud, lubricants, asphalts will mask
hydrocarbon indications.
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  So mud for drilling core selected base on type
of evaluation to be performed (many coring Composition of drilling mud
operations specify a blend mud with minimum Water-based drilling mud most commonly consists of
of additives). bentonite clay (gel) with additives such as barium sulfate
(barite), calcium carbonate (chalk) or hematite. Various
10. Control corrosion (in acceptable level) thickeners are used to influence the viscosity of the fluid,
 Drill-string and casing in continuous contact with e.g. xanthan gum, guar gum, glycol,
drilling fluid may cause a form of corrosion. carboxymethylcellulose, polyanionic cellulose (PAC), or
 Dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen starch. In turn, deflocculants are used to reduce viscosity of
sulfide) cause serious corrosion problems; clay-based muds; anionic polyelectrolytes (e.g. acrylates,
o Cause rapid, catastrophic failure polyphosphates, lignosulfonates (Lig) or tannic acid
o May be deadly to humans after a short derivates such as Quebracho) are frequently used. Red mud
period of time was the name for a Quebracho-based mixture, named after
 Low pH (acidic) aggravates corrosion, so use the color of the red tannic acid salts; it was commonly used
corrosion coupons to monitor corrosion type, in 1940s to 1950s, then was made obsolete when
rates and to tell correct chemical inhibitor is lignosulfonates became available. Other components are
used in correct amount. added to provide various specific functional characteristics
 Mud aeration, foaming and other O2 trapped as listed above. Some other common additives include
conditions cause corrosion damage in short lubricants , shale inhibitors, fluid loss additives (to control
period time. loss of drilling fluids into permeable formations). A
 When drilling in high H2S, elevated the pH weighting agent such as barite is added to increase the
fluids + sulfide scavenging chemical (zinc). overall density of the drilling fluid so that sufficient bottom
hole pressure can be maintained thereby preventing an
11. Facilitate cementing and completion unwanted (and often dangerous) influx of formation fluids.
 Cementing is critical to effective zone and well
completion. Drilling Fluid Additives
 During casing run, mud must remain fluid and Drilling muds typically have several additives. (Air and
minimize pressure surges so fracture induced foam fluids typically do not contain many additives because
lost circulation does not occur. the additives are either liquid or solid, and will not mix with
 Mud should have thin, slick filter cake, air and foam drilling fluids.) The following is a list of the
wellbore with no cuttings, cavings or bridges. more significant additives:
 To cement and completion operation properly,  Weighting materials, primarily barite (barium
mud displace by flushes and cement. For sulfate), may be used to increase the density of the
effectiveness; mud in order to equilibrate the pressure between the
o Hole near gauges wellbore and formation when drilling through
o Mud low viscosity particularly pressurized zones. Hematite (Fe 2O3)
o Mud non progressive gel strength sometimes is used as a weighting agent in oil-based
muds (Souders, 1998).
12. Minimize impact on environment  Corrosion inhibitors such as iron oxide, aluminum
Mud is, in varying degrees, toxic. It is also difficult bisulfate, zinc carbonate, and zinc chromate protect
and expensive to dispose of it in an pipes and other metallic components from acidic
environmentally friendly manner. A Vanity Fair compounds encountered in the formation.
article described the conditions at Lago Agrio, a  Dispersants, including iron lignosulfonates, break
large oil field in Ecuador where drillers were up solid clusters into small particles so they can be
effectively unregulated. Texaco, the drilling carried by the fluid.
company, left the used mud (and associated  Flocculants, primarily acrylic polymers, cause
cuttings and crude oil) in unlined open-air pits, suspended particles to group together so they can
allowing it to contaminate both surface and be removed from the fluid at the surface.
underground waters. Storing mud properly is very  Surfactants, like fatty acids and soaps, defoam and
expensive. After a decade of drilling, Texaco emulsify the mud.
considered transferring the mud waste at Lago  Biocides, typically organic amines, chlorophenols,
Agrio to concrete-lined pits, but estimated that it or formaldehydes, kill bacteria and help reduce the
would cost over 4 billion dollars (US). souring of drilling mud.

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Fluid loss reducers include starch and organic polymers and 3. Air and foam
limit the loss of drilling mud to under-pressurized or high- There are drilling conditions under which a liquid drilling
permeability formations. fluid is not most desirable circulating medium. Air or foam
is used in drilling some wells when these special conditions
Drilling fluid can solve problems exist.
Many drilling problems are due to conditions or situations
that occur after drilling begins and for which the drilling Mud Properties
fluid was not designed. 1. Mud density or mud weight
Some of these problems can be solved by adding materials Mud weight is measured by means of a mud balance. The
to the drilling fluid to adjust its properties. weight of water is 8.33 ppg. The mud weight can be
Other cases, it may be necessary to replace the drilling fluid increased by adding barite (barium sulphate). Barite has a
being used with another fluid system. specific gravity of between 4.2 – 4.3.
The most common changes is the mud weight or density.
Weighting material is added when high-pressure formations Other materials can be used to increase mud weight such as
are expected. ilmenite (S.G of 4.58)

Some of the problems are: 2. Mud viscosity

Mud viscosity is difficult to measure but in the field the
1. Lost circulation Marsh funnel and the Fann V-G meter is commonly used.
Lost circulation can occur in several types of formations, The Marsh Funnel is filled with mud, the operator then
including high permeable formations, fractured formations notes the time, removes his finger from the discharge and
and cavernous zones. measures the time for one quart (946 cm3) to flow out.
Lost circulation materials can be added to the mud to bridge Marsh funnels are manufactured to precise dimensional
or deposit a mat where the drilling fluid being lost to the standards and may be calibrated with water which has a 0.5
formation. These materials include cane and wood fibres, sec.funnel viscosity of 26
cellophane flakes and even padi husks were used in oil
drilling in Sumatra. 3. Gel strength
The gel strength of a mud is a measure of the shearing
2. Stuck pipe stress necessary to initiate a finite rate of shear.
Stuck pipe can occur after drilling has been halted for a rig With proper gel strength can help suspend solids in the hole
breakdown, while running a directional survey or when and allow them to settle out on the surface, excessive gel
conducting other nondrilling operation. strength can cause a number drilling problems.
The drill pipe may stick to the wall of the hole due to the
formation of filter cake or a layer of wet mud solids on the 4. Filtration
wall of the hole in the formation. The filtration, water loss or wall building test is conducted
with a filter press.
3. Heaving or sloughing hole The rate at which filtrate will invade permeable zone and
This occurs when shales enter the well bore after the section the thickness of the filter cake that will be deposited on the
has been penetrated by the bit. To solve this problem, wall of the hole as filtration takes place are important keys
drilling is suspended the hole is conditioned (by letting the to trouble-free drilling
mud in circulation for a period of time) Drilling Fluid treating and monitoring equipment
In addition to the main mud pumps, several items of mud
Types of drilling fluids treating equipment are found on most rigs. Much of this
1. Water-base mud equipment is aimed at solids removal, including shale
This fluid is the mud in which water is the continuous shakers, desanders, desilters and centrifuges.
phase. This is the most common drilling mud used in oil
drilling. Shale shakers remove larger particles from the mud stream
2. Oil-based mud as it returns from the bottom of the hole. Shakers are
This drilling mud is made up of oil as the continuous phase. equipped with screens of various sizes, depending on the
Diesel oil is widely used to provide the oil phase. This type type of solids to be removed.
of mud is commonly used in swelling shale formation.
With water-based mud the shale will absorb the water and it Finer particles in the mud stream are removed with
swells that may cause stuck pipe. desanders, desilters and centrifuges. Each of these items of

Page 8 of 46
solids-control equipment is applicable only over a certain In drilling a blow out preventer (BOP) stack is always
range of particle sizes. attached at the top of the conductor pipe. In case of a gas
In addition to removing solids, mud handling equipment kick (a sign that may lead to a blow out) the BOP stack can
may also include a mud degasser to remove entrained gas close the annular space between the drilling pipe and the
from the mud stream. Degassing the drilling fluid is conductor pipe or casing or shut the whole hole (with a
sometimes necessary when small volumes of gas flow into blind ram of the BOP).
the well bore during drilling.
4. Lost Circulation
Additional equipment include mixers to agitate mud in the Lost circulation means the loss of substantial amount of
tanks, smaller pumps to various duties and equipment for drilling mud to an encountered formation.
adding chemicals and solid materials to the mud system. Lost circulation materials are commonly circulated in the
mud system both as a cure and a continuous preventive.
Drilling hazards These materials are the fibrous materials such as the hay,
The following are some of the most common hazards in sawdust or padi husk and lamellated (flat and platy)
drilling and can be overcome by proper control of the mud materials such as mica, cellophane.
properties.
Summary of drilling fluid functions
1. Salt section hole enlargement  Suspend cuttings (drilled solids), remove them
Salt section can be eroded by the drilling fluid and causes from the bottom of the hole and the well bore, and
hole enlargement. These enlargement will require larger release them at the surface
mud volume to fill the system and in case of casing the  Control formation pressure and maintain well-bore
hole, larger cement volume is required. stability
To avoid these problems a salt saturated mud system is  Seal permeable formations
prepared prior to drilling the salt bed.  Cool, lubricate, and support the drilling assembly
 Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit
2. Heaving shale problems  Minimize reservoir damage
Areas with shale sections containing bentonite or other  Permit adequate formation evaluation
hydratable clays will continually absorb water, swell and  Control corrosion
slough into the hole.  Facilitate cementing and completion
Such beds are referred to as heaving shales and constitute a  Minimize impact on the environment
severe drilling hazard when encountered.  Inhibit gas hydrate formation
Pipe sticking, excessive solid buildup in the mud and hole  Maintain wellbore stability
bridging are typical problems.  Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit
 Ensure adequate formation evaluation
Various treatments of the mud are sometimes successful,  Control corrosion (in acceptable level)
such as  Facilitate cementing and completion
• Changing mud system to high calcium content by adding  Minimize impact on environment
lime, gypsum etc which reduces the tendency of the mud to
hydrate water sensitive clays. WELL COMPLETION
• Increasing circulation rate for more rapid removal of Once the design well depth is reached, the formation must
particles. be tested and evaluated to determine whether the well will
• Increasing mud density for greater wall support be completed for production, or plugged and abandoned.
• Decreasing water loss mud To complete the well production, casing is installed and
• Changing to oil emulsion mud cemented and the drilling rig is dismantled and moved to
• Changing to oil-based mud. the next site.
A service rig is brought in to perforate the production
3. Blowouts casing and run production tubing. If no further pre-
Blowout is the most spectacular, expensive and highly production servicing is needed, the christmas tree is
feared hazard of drilling. installed and production begins.
This occurs when encountered formation pressure exceed
the mud column pressure which allows the formation fluids Well completion activities include:
to blow out of the hole.  Conducting Drill Stem Test
Mud density or the mud weight is the principal factor in  Setting Production Casing
controlling this hazard.  Installing Production Tubing

Page 9 of 46
  Starting Production Flow Setting Production Casing
 Beam Pumping Units Production casing is the final casing in a well. It can be set
After production starts, the well may need further servicing. from the bottom to the top. Sometimes a production liner is
installed.
If it's decided that the well will not be completed, then it This casing is set the same as other casings, then cemented
will be plugged and abandoned. in place.
See Casing Operations and Cementing for more
Conducting drill stem test information on specific hazards and solutions.
To determine the potential of a producing formation, the
operator may order a drill stem te st (DST). The DST crew Installing Production Tubing
makes up the test tool on the bottom of the drill stem, then A well is usually produced through tubing inserted down
lowers it to the bottom of the hole. Weight is applied to the the production casing. Oil and gas is produced more
tool to expand a hard rubber sealer called a packer. Opening effectively through this smaller-diameter tubing than
the tool ports allows the formation pressure to be tested. through the large-diameter production casing.
This process enables workers to determine whether the well
can be produced. Joints of tubing are joined together with couplings to make
up a tubing string. Tubing is run into the well much the
Potential Hazards: same as casing, but tubing is smaller in diameter and is
 Being pinched or struck by the drill stem test tools removable.
during floor operations.
 Swabbing the hole on the way out with the test tool The steps for this activity are:
could cause a kick to occur, which could result in a  Tubing elevators are used to lift tubing from the
blowout leading to injuries and deaths. rack to the rig floor.
 Being exposed to unexpected release of H 2S or  The joint is stabbed into the string, which is
other gases or liquids. suspended in the well, with air slips.
 A packer seat failure or fluid loss to an upper  Power tongs are used to make-up tubing.
formation could cause a kick that might result in a  This process is repeated until tubing installation is
blowout causing injuries and deaths. complete.
 Other hazards are similar to those encountered  The tubing hanger is installed at the wellhead.
during trippingout/in.
New technology allows tubing to be manufactured in a
Possible Solutions: continuous coil, without joints. Coiled tubing is inserted
 Wear appropriate PPE. into the well down the production casing without the need
 Instruct workers in handling and using the special for tongs, slips, or elevators, which takes considerably less
tools required during drill stem testing. time to run.
 Keep a method for filling the hole in place at all
times. Before any test starts, the rig management Potential Hazards:
must ensure that the blow-out prevention system  Getting pinched fingers and hands from tongs and
includes a kill system that is capable of pumping slips.
fluid into the well below the annular preventer and  Being struck by swinging tubing and tubing
at least on-set of pipe rams. elevators.
 Run a pump-out-sub or downhole circulating  Getting caught between the joint and tongs or
device in the test string to to enable the system to stump.
be reversed.  Being struck by the tubing hanger wrench if it
Ensure all workers on the location understand the dangers should slip.
before starting any drill stem test. They should be fully  Getting fingers and hands pinched and caught
informed of and trained in appropriate safety procedures, between tubing hanger and tubing head.
including the use of safety equipment and breathing
apparatus. If in an H2S area, post a sign indicating the test Possible Solutions:
in full view for the general public to see. Post reliable  Keep all fingers and hands away from pinch points.
people to stop them from coming to the location. Define a  Instruct workers to be on alert when on the rig floor
minimum of two muster points with all vehicles parked in and pipe racking area.
an appointed area.  Avoid placing hands on the end of the tubing
stump.

Page 10 of 46
  Use the correct tools for each task.
 Inspect the tools before use. Servicing is done by specialized crews and includes:
Use coiled tubing.  Transporting Rig and Rigging Up
o Transporting Rig
Starting Production flow o Rigging Up Service Rig
Production flow is started by washing in the well and o Set Up Work Area
setting the packer. Washing in means to pump in water or  General Servicing
brine to flush out the drilling fluid. Usually this is enough to o Removing the Horsehead
start the well flowing. If not, then the well may need to be o Removing the Wellhead
unloaded. This means to swab the well to remove some of o Pulling and Running Rods
the brine. If this does not work the flow might be started by o Pulling and Running Tubing
pumping high-pressure gas into the well before setting the  Special Services
packer. o Wireline Operations
o Well Logging
If the well does not flow on its own, well stimulation or o Perforating
artificial lift may need to be considered.
o Cementing
o Stimulation
Potential Hazards:
o Swabbing
 A blowout may be possible whenever well
pressures are changed. o Hot Oiling
Possible Solutions: o Snubbing
Monitoring of well pressures and working blow out o Coil Tubing
preventers (BOP's) are the best way to prevent blowouts.  Workover
o Sand Cleanout
Beam Pumping Units o Repairing Liners and Casing
If the well doesn't produce adequately, a beam pumping o Well Recompletions
unit may be installed.  Sidetracking
There are four basic types of beam pumping units. Three Plug-Back
involve a walking beam, which seesaws to provide the up
and down reciprocating motion to power the pump. The TRANSPORTATION
fourth reciprocates by winding a cable on and off a rotating After the drilling rig is removed, the well site is cleaned and
drum. The job of all four types is to change the circular re-leveled for the service rig. A workover rig is driven or
motion of an engine to the reciprocating motion of the transported to the site and positioned at the well.
pump.

The pump units are brought in disassembled on trucks and Potential Hazards:
off-loaded onsite. The many parts of the pump unit include  Working in unstable or slippery conditions on the
large heavy metal pieces that need to be assembled. lease road/drill site.
 Striking fixed objects such as power line poles.
Potential Hazard:  Contacting electrical service lines.
 Being pinched, struck, or crushed by falling or  Being involved in vehicular accidents.
swinging parts during assembly.  Getting caught between the rig and the wellhead.
Possible Solutions:  Being struck by a moving rig.
 Ensure that the work crew understands the
assembly procedures and hazards involved in the Possible Solutions:
tasks.  Inspect the route in advance for adequate vehicle
Wear appropriate PPE. access and satisfactory surface conditions.
 Ensure adequate driver training.
 Ensure proper vehicle maintenance.
SERVICING  Establish and follow a specific procedure for
Servicing operations assumes that the well has been positioning the rig.
completed and initial production has begun.  Use a ground guide while backing the rig.
All servicing activity requires specialized equipment. The  Keep all personnel clear of the moving rig.
equipment is transported in and rigged up.

Page 11 of 46
Rigging up service rig  Use proper hand and foot placement. See general
Before rigging up, guyline anchors are set into the ground safety and health.
and pull tested. The service rig is then spotted over the well.  Control the position of the counterweight by
maintaining tension on the guywire to keep the
The truck- or trailer-mounted rig is stabilized and leveled weight away from the mast.
by manual or hydraulic jacks. All guy lines are uncoiled
and laid out to remove kinks or knots. Set up work area
The work area is prepared by setting up all relevant
The mast is readied for raising, then raised and guyed into equipment for the job, including the derrick emergency
place. The derrick emergency escape device is rigged up escape device.
and the work platform is readied for service operations.
Potential Hazards: Potential Hazards:
 Being electrocuted by overhead power lines.  Being struck by or caught between equipment.
 Slips, trips, and falls as a result of unstable or  Receiving strains and sprains.
slippery conditions.  Getting hand, finger, and foot injuries.
 Being caught between the mast and mast cradle or  Slips, trips, and falls.
being struck by or caught in guy lines and cables  Failing to properly install derrick emergency escape
when mast is being raised. device when personnel may be expected to work in
 Being struck by a toppling mast if the carrier shifts. the derrick.
 Being sprayed with oil if the hydraulic cylinder or  Getting burned or exposed to respiratory hazards
hoses fail as mast is being raised. due to ignition of flammable liquids, vapors, and
 Twisting and falling of the mast if a guy line or gases.
anchor breaks or fails. Possible Solutions:
 Receiving strains and sprains.  Install guardrails as required. [29 CFR 1910.23];
 Getting hand, finger, and foot injuries during rig Association of Energy Services Companies
up. (AESC), Recommended Safe Procedures and
 Getting the climbing assist counterweight tangled Guidelines for Oil and Gas Well Servicing.
in the mast.  Inspect equipment integrity such as slings, tongs,
Possible Solutions: and hand tools. [29 CFR 1910.184]
 Identify all electrical hazards and maintain  Train crew to select and use the proper tools for the
adequate clearances. [29 CFR 1910.303 Table S3] job.
 Take appropriate precautions to mitigate slip, trip,  Instruct workers to stand clear of suspended loads.
and fall hazards.  Use a tag line to guide equipment into position.
 Stay clear of the unit while the mast is being raised,  Inspect hoses and connections before and after
lowered, or telescoped. attaching to the tongs.
 Uncoil and visually inspect all cables before  Connect hoses after the tongs have been positioned.
starting to raise the mast. Stand to the side of lines  Properly install derrick emergency escape device in
and cables as the mast is being raised. accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
 Inspect the well pad and set additional foundation  Proper equipment type and placement. See Well
materials as appropriate. Site Ignition Sources.
 Inspect all high-pressure hoses and fittings.
 Ensure that the unit operator assesses the wind General servicing
speed and direction to determine if the mast can be Wells often need maintenance or service on surface or
raised safely. down-hole equipment. Working on an existing well to
 Allow no personnel on the unit, other than the restore or increase oil and gas production is an important
operator working at the controls, when raising or part of today's petroleum industry. A well that is not
lowering the mast. All others stand clear. producing to its full potential may require service or
 Inspect all anchors before rigging up the mast. workover.
Anchors should meet American Petroleum Institute
(API) specifications for loads and guying patterns. Maintenance activities associated with the well when using
[2004 Publications, Programs, and Services. a workover/service rig are:
American Petroleum Institute (API), (2004)]  Removing the Horsehead (Pumping unit only)
 Use proper lifting techniques.  Removing the Wellhead
 Pulling and Running Rods

Page 12 of 46
  Pulling and Running Tubing  Check wellhead pressure and bleed pressure off
before removal.
Removing the horsehead (Pumping unit only)  Use the correct tools for each task.
Typically, the horsehead of a pumping unit must be  Inspect the tools before each use.
removed to gain access to the wellhead equipment.  Wear proper PPE including safety glasses.
 Keep fingers and hands away from pinch points.
Potential Hazards:  Cover open cellars.
 Having the unit start up while working on  Wear fall protection as appropriate.
equipment.  Implement a confined space entry program.
 Being struck by counterweights on the pumping
unit. Pulling and running Rods
To service, repair, or replace the rods or pump, the sucker
Possible Solutions: rod string must be pulled out of the hole. Pulling rods refers
 Use lockout/tagout, to include mechanically to the process of removing rods from the well. Running
securing the flywheel. rods refers to the process of replacing rods in the well.
Potential Hazards:
 Being struck by dropped horsehead or caught Potential Hazards:
between horsehead and walking beam.  Falling from heights.
 Getting fingers and hands pinched and caught Possible Solutions:
between tools and/or equipment.  Wear appropriate fall protection including a full
 Being struck by falling tools or equipment. body harness. For Fall Protection guidance, consult:
 Falling from an elevation. o [29 CFR 1910.23(c)(1)], Fall protection
Possible Solutions: when working from platforms
 Inspect all slings before use. o [29 CFR 1910.66 Appendix C], Fall
 Use tag lines to position the horsehead when protection guidelines
removing or lowering and to keep personnel clear o [29 CFR 1910 Subpart D], Walking-
of suspended load. working surfaces
 Use the correct tools for each task.
 Inspect the tools before each use.  Never disconnect personal fall arrest systems while
 Keep fingers and hands away from pinch points. working in the derrick.
 Secure tools from falling and keep the area below Potential Hazards:
clear of personnel.  Getting fingers or hands pinched in or between rod
 Use proper PPE and fall protection as required. wrenches, rod elevators, power tongs, rod hook, rod
transfer, and rod fingers.
Removing well head
To begin the process, the wellhead must be removed from Possible Solutions:
the casing flange.  Ensure that workers are instructed in proper hand
and finger placement when making and breaking
Potential Hazards: rod connections or setting rods on the rod fingers.
 Being struck by released pressure or flying  Ensure that workers are instructed in proper
particles. latching procedures while pulling and running rods.
 Being struck by the wrench or hammer while Potential Hazards:
removing bolts and fittings.  Being struck by dropped objects.
 Getting caught between wellhead, hydraulic Possible Solutions:
wrenches, and wellhead fittings.  Wear the proper personal protective equipment
 Getting fingers and hands pinched and caught such as:
between flanges or valves. o Hard hat
 Slips, trips, and falls. o Work gloves
 Entering into well cellars. o Safety-toed footwear
 Use extra caution while people are working
Possible Solutions: overhead.
 Stand clear of valves and fittings when removing  Avoid carrying tools while climbing the derrick
fitting or bleeding off pressure. ladder. Raise tools with a line to any worker above
the derrick floor.
Page 13 of 46
  Ensure that all tools and equipment being used are personnel to review responsibilities and to coordinate the
secured with the proper safety lines. operations to be performed.
Pulling and running tubing
Among the reasons for pulling tubing includes replacing a Potential Hazard:
packer, locating a tubing leak, or plugged tubing.  Being struck by wireline due to line failure.
Raising or Lowering Traveling Block and Elevator Possible Solutions:
 Keep all non-essential workers out of the
Potential Hazards: immediate work area.
 Being struck by the elevators and traveling block as  Inspect wireline, rope sockets, and cable heads for
they are raised or lowered. defects before use.
 Getting fingers and hands pinched between  Operate the wireline at a safe speed.
elevators and tongs or tubing collar.  Use an appropriate method to determine the end of
Possible Solutions: line location.
 Instruct workers to stand clear of tong and slip area
when lowering the elevator and traveling block. Potential Hazards:
 Use handles on elevators as they are descending  Being struck by wireline, lubricator, sheaves, or
into place over the tubing. other equipment.
Latching or Unlatching Elevators onto the Tubing  Getting caught in wireline.
Possible Solutions:
Potential Hazards:  Keep all non-essential workers out of the
 Pinching hands or fingers in the elevators. immediate work area.
 Being struck by elevators not securely latched.  Inspect all slings, chains, pins or other attachment
Possible Solutions: devices before lifting or suspending tools or
 Ensure that workers are instructed in proper equipment.
latching procedure.
 Inspect and maintain elevators. Potential Hazards:
 Pinching hands and fingers.
Special services  Getting sprains, strains or suffering from
Special services are operations that use specialized overexertion.
equipment and workers who perform support well drilling Possible Solution:
and servicing operations.  Minimize manual handling of lubricators and other
Coordination between all personnel is critical for site equipment.
safety. Therefore, all special services operations should  Use proper hand placement and tag lines to avoid
conduct a pre-job safety meeting to include all personnel on pinch points.
the job site. Potential Hazards:
 Wireline Operations  Falling from a height.
 Well Logging  Receiving burns or being exposed to a respiratory
 Perforating hazard due to a fire.
 Cementing Possible Solutions:
 Stimulation  Use proper fall protection.
 Swabbing  Position the unit properly with respect to wind
 Hot Oiling direction and distance from potential gas or vapor
 Snubbing sources [RP 54, Recommended Practice for
 Coil Tubing Occupational Safety for Oil and Gas Well Drilling
and Servicing Operations, Wireline Service.
Wireline Operation American Petroleum Institute (API), (2007,
All wireline operations require special precautions. March)].
Wireline operations may include slick line and electric line
operations. Operations completed through the use of Potential Hazard:
wireline include logging, perforating, setting of downhole  Being exposed to an unexpected release of
tools, fishing, bailing, and swabbing. pressure.
Possible Solutions:
Note: The special service supervisor should hold a pre-job  Install a pressure release valve in the lubricator sub.
meeting with the special service crew and other involved

Page 14 of 46
  Bleed pressure from lubricator sub before breaking below illustrate possible solutions; for more detailed
connections. information see Additional Information below.
 Check for an unusually tight connection that may
indicate that pressure has not been released. Note: The special service supervisor should hold a pre-job
Potential Hazard: meeting with the special service crew and other involved
 Toppling mast or boom. personnel to review responsibilities and coordinate the
Possible Solution: operations to be performed.
 Install foundation, outriggers, and guying according
to the manufacturer's recommendations. Potential Hazards:
 Surface detonation of explosives.
Well logging Possible Solutions:
Well logging is used to identify formation and other  Keep all non-essential personnel out of the
downhole properties of the well bore. immediate work area.
 Post warning signs and prohibit the use of radios,
Logging tools can include radioactive, electric, mechanical, telephones, or navigational systems.
and sonic tools, among others.  Shut down non-essential electrical systems during
gun-arming operations.
Note: See also Wireline Operations and Perforating for  Perform operations involving explosives under the
descriptions of additional hazards. direct supervision of the special services
supervisor.
Potential Hazards:  Report any suspected remnants of explosives to the
 Being exposed to radiation. special services supervisor.

Possible Solutions: Cementing

 Keep non-essential workers away from the rig floor Cementing and pumping operations may be performed by
and marked-off areas where radiation hazards may specialized pumping services or in conjunction with well
be present. servicing operations (such as, casing, squeezing, and zone
 Wear appropriate personnel protective equipment isolations). The hazards involved will vary with mode of
(PPE). dry cement delivery and mixing as well as the primary
 Allow only authorized and qualified logging designed function of the pumping equipment.
company personnel to handle the logging tools.
 Report any damage to radioactive logging tools. Note: The special service supervisor should hold a pre-job
Potential Hazard: meeting with the special service crew and other involved
 Getting injured due to an unexpected release of personnel to review responsibilities and coordinate the
pressure. operations to be performed.

Rig Up - Spotting and assembly of equipment to perform

Possible Solutions: cementing or pumping operations.
 Check for the presence of trapped pressure before
opening the tool housing. Potential Hazards:
 Being struck by moving vehicles.
Perforating  Being exposed to potential ignition and respiratory
A specialized crew transports and operates the perforating hazards.
equipment. Upon arrival to the site, the tools are assembled,  Overexerting, or getting sprains and strains.
then lowered into the well by a wireline unit or conveyed  Being exposed to pinch points (for example,
by tubing. Then, a specialized gun shoots small holes into hammer union wings and hammers, pump iron and
the casing of the producing zone. racks).
 Being hit by flying particles.
The perforations allow the oil or gas to flow into the casing  Falling from heights.
or liner. If pressure is sufficient, the oil or gas will rise to  Slips, trips, and falls.
the surface.  Being struck by falling equipment.
Possible Solutions:
Detailed operational procedures and trained personnel are
necessary for the safe handling of explosives. The solutions

Page 15 of 46
  Preplan equipment locations and use a spotter(s) to  Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting
position equipment out of fall lane of the derrick techniques, and team lifting where appropriate.
and upwind of vapor and gas sources.
 Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting Rig Down - Disassembly and demobilization of
techniques, and team lifting where appropriate. equipment
 Use proper hand and body positioning. Potential Hazards:
 Wear proper PPE including fall protection and  Being struck by moving vehicles.
respiratory protection where appropriate.  Being exposed to potential ignition and respiratory
 Conduct a pre-job inspection to identify, then hazards.
eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces.  Overexerting or receiving sprains and strains.
 Require all non-essential personnel to stand clear.  Being exposed to pinch points (such as, hammer
 Secure all elevated lines. union wings and hammers, pump iron and racks).
Pumping - Executing the job  Being hit by flying particles.
Potential Hazards:  Falling from heights.
 Being struck by high pressure lines or unexpected  Slips, trips, and falls.
release of pressure (due to, mismatched or  Being struck by falling equipment.
excessively worn hammer unions, line failure). Possible Solutions:
 Being exposed to chemical hazards (such as, silica,  Use a spotter(s) to direct equipment movement.
toxic liquids, and gases).  Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting
 Being exposed to high noise levels. techniques, and team lifting where appropriate.
 Slips, trips, and falls.  Use proper hand and body positioning.
 Overexerting, or receiving sprains and strains while  Wear proper PPE including fall protection and
handling materials (such as sacks and buckets). respiratory protection where appropriate.
Possible Solutions:  Conduct a post-job inspection to identify, then
 Direct all non-essential personnel to stand clear. eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces.
 Require pump operator to stay by the controls.  Require all non-essential personnel to stand clear.
 Conduct adequate pressure tests on pump(s) and
lines before pumping. [RP 54, Recommended Stimulation
Practice for Occupational Safety for Oil and Gas Well stimulation involves techniques to optimize well
Well Drilling and Servicing Operations, Wireline performance. This may include pumping of acids, energized
Service. American Petroleum Institute (API), fluids, and various other chemicals to improve formation
(2007, March)]. flow characteristics.
 Hobble high-pressure lines properly.
 Use proper equipment inspection techniques to Note: The special service supervisor should hold a pre-job
include hammer unions (Note: This is a particular meeting with the special service crew and other involved
problem with 602 and 1502, as they will couple but personnel to review responsibilities and to coordinate the
will not hold beyond the lower pressure rating operations to be performed.
number).
o High Pressure Lines and Hammer Unions. Note: When pumping energized fluids (such as, carbon
International Association of Drilling dioxide or liquid nitrogen) substantial increased hazards
Contractors (IADC) Alert 98-01, (1998). exist related to asphyxiation, temperature extremes, and
o More On Mismatched Hammer Unions. unexpected pressure releases. Use special procedures to
International Association of Drilling ensure the safety of personnel.
Contractors (IADC) Alert 99-33, (1999).
o Additional Serious Incidents With Rig Up - Spotting and assembly of equipment to
Mismatched Hammer Unions. International perform stimulation operations.
Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC)
Alert 00-15, (2000). Potential Hazards:
 Wear proper personal protective equipment (for  Being struck by moving vehicles.
example, respiratory, skin, and hearing) as  Being exposed to potential ignition and respiratory
appropriate for the hazards present. hazards.
 Conduct a pre-job inspection to identify, then  Overexerting or receiving sprains and strains.
eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces.  Being exposed to pinch points (such as, hammer
union wings and hammers, pump iron and racks).

Page 16 of 46
  Being hit by flying particles.  Use proper equipment inspection techniques to
 Falling from heights. include hammer unions (Note: This is a particular
 Slips, trips, and falls. problem with 602 and 1502, as they will couple but
 Being struck by falling equipment. will not hold beyond the lower pressure rating
 Being injured due to potential ignition of number).
flammable or combustible carrier or base fluids. o High Pressure Lines and Hammer Unions.
International Association of Drilling
Possible Solutions: Contractors (IADC) Alert 98-01, (1998).
 Preplan equipment locations and use a spotter(s) to o More On Mismatched Hammer Unions.
position equipment out of fall lane of the derrick International Association of Drilling
and upwind of vents, vapor and gas sources. Contractors (IADC) Alert 99-33, (1999).
 Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting o Additional Serious Incidents With
techniques, and team lifting where appropriate. Mismatched Hammer Unions. International
 Use proper hand and body positioning. Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC)
 Wear proper PPE including fall protection and Alert 00-15, (2000).
respiratory protection where appropriate.  Wear proper personal protective equipment (such
 Conduct a pre-job inspection to identify, then as respiratory, skin, and hearing) as appropriate for
eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces. the hazards present.
 Require all non-essential personnel to stand clear.  Conduct a pre-job inspection to identify, then
 Secure all elevated lines. eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces.
 Provide adequate bonding and grounding for  Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting
blending, pumping and sand transfer equipment. techniques, and team lifting where appropriate.
 Use hose covers or shielding for transfer or suction  Keep non-essential personnel away from marked-
lines containing flammable liquids. off areas where radiation hazards may be present.
 Allow only authorized and qualified company
Pumping - Executing the job personnel to handle radioactive tracer materials or
Potential Hazards: radioactive densiometers.
 Being struck by high-pressure lines or unexpected Prevent contamination and exercise proper personal
release of pressure (for example, mismatched or hygiene when working around radioactive
excessively worn hammer unions, line failure). materials.
 Being exposed to chemical hazards (such as, silica,
toxics, asphyxiants). Rig Down - Disassembly and demobilization of
 Being exposed to high noise levels. equipment
 Slips, trips, and falls.
 Overexerting or receiving sprains and strains while Potential Hazards:
handling materials (such as sacks and buckets).  Being struck by moving vehicles.
 Being exposed to temperature extremes.  Being exposed to potential ignition hazards,
 Being exposed to radiation associated with including flammable or combustible liquids or
radioactive tracer materials. gases.
 Being exposed to potential skin and respiratory
Possible Solutions: hazards.
 Require all non-essential personnel to stand clear.  Overexerting or receiving sprains and strains.
 Direct equipment operators to stay by their  Being exposed to pinch points (such as, hammer
controls. union wings and hammers, pump iron and racks).
 Conduct adequate pressure tests on pump(s) and  Being struck by particles or fluid.
lines and ensure proper valve alignment before  Falling from heights.
pumping. Install a check valve as close to the well  Slips, trips, and falls.
head as possible [RP 54, Recommended Practice  Being struck by falling equipment.
for Occupational Safety for Oil and Gas Well  Being injured due to the unexpected release of
Drilling and Servicing Operations, Wireline trapped pressure.
Service. American Petroleum Institute (API),
(2007, March)]. Possible Solutions:
 Hobble high pressure lines properly.  Use a spotter(s) to direct equipment movement.

Page 17 of 46
  Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting  Remove all spillage of flammable liquids from
techniques, and team lifting where appropriate. equipment, cellars, rig floor, and ground area
 Use proper hand and body positioning. adjacent to the wellhead.
 Wear proper personal protective equipment (such  Wear proper PPE, including respiratory protection,
as fall protection, respiratory, skin, and hearing as required.
protection) as appropriate for the hazards present. Potential Hazard:
 Conduct a post-job inspection to identify, then  Being struck by a pressurized line.
eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces.  Being exposed to a high-pressure connection failure
 Direct all non-essential personnel to stand clear. caused by mismatched or excessively worn hammer
 Follow procedures to release trapped pressure unions.
safely. Possible Solutions:
 Avoid approaching, walking over or standing near
Swabbing pressurized lines.
Swabbing is the act of pulling fluid from the well bore  Securely anchor pressurized lines to prevent
through the use of wire rope and cup assembly. Swabbing whipping or bouncing caused by pressure surges.
equipment includes a swabbing assembly, lubricator with  Use proper equipment inspection techniques to
an oil saver, and shut-off valve on the well, also called a include hammer unions (Note: This is a particular
swabbing valve. problem with 602 and 1502 and others, as they will
couple but will not hold beyond the lower pressure
General precautions during all swabbing operations: rating number).
 Conduct swabbing operations during daylight o High Pressure Lines and Hammer Unions.
hours. International Association of Drilling
 Keep all personnel clear of the derrick or within six Contractors (IADC) Alert 98-01, (1998)..
feet (two meters) of the wellhead during swabbing o More on Mismatched Hammer Unions.
operations. International Association of Drilling
 Locate swab tanks at least 100 feet (30 meters) Contractors (IADC) Alert 99-33, (1999).
from the well, where location allows. o Additional Serious Incidents With
Potential Hazard: Mismatched Hammer Unions. International
 Loss of well control. Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC)
Possible Solutions: Alert 00-15, (2000).
 Use appropriate equipment, rated for the expected
pressures, to shut in the well. Potential Hazard:
 Inspect lubricators, swages, and unions for defects  Being struck by pressurized fluids or the lubricator
such as cuts, corrosion, and thread damage before when removing the lubricator from the well.
use.  Getting strains and sprains from handling the
 Adjust oil savers by remote control with a hydraulic lubricator.
pump placed safely away from the wellhead.
 Train all personnel in emergency evacuation Possible Solutions:
procedures.  Close the shut-off valve and bleed the pressure
Potential Hazard: from the lubricator before removing it.
 Fire, explosive, or respiratory hazard from leakage  Use a lubricator that will allow removal of the swab
or venting of oil or gas from tanks, lines or or other tools with the well shut in (valve closed).
lubricator.  Use a dolly or other method to minimize manual
Possible Solutions: handling of the equipment.
 Place fire extinguishers in accessible positions. Potential Hazard:
 Move sources of potential ignition (such as, open  Pinching fingers between swab assembly and
fires for melting of babbitt) to designated areas at a lubricator when changing swab cups or mandrels.
safe distance from the wellhead or flammable Possible Solutions:
liquid storage areas such as the swab tank before  Use a winch line, where available, not the swab
swabbing. line, to handle the lubricator.
 Make provisions to contain spilled flammable  Use a lubricator that will allow removal of the swab
liquids. or other tools with the well shut in (valve closed).
 Monitor the oil saver for wear and potential
leakage.

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Hot oiling meeting with the special service crew and other involved
A hot oil unit is designed to circulate heated fluid into personnel to review responsibilities and to coordinate the
piping, tubing, casing, or tanks for a variety of reasons, operations to be performed.
including the removal of paraffin and tar-based oils.
Potential Hazards:
 Falling from heights.
 Being exposed to an unexpected release of
Potential Hazard: pressure, and loss of well control.
 Fire or explosion hazard from contact with  Being burned by a fire and explosion.
flammable liquids, vapors, or gases.  Having limited ingress and egress.
Possible Solutions:  Working in an unstable basket due to lack of guy
 Locate hot oil trucks and tanks a safe distance (100 wires.
feet is recommended) from the well and out of the  Being caught between the rig assist pull down and
fall line of the derrick, if it is on site. Where crows nest.
impractical, use additional safety measures.
 Position hot oil units upwind or crosswind from Possible Solutions:
potential sources of flammable liquids, vapors, or  Ensure proper fall protection.
gasses. Wind direction indicator should be present  Inspect and maintain all pressure control equipment
and visible to the operator. prior to operations.
 Shut down hot oiling operation immediately if a  Provide adequate means of access to and exit from
leak occurs. the basket.
 Make fire extinguishers readily accessible to the  Provide emergency escape method [RP 54,
hot oil operator. Recommended Practice for Occupational Safety for
 Avoid parking over or placing lines containing Oil and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing
flammable fluids under trucks or other vehicles. Operations, Wireline Service. American Petroleum
 Install check valve in the pump line as close to the Institute (API), (2007, March)].
well head as possible.  Rig all equipment in accordance with equipment
 Inspect all components of the hot oil unit before recommendations.
each use.  Ensure proper body and hand placement.
 Shut the burner down if the wind dies.
 Shut the burner down and reposition equipment if Coil tubing
the wind changes direction so as to create a hazard. Technology allows tubing to be manufactured in a
continuous coil without joints. Coiled tubing is inserted into
Potential Hazard: the well down the production casing without the need for
 Being burned by hot oil or hot oil line or frostbite tongs, slips, or elevators.
injuries from contact with propane or propane lines.
Possible Solution: Potential Hazards:
 Wear proper personnel protective equipment such  Pinching fingers and hands.
as heavy padded, insulated, leather gloves  Being exposed to an unexpected release of
Potential Hazards: Expert Review pressure.
 Unexpected release of pressure  Getting struck by falling or shifting objects (such as
Possible Solutions: suspended injector heads).
 Do not connect heavy joints of pipe to the small  Falling from heights.
nipples on the pumping T. Possible Solutions:
 Secure all hot oil and discharge lines.  Keep all fingers and hands away from pinch points
 Connect the hot oil line directly to the flow line if (such as tubing spool, rollers, injector head).
pump pressure exceeds safe limits (500 psi).  Inspect the tools and equipment before use.
 Remain clear of pressurized lines.  Rig up boom trucks in accordance with
manufacturer's recommendations.
Subbing  Use fall protection.
Snubbing is the control of a tubing string while running it in
or out of a well bore under pressure. Work over

Note: The special service supervisor should hold a pre-job

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Workover activities include one or more of a variety of  The hazards associated with sidetracking are
remedial operations on a producing well to try to increase similar to Drilling.
production.
 Sand Cleanout Plug back
 Repairing Liners and Casing Plug-back places a cement plug at one or more locations in
 Well Recompletions a well to shut off flow from below the plug. Plug-back is
o Sidetracking also used before abandoning a well or before sidetracking is
o Plug-Back done.

Sand cleanout There are two methods for placing a cement plug in a well:
Sand cleanout operations are performed to remove buildup  Plug-back using tubing.
of sand in the wellbore. Hazards are  Plug-back using a dump bailer (see Wireline
Operations).
Potential Hazard:
 Hazards are similar to those for well servicing. See Potential Hazard:
Wireline Operations.  The hazards associated with plug-back are similar
to Drilling and Cementing.
Repairing liners and castings
Liners and casing are essentially the same and repair Slip, trip and fall
procedures are the same for both. Casing can be damaged There are many ways to protect from slips, trips, and falls.
by corrosion, abrasion, pressure, or other forces that create Even so, they still happen and the following are means to
holes or splits. A packer is run down the well to locate the either prevent slips, trips, and falls or to minimize the
hole in the casing. Fluid is pumped into the casing above consequences if they should happen.
the packer. A loss of pressure indicates a hole in the casing.  Wear personal protective equipment (such as hard
The following are the principal methods for repairing hats, work gloves, safety shoes, and eye
casing: protection).
 Squeeze cementing.  Be aware of the slipping and falling hazards when
 Patching a liner. working on the drilling floor, servicing rig floors or
 Replacing casing. other platforms.
 Adding a liner.  Keep all work areas clean and clear of oil, tools,
 Opening collapsed casing. and debris.
 Use non-skid surfaces where appropriate.
Potential Hazard:  Provide guardrails and guards around work areas
 Hazards are similar to those for installing casing. that are prone to slips, trips, and falls.
See Casing Operations and Cementing.  Install, inspect, and secure stairs and handrails. [29
CFR 1926.1052]
Side tracking  Instruct workers on proper procedures for using and
Sidetracking is the workover term for drilling a directional installing ladders.
hole to bypass an obstruction in the well that cannot be  Use only ladders in good repair that do not have
removed or damage to the well, such as collapsed casing missing rungs.
that cannot be repaired. Sidetracking is also done to deepen  Do not install stairs with missing or damaged steps.
a well or to relocate the bottom of the well in a more Repair them before installing them.
productive zone, which is horizontally removed from the  Keep walkways clean and free of debris and
original well. tripping hazards. [29 CFR 1910.22]
 Keep all cords and hoses orderly and clear of
To sidetrack, a hole (called a window) is made in the casing walking spaces.
above the obstruction. The well is then plugged with  Cover open cellars.
cement below the window. Special drill tools, such as a  Conduct a pre-job inspection to identify, then
whipstock, bent housing, or bent sub are used to drill off at eliminate or correct hazardous work surfaces.
an angle from the main well. This new hole is completed in  Walking/Working Surfaces Standard requires [29
the same manner as any well after a liner is set CFR 1910.22(a)(1)]: Keep all places of
employment clean and in an orderly condition.
Potential Hazard:  Keep aisles and passageways clear and in good
repair, with no obstruction across or in aisles that

Page 20 of 46
 could create a hazard [29 CFR 1910.22(b)(1)].
Provide floor plugs for equipment so power cords Potential Hazards:
need not run across pathways.  Being struck by rig equipment (such as casing
 Use waterproof footgear to decrease slip/fall jacks, power tongs, and casing elevators).
hazards.  Being exposed to other hazards similar to those
encountered during regular drilling or workover
Strains and sprains operations.
General solutions for strains and sprains include:
 Use proper lifting technique.
 Hoist slowly to limit pipe momentum. Possible Solutions:
 Seek assistance when moving awkward and heavy  Solutions are similar to those found in Tripping
guards and covers. Out/In and Casing Operations.
 Use proper stance and slip-lifting techniques. Slips
have three handles and should be lifted jointly by Place cement plugs
more than one person. Cement plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent
 Use lifting equipment and limit manual positioning migration of fluids between the different formations. This
of elevators. also prevents the migration of gas or fluids to the surface.
 Practice proper hand placement and use of pullback
(tail) ropes. Potential Hazards:
 Use mechanical lifting aids, proper lifting  Being struck by pressured lines when pumping
techniques, and team lifting where appropriate. cement.
 Use proper hand and body positioning. Possible Solutions:
 Ergonomics. OSHA Safety and Health Topics  Instruct personnel to stand clear of pressurized
Page. lines.
o Hand Injury
o Lifting Use of mud
o Repetitive motions Mud is a vital part of drilling operations. It provides
hydrostatic pressure on the borehole wall to prevent
Weather conditions uncontrolled production of reservoir fluids, lubricates and
Weather conditions can create hazardous working cools the drill bit, carries the drill cuttings up to the surface
conditions: therefore it is necessary to monitor weather and forms a "filter-cake" on the borehole wall to prevent
conditions and forecasts to allow time to prepare for such drilling fluid invasion. To fulfill these tasks effectively, the
conditions as may occur. Lightning is especially hazardous mud contains carefully chosen additives to control its
and unpredictable. When lightning is present, crews must chemical and rheological properties.
avoid situations where they could become part of potential
current paths. Drilling mud is usually a shear-thinning non-Newtonian
fluid of variable viscosity. When it is under more shear,
Plug and abandon well such as in the pipe to the bit and through the bit nozzles,
A well is abandoned when it reaches the end of its useful viscosity is lower which reduces pumping-power
life or is a dry hole. requirements. When returning to the surface through the
 The casing and other equipment is removed and much roomier annulus it is under less shear stress and
salvaged. becomes more viscous, and hence better able to carry the
 Cement plugs are placed in the borehole to prevent rock cuttings. Bentonite is commonly used as an additive to
migration of fluids between the different control and maintain viscosity, and also has the additional
formations. benefit of forming a mud-cake (also known as a filter cake)
 The surface is reclaimed. on the bore-hole wall, preventing fluid invasion.
 Removing Casing
 Place Cement Plugs Barite is commonly used to "weight" the mud to maintain
adequate hydrostatic pressure down-hole. This is critical in
Removing casing a drilling operation to avoid a kick and ultimately a blowout
The rig is used to remove the casing and plug the well. The from uncontrolled production of formation fluids. The
wellhead is removed. After the casing is cut off, it is "mud-pits" at the surface have their levels carefully
removed. monitored, since an increase in the mud level indicates a
kick is taking place, and may require shutting in the well

Page 21 of 46
and circulating heavier weighted drilling mud to prevent from an oil company's perspective and the consumer's
further formation fluid or gas production. perspective that as much production as possible be safely
extracted from the reservior.
Drilling fluid must be chemically compatible with the Why? So, the oil company can realize the highest price per
formations being drilled. Salinity must be chosen so as not barrel, and the consumer can get more oil circulating in
to cause clay swelling or other problems. Mud can be "oil- supply to balance demand. But then, we digress...
based" or "water-based". In many areas oil-based muds are It has been said by many wise petroleum investors
being phased out, as they are less environmentally friendly, (oxymoron?) that the industry's saving grace is that their
although in some formations they are necessary because of assets are in the ground! Once found, they argue, it is
chemical compatibility issues. Offshore rigs typically use difficult to lose. Clearly, these investors weren't reservoir
synthetic oil based mud. engineers as will be explained below.
Producing that oil isn't as simple as running the kitchen
Important Fluid Properties faucet and watching the basin fill-up (see oil production
One of the most important mud properties is the mud discussion) . Natural production tendencies for wells are for
weight (density). If the mud weight exceeds the fracture the oil production rates (and reservoir pressure) to be at its
pressure of the formation, the formation may fracture and highest at initial production, and fall-off considerably as the
large quantities of mud are lost to it, in a situation referred well is produced. Typically, one finds oil rates declining as
to as lost circulation. These cracks can also cause water to water production increases, driving up operations costs
seep into the well bore or into a hydrocarbon bearing zone, while revenue shrinks. This scenario continues until the
which would likely impede the ability of the formation to well fails and/or becomes uneconomic to operate or repair.
produce oil (or require the separation of large quantities of The purpose of oil well stimulation, then, is to increase a
water). well's productivity by restoring oil production to original
rates less normal decline, or to boost production above
Conversely, if the mud weight is too low it will have a normal predictions.
hydrostatic pressure that is less than the formation pressure.
This will cause pressurized fluid in the formation to flow So, what is oil well stimulation?
into the wellbore and make its way to the surface. This is Oil well stimulation is the general term describing a variety
referred to as a formation "kick" and can lead to a of operations performed on a well to improve its
potentially deadly blowout if the invading fluid reaches the productivity.
surface uncontrolled. Stimulation operations can be focused solely on the
wellbore or on the reservoir; it can be conducted on old
Other important mud properties to be maintained are the YP wells and new wells alike; and it can be designed for
(Yield Point) which determines the carrying capacity of the remedial purposes or for enhanced production. Its main two
mud to carry the drill cuttings to the surface. Mud should be types of operations are matrix acidization and hydraulic
capable of forming a thin "mud cake" which forms a lining fracturing.
of the borehole walls. Matrix acidization involves the placement of acid within the
wellbore at rates and pressures designed to attack an
Drilling Fluids Companies impediment to production without fracturing or damaging
Drilling fluids operations are often contracted to service the reservoir (typically, hydrofluoric acid is used for
companies, a trend commonly observed in the oil industry sandstone/silica-based problems, and hydrochloric acid or
for most of it operations. The largest three companies for acetic acid is used for limestone/carbonate-based
mud services are M-I SWACO (A Schlumberger problems). Most matrix stimulation operations target up to
Company), Baroid Drilling Fluids (Halliburton Oilfield a ten foot radius in the reservoir surrounding the wellbore.
Services), and Baker Hughes Drilling Fluids. There are, Hydraulic fracturing, which includes acid fracturing,
however, many smaller companies providing drilling fluid involves the injection of a variety of fluids and other
services as well. materials into the well at rates that actually cause the
cracking or fracturing of the reservoir formation. The
Labels: barite, bentonite, drilling fluid, drilling fluids variety of materials includes, amongst others: water, acid,
engineer, drilling mud, mud engineer, mud engineer's duty, special polymer gels, and sand. The fracturing of the
mud engineering, mud logging, mud system, use of mud reservoir rock and the subsequent filling of the fractured
voids with sand ("proppant") or the creation of acid
Oil Well Stimulation channels allows for an enhanced conduit to the wellbore
Oil well stimulation plays a vital role in production from distances in excess of a hundred feet.
operations. With oil prices at all-time highs, it is imperative

Page 22 of 46
So, why do wells need oil well stimulation? Operational techniques such as bringing on production or
Hydraulic fracturing and acid fracturing in practically all injection slowly after stimulation activities (to prevent
types of formations and oil gravities, when done correctly, damaging flow surges which could mobilize once immobile
have been shown to increase well productivity above that fines within the pores, plug perforations, or cause sand
projected in both new and old wells. From an economic control problems downhole or at the surface), and routine
standpoint, oil produced today is more valuable than oil maintenance and surveillance (like cleaning out process
produced in the future. Fracturing candidates may not filter traps which can easily clog lines and cause the transfer
necessarily "need" oil well stimulation, but the economics of damaging suspended particles, or monitoring production
may show that such a treatment would pay=off. decline to identify potential deviances before the problem is
To understand why remedial stimulation (matrix exacerbated).
acidization) is necessary, you have to consider the Importantly though, a sound understanding of formation
conditions at work, deep down inside the reservoir... damage causes, and the inclusion of chemists/chemical
Before the well is ever drilled, the untapped hydrocarbons engineers on the production team will lead to increased well
sit in the uppermost portions of the reservoir (atop any productivity and life.
present water) inside the tiny pore spaces, and in
equilibrium at pressures and temperatures considerably
different from surface conditions. Oil Well Drilling
Once penetrated by a well, the original equilibrium So, How Are Oil Wells Drilled?
condition (pressure, temperature, and chemistry) is Oil well drilling has been the main means of producing oil
permanently changed with the introduction of water or oil- ever since Colonel Drake drilled that first well in 1859,
based drilling fluids loaded with suspended clays, and the which signaled the start of the American petroleum
circulation of cement slurries. The interaction of the industry.
introduced fluids with those originally present within the Drilling techniques and equipment have changed
reservoir, coupled with pressure and temperature changes throughout the decades from cable tools to rotary-based
can cause a variety of effects which, in turn, can plug the ones, from straight holes to sidetrack and GPS-based
numerous odd-shaped pores causing formation damage. directional drilling, and from “guess-timates” and “feel” to
Some of the types of damage include: scale formation, clay computer-based accuracy.
swelling, fines migration, and organic deposition. The biggest improvement in oil well drilling, however,
Petroleum engineers refer to the level of formation damage has been in the preparations prior to ever breaking
around the wellbore as skin effect. A numerical value is ground.
used to relate the level of formation damage. A positive The drilling of a well, especially a “wildcat” (see oil
skin factor reflects damage/impedance to normal well exploration discussion), is a milestone event, involving
productivity, while a negative value reflects productivity practically every sub-discipline of the oil business, and
enhancement. signifies the start of direct field investigation.
Formation damage, however, is not limited to initial For the oil exploration and production company, the drilling
production operations. Remedial operations of all kinds of the well represents final exploration sunk costs prior to
from well killing to well stimulation itself, can cause the possibility of recovering those costs through well
formation damage. Nor is fines and scale generation limited production revenues. For the petroleum geologist and the
to the reservoir. They can also develop in the wellbore in reservoir engineer, the drilling of the well represents the
casing and tubulars, and be introduced from surface final confirmation of the interpretation of numerous strands
flowlines and incompatible injection fluids. These fines and of indirect evidence of oil’s presence. For the production
precipitates can plug pores and pipe throughout an entire oil and facilities engineers, it represents the soon to be realized
field. asset requiring sub-surface and surface management and
In short, any operation throughout a well's life can cause equipment to maximize production (see oil production
formation damage and impede productivity. discussion). And, for the drilling engineer, well, it is time to
So, how do you keep from damaging the formation earn their pay!
while stimulating a well? Through experience and communications with
Oil field service companies offer chemical inhibitors useful geologists, reservoir engineers, production engineers,
for the full spectrum of well operations that can be injected and facilities engineers - the technical team - the drilling
into the well ahead of acidization or other such stimulation engineer develops a plan for reaching the targeted
activities to reduce fines generation and organic deposition, formation at the bottomhole location identified, from
or introduced in surface flowlines on a regular basis to the surface location specified – at the cost authorized.
prevent scale precipitation and build-up. Before ever setting up on the drilling location, the drilling
engineer has gained all of the necessary approvals to drill

Page 23 of 46
from company and regulatory authorities (click here for accessories/tools (cat lines, elevators, rotary slips, power
regulatory contact information). The appropriate hole slip, safety clamps, power tongs, rig instrumentation,
dimensions, the wireline testing procedures, the well casing blowout prevention equipment, etc.) (look at a picture of a
program, and the cement volumes are all known upfront drilling rig).
(see well capacity tables). Although each area is vitally important to safe and efficient
The drilling engineer has already scheduled an oil well drilling operations, the drill string including the downhole
drilling rig, alerted a wireline and cementing service tools is the most important area; being at the point of
company, and ordered necessary drilling fluids, tanks, pipe impact, transmitting surface derived energy into bottom-
and safety equipment (including blowout prevention hole torque and hole digging.
equipment; Click here to view oil field service company The drill string/subsurface assembly is composed primarily
contacts ). of a swivel, a kelly, drillpipe, a drill collar, and a bit. The
Operations normally proceed on a 24 hours per day basis swivel connects the rotating drill string to the drilling rig
and depending on methods, depths, and rock types support system. It suspends the drill string, permits free
encountered, can last anywhere from a few days to several rotation and serves as the means for drilling fluid
months. circulation. Drilling fluid is circulated through the drill pipe
History has shown that rarely do operations proceed in a and bit to cool the bit and assist in cuttings removal. The
“normal” fashion. Each well is its own story. It is quite drilling fluid also serves to coat the open-hole to prevent
normal to encounter hard rock zones, and experience sand cave-ins and prevent any reservoir fluids (oil, gas and
control problems, as well as for minor equipment water) encountered from rushing in.
breakdowns to occur - right next to a well which didn't The swivel connects to the kelly, which is usually either a
experience half of the problems! Drill bits wear out, wrong square or hexagonal-sided pipe of about 43 feet long, that
auxiliary equipment is delivered, and various other events transmits the torque from the rotary table on the rig floor to
happen that slow progress, raise corporate anxieties, and the drill string causing the bit to turn and make hole. Drill
compromise schedules. pipe sections are connected to the kelly one at a time
Due to all of the problems, which can and do happen on allowing the bit to work deeper and deeper in the hole.
site, oil companies have increasingly focused on safe The drill collar is a heavy-walled pipe which connects the
operations. This is something everyone can control. drill bit to the drillpipe. Its weight puts pressure on the bit
Most oil well drilling operations are actually completed by to keep it working at the bottom of the hole.
drilling service companies, with oil company drilling The drill bit is the primary downhole tool, cutting up
engineers supervising. Oil companies are using their natural formation as it rotates. Diamond bits are used for hard
leverage by insisting on safe operations by contractors, formations. However, tri-coned steel-teethed bits are most
which minimize employee “accidents” and environmental commonly used today.
impacts, and maximize accountability. Drilling service Sometimes, geologists inspect the cuttings that are
companies with poor safety records are not kept for long. circulated to surface to identify and confirm the formation
Drilling Operations that is currently being drilled.
Operations proceed in accordance with terms of a permit At various and defined intervals, the well may be logged by
issued by the regulatory agency with jurisdiction. Normally, wireline service companies. Why is this done? Well logging
a drilling location is graded, a conductor pipe is set to tells the industry experts the formations they are in, the
support subsequent casing strings, blowout control fluids present within the formation (including oil!) and the
equipment is installed and tested for well safety, the drilling quality of the cement job.
rig and auxiliary equipment is moved in and set up, and Metal pipe called surface casing is inserted into the well
drilling operations are underway. once the drillpipe is removed, and is cemented to the earth
Contemporary drilling operations consist of downhole tools by cementing service companies. Cement is pumped and
(drill bits, reamers, shock absorbers, etc.), drill string circulated within the well to permanently affix the pipe to
components (drill collars, drillpipe, kelly, etc.), suspension the earth. This provides support, and limits communication
equipment (rotary swivel, hook, blocks, and wire rope), between the surface and the subsurface to just that space
supporting structures (derrick), rotary drive mechanism inside of the pipe.
(rotary table, turbodrill, dynadrill), hoisting equipment Subsequent drilling punctures the bottom of the recently
(drawworks, auxiliary brakes, cathead, etc.), transmission placed cement sheath and continues down to the objective
systems (mechanical transmission, clutch, belts, and depth. To drill deeper, the rig crew performs the seemingly
chains), prime movers (diesel, turbo-electric), hydraulic routine act of ceasing rotary table rotation and mud
circulating system (slush pump, high pressure surface circulation, lifting the drill string, setting it on slips at the
equipment, drill string, shale shaker, desander, degasser, rig floor, breaking the joint between the kelly and the
mud tanks/mixers), and rig floor and wellhead topmost drillpipe with tongs, screwing on an additional

Page 24 of 46
length of drillpipe at the kelly, lifting the string again, kind were detected, it is possible that a reservoir could be
removing the slips, lowering the string downhole, and discovered.
reestablishing mud circulation and rotary table rotation. So, how do geologists detect reservoirs miles below the
Intermediate casing might be run in hole and cemented, too, surface of the earth?
depending on well design criteria and formation
characteristics. When the total depth is reached a final The only direct way of confirming oil’s presence is to
cement job is conducted to either plug the well back up drill a well.
because no significant hydrocarbon was found, or to secure But, drilling a well is an expensive proposition. Most wells
the production casing string in place for future completion cost in excess of $100,000 to drill, and many cost over
and production. $1,000,000. Given that the success of finding commercially
The drilling contractor rigs down and moves off of the producible-sized hydrocarbon reservoirs is approximately 1
drilling location and heads on to the next assignment. in 10 chances, oil companies - out of sheer necessity - seek
to minimize the cost of failed wildcats by exhausting all
reasonable indirect methods of locating hydrocarbons first.
Seismic surveys, using a variety of sonic wave producing
Oil Exploration guns and extra-sensitive listening devices, allow
So, How Is Oil Found? geophysicists to obtain profiles (cross-sections) of
It all begins with oil exploration... subsurface rock at great depths. If a trap of some sort can be
Petroleum geologists and engineers have established that deduced from the sub-surface reflections, there is a chance
oil, when trapped, collects into underground pools called that oil or gas can be found.
reservoirs. It is from these reservoirs that oil is produced. Gravitational and magnetic surveys are flown by aircraft
So, all these geologists have to do is find the oil reservoirs over areas on land and sea to identify the geophysical
and sit back and watch the oil production flow! Couldn’t be properties which might suggest the presence of
easier right? Well, not exactly. hydrocarbon bearing traps.
It is said that the best place to find oil is in an oilfield. This Ultimately, though, it is only by drilling the well that the
is true, without question. But, what do you do when there is indirect observations will be confirmed.
no defined oilfield, and there are no nearby wells? It sounds
quite simplistic but, think about it, every major oilfield Drilling process summary
must have begun with the drilling of the field’s first well. These and other needs in the art are addressed in one
How did they know where to drill the well, and how did embodiment by a method for drilling a borehole in an
they convince their bosses that drilling that well was worth earthen formation. In an embodiment, the method
the expensive research and drilling costs? Doesn't sound so comprises (a) providing a drilling system including a
easy now, eh? drillstring having a longitudinal axis, a bottom-hole
If you're thinking there's some risk to all of this, well there assembly coupled to a lower end of the drillstring, and a
definitely is tremendous risk! drill bit coupled to a lower end of the bottom-hole
The industry calls these wells miles away from known assembly. In addition, the method comprises (b) rotating the
production, wildcats. Depending on the results of their drill bit at a rotational speed. Further, the method comprises
attempts at finding hydrocarbon, the wells are known as (c) applying weight-on-bit to the drill bit and advancing the
discovery wells or dry holes. drill bit through the formation to form the borehole. Still
If the discovery well shows hydrocarbon, other further, the method
development wells are drilled to confirm the find. If nothing comprises (d) pumping a drilling fluid down the drillstring
is found, well, the operator will simply abandon the well to the drill bit. The drilling fluid has a flow rate down the
and move on to other prospects and plays. drillstring. Moreover, the method comprises (e) oscillating
the rotational speed of the drill bit during (c). The method
Through the utilization of a variety of high and low-tech also comprises (f) generating non- steady state conditions in
tools and methodologies, today’s producing reservoirs the borehole during (e).
were discovered. These and other needs in the art are addressed in another
The presence of oil seeps and pits at surface is a strong embodiment by a method for maintaining non-steady state
indication that oil may be present underground. If a conditions in a borehole being drilled in an earthen
trapping mechanism exists below, one may have found a formation. In an embodiment, the method comprises (a)
reservoir. providing a drilling system including a drillstring having a
The surface exposure (outcropping) of known source and longitudinal axis, a bottom-hole assembly coupled to a
reservoir rock suggests the right conditions for oil lower end of the drillstring, and a drill bit coupled to a
generation and storage may be present. If a trap of some lower end of the bottom-hole assembly. In addition, the

Page 25 of 46
method comprises (b) applying torque to the drill bit to in working on these problems, but should not be considered
rotate the drill bit. The drill bit has a rotational speed and a the exclusive controlling factor. Solution to these problems
rotational acceleration. Further, the method comprises (c) often requires adjustments of mud composition, mud
applying weight-on-bit to the drill bit to advance the drill properties, and operational procedures such that all facets of
bit through the formation to form the borehole. The drill bit the problem are relieved.
has an axial speed and an axial acceleration. Still further, Drilling problems and wellbore instability is interrelated. It
the method comprises (d) pumping a drilling fluid down the is important to understand the possible connections, first to
drillstring to the drill bit. The drilling fluid has a flow rate diagnose the problem and, second to take appropriate
down the drillstring and a pressure at an inlet of the remedial actions.
drillstring. The rotational speed of the drill bit, the
rotational acceleration of the drill bit, the axial speed of the1. Loss of circulation/ Mud losses
drill bit, the axial acceleration of the drill bit, the flow rate
Lost circulation occurs when a very porous and permeable
of the drilling fluid down the drillstring, and the pressure of formation is encountered in the subsurface. The drilling
the drilling fluid at the inlet of the drillstring is each a mud flows into the formation without building up a filter
drilling parameter. Moreover, the method comprises (e) cake. During lost circulation, more mud is being pumped
controllably oscillating two or more of the following down the well than is flowing back up.
drilling parameters during (c): the rotational speed of the These can be classified as total losses (lost circulation) or
drill bit; the rotational acceleration of the drill bit; the axial
partial losses with some gains (wellbore breathing). In an
speed of the drill bit; the axial acceleration of the drill bit;intact formation, a hydraulic fracture is initiated by too high
the flow rate of the drilling fluid down the drillstring; and a mud weight. The high mud pressure causes tensile failure.
the pressure of the drilling fluid at the inlet of the Following fracture initiation, the fracture may propagate
drillstring. depending on the maximum borehole pressure and take in
These and other needs in the art are addressed in another drilling fluid.
embodiment by a computer- readable storage medium. In When the borehole pressure is reduced the initiated
an embodiment, the computer-readable storage medium fractures close and may give mud back (often associated
comprises software, when executed by a processor, causes with a build-up in annular pressure).
the processor to (a) receive a predetermined maximum Remedy
rotational speed for a drillstring, a predetermined minimum To stop the loss of drilling fluids, the voids must be
rotational speed for the drillstring, and a predetermined set plugged so that a filter cake can be formed on the porous
point for the rotational speed of the drill bit. In addition, the
section. The plugging material must be of such consistency
software, when executed by the processor, causes the or contain particles of such sizes as to offer greater
processor to (b) monitor the rotational speed of the resistance of the drilling fluid into the voids than the
drillstring. Further, the software, when executed by the resistance to movement upward through the annulus such
processor, causes the processor to (c) control the rotational as mica flakes, ground pecan hulls, sugar cane hulls,
speed of the drillstring. Still further, the software, when shredded cellophane, and even shredded paper money to
executed by the processor, causes the processor to (d) solve lost-circulation problems.
oscillate the rotational speed of the drillstring about the The old proverb, "prevention is better than cure," stands
predetermined set point for the rotational speed and fast when it come to the problem of loss circulation.
between the predetermined maximum rotational speed and Prevention
the predetermined minimum rotational speed.  Maintain proper mud weight
Thus, embodiments described herein comprise a  Minimize annular friction pressure
combination of features and advantages intended to address  Maintain adequate hole cleaning
various shortcomings associated with certain prior devices,  Set casing to protect weaker formations
systems, and methods. The various characteristics described  If anticipated, treat mud with lost circulation
above, as well as other features, will be readily apparent to materials
those skilled in the art upon reading the following detailed If it happens
description, and by referring to the accompanying  Pump lost circulation materials in the mud
drawings.  Seal the zone with cement or other blockers
 Set casing
Drilling problems  Dry drill (clear water)
Borehole problems related to drilling fluids and their No other problem in drilling is so dependent upon the
remedies: practices of the driller. Circulation losses can be avoided in
A number of major drilling-problems are directly related to zones known to be troublesome by simply adhering to
the drilling fluid and drilling practices. Mud is a useful tool good drilling practice:

Page 26 of 46
 In pipe sticking due to plastic flow of salt, When sticking
2. Stuck pipe due to salt flow occurs, fresh water should be spotted over
Differential-pressure is the major cause of stuck pipe and the stuck interval. Some of the water should be left in the
the characteristics of differential-pressure sticking are; pipe so that the water over the stuck interval can be
 Bit off bottom and pipe immovable, replaced periodically to maximize the dissolving rate.
 Permeable formations exposed in the hole,
 Circulating rate and pressure normal after drill 3. Drill Bit Jamming:
string sticks. The drill pipe and bit may become jammed when the
From what you have read of the mechanism of drilling fluid is not allowed to thoroughly clean the
wall-sticking, certain practices in mud control borehole prior to stopping to add another joint of drilling
obviously help avoid stuck pipe. These are pipe or the fluid is too thin to lift gravel from the bottom of
 Minimum mud weight for least pressure the borehole.
differential and to assure low solids content for Remedy
thin wall-cake, Therefore, if the drill bit starts to catch when drilling, stop
 Low filtration rate for slowest build-up of cake further drilling and allow the drilling fluid to circulate and
when circulation is stopped, and remove accumulated cuttings from the borehole. Then
 Minimum friction between the wall-cake and the continue to drill at a slower rate. If it continues to catch,
pipe. Least friction will be assured by keeping the thicken the drilling fluid.
mud free, and by adding a lubricating agent If the drill bit and pipe become jammed, stop drilling and
Remedy circulate drilling fluid until it is freed. If circulation is
The prevention or solutions of these various causes of stuck blocked, try to winch the bit and pipe out of the borehole.
pipe are different and require correct identification before Stop the engine and use a pipe wrench to reverse rotation
taking remedial action. Unfortunately, it is not always easy (no more than 1 turn or the rod may unscrew!). Rapidly hit
to identify the specific cause of pipe sticking and an the drill pipe with a hammer to try and jolt the bit free.
incorrect assumption may lead to treatment which is If these actions are not successful, use lengths of drill pipe
detrimental. For instance, differential pressure sticking may without a bit attached or Wattera tubing to "jet out" the
be assumed when inadequate hole cleaning is the actual cuttings. Attach the pipe or tubing directly to the discharge
problem. If lignite and lignosulfonate are added to decrease hose from the mud pump. Thicken the drilling fluid to
the fluid loss and relieve the differential sticking problem, ensure that the cuttings holding the bit can be removed.
they will thin the mud and make the hole cleaning worse. Then place tension of the stuck pipe with the drill rig
Consequently, we must be careful not to jump to an winch. Once fluid starts to circulate out of the borehole;
incorrect conclusion and take action that will magnify the slowly push the jetting pipe/tubing down the borehole
problem. Probably the best method of identification is by a beside the jammed drill pipe until the bit is reached. When
process of elimination of all other possible causes. fluid starts to circulate out of the stuck pipe and/or it
In differential pressure sticking, oil is often added to a loosens, pull the stuck drill pipe and resume circulation of
mud to prevent sticking. It not only reduces the fluid loss the thickened drilling fluid back down the drill pipe and bit.
but also decreases the coefficient of friction of the cake. Remove the jetting pipe. If water freely circulates out the
Emulsified oil droplets are deformable under pressure and borehole, slowly lower the drill pipe and bit and resume
apparently spread, under the force of the pipe, against the drilling.
cake and lubricate the interface. Diesel oil, although a poor
lubricating oil, works quite well. Special additives can be 4. Drilling Fluid Backflow:
added to diesel oil to improve its performance. Oil must be Sometimes drilling fluid comes up through the drill pipe
well emulsified in order to function properly. when the swivel is disconnected. This is caused by falling
In pipe sticking due to poor hole cleaning, we are soil particles pressurizing drilling fluids at the bottom of the
interested in increasing the yield point at the temperatures hole. Immediate action is required because this occurs when
that exist downhole. Addition of bentonite is a quite either the borehole is caving-in or when drill cuttings have
efficient method for increasing the yield point. This is not been cleaned well enough from the borehole.
especially true when it is allowed to flocculate. Thinners Remedy
should not be used when attempting to increase the yield If you notice backflow of drilling fluid, immediately re-
point. In light-weight muds, flocculation can be promoted connect the drill pipe and continue circulation to clean-out
by addition of lime or soda ash. This causes high yield the cuttings. If caving is suspected, thicken the drill mud
points to be developed with low plastic viscosity and allows while continuing circulation.
for both good hole cleaning and fast penetration rates.
5. Damage of reservoir rocks

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Some reservoir rocks can be damaged by forcing drilling 8. Health effect associated with drilling fluids contact:
mud into them. This can be caused by using too heavy an The risk of adverse health effects from drilling fluids is
overbalance while drilling. The drilling mud clogs the pores determined by the hazardous components of the fluids,
or causes chemical or physical changes in the rock. This additives and by human exposure to those components.
decreases the rock's permeability near the well bore. Skin irritation and contact dermatitis are the most common
Formation damage prevents or reduces production from the health effects observed from drilling fluids exposure in
reservoir rock when the well is completed. human beings, with headache, nausea, eye irritation, and
coughing seen less frequently. The effects are caused by the
6. Blowout physico-chemical properties of the drilling fluid as w ell as
An unexpected pressure in the subsurface can cause a the inherent properties of drilling fluid additives, and are
blowout. The overbalance is lost and the fluids flow out of dependent on the route of exposure such as dermal,
the subsurface rocks into the well in what is called a kick. inhalation, oral and others.
As the water, gas, or oil flows into the well, it mixes with Remedy
the drilling mud, causing it to become even lighter and Always wear protective gears and for environmental
exert less pressure on the bottom of the well. The diluted protection, several nontoxic substitutes for diesel oil have
drilling mud is called gas cut, salt-water cut, or oil cut. been placed on the market. These materials consist of
Remedy alcohols, vegetable oils, specially refined mineral oil with
The blowout preventers are immediately thrown to close the low toxicity, surfactants, and other water-soluble lubricants.
hole and heavier drilling mud is pumped into the well In general, they are very expensive and must be used in
through a choke manifold to circulate the kick out. quite low concentrations. As a result, their performance
does not compare to that of diesel.
7. Hole cleaning
Hole cleaning is one of the basic functions of any drilling 9. Washout or hole enlargement:
fluid. Cuttings generated by the bit, plus any caving and/or Enlargement of borehole, commonly referred to as washout,
sloughing must be carried to the surface by the mud. is caused by hydraulic erosion, mechanical abrasion due to
Failure to achieve effective hole cleaning can lead to the drill string and inherent sloughing of shale formations,
serious problems, including stuck pipe, excessive torque excessive cuttings return at surface, excessive hole fill after
and drag, annular pack-off, lost circulation, high mud costs tripping, mud volumes in excess of calculated amount,
and slow drilling rates. Cuttings transport is affected by oversize hole from LWD calipers, etc. Washouts can be
several interrelated mud and drilling parameters. explained primarily by two mechanisms, borehole collapse
Removing cuttings from below the drill bit is still a crucial of a portion of the wellbore due to insufficient mud weight
function of a drilling fluid. The circulatory fluid rising and/or hole erosion due to improper mud chemistry design.
from the bottom of the well bore carries the cuttings The associated problems include difficulty in cementing,
toward the surface. potential hole deviation, an increase in hydraulic
Under the influence of gravity, these cuttings tend to fall requirement for effective hole cleaning and difficulty in
through the ascending fluid. This is known as slip some logging-tool operations.
velocity. Remedy
Remedy Generally, proper mud design, lower hydraulics and
The slip velocity will depend upon the viscosity elimination of severe drill string vibrations can minimize
(thickness) and density of the fluid. The thicker the fluid, the problem.
the lower the slip velocities. The more dense the fluid, the
lower the slip velocity. For effective cuttings removal, the 10. Borehole Instability
fluid velocity must be high enough to overcome the slip This is caused by mechanical in situ stresses, erosion due to
velocity of the cuttings. drilling fluids, chemical interaction of fluids and
This means that fluid velocity can be lowered in a highly formations. These lead to problems such as hole Closure,
viscous (thick) or very dense fluid and cuttings still increase in torque and drag, pipe sticking, running and
effectively removed from the well bore. seating casing, hole enlargement, difficulty in cementing,
In general, hole cleaning ability is enhanced by the increase chance of hole deviation, hydraulic problems in
following: cleaning the hole, trouble logging the well, fracturing of the
 Increased fluid density formation, lost circulation and kick potential, formation
 Increased annular velocity collapse, pipe sticking, loss of the hole and generally
 Increased YP (yield point) or mud viscosity at producing formation damage defined as “the impairment of
annular shear rates. the unseen by the inevitable, causing unknown reduction in
the un-quantifiable.”

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Remedies During the course of the past years a lot of effort has been
 Lower mud weight put into, finding, sourcing and begging companies into
 Water loss control getting together enough information to make this section
interesting.
11. Altered, damaged or plastic zone.
This corresponds to near-wellbore zone of shale altered as a We in the industry have a phobia when it means parting
result of hydration or swelling. Improperly designed water- with anything that may be of value or help to others,
based muds can lead to shale hydration or swelling. Main however we as drilling people are not interested in the
problems associated with sticky hole are increased torque secret formulas that go into designing a particular chemical
and drag and key seat, especially in high angle holes. only in the results.

Drillers that understand the function of any fluid are a

INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING FLUIDS bonus to an operation. Drillers of to-day have a far better
Over the past decade or so there has been need for education and understanding of what is going on around
improvements in drilling fluids. In modern day drilling the them. Consultant need to understand and must continue to
drilling fluids plays a critical part not only as the primary keep ahead if they are to perform to the best of their
well control but as a source of transmitting information ability.
from the well bore to surface. It is often the fluid that will
indicate any pending or changes developing down hole HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER
HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER The drilling fluid is the
This section will attempt to introduce you to the primary medium which transmits available hydraulic horsepower to
uses of the drilling fluid and hopefully with the help of the system.
many of the Mud Engineer that visit the site give you a far This horsepower is needed to move the fluid through the
better insight to the many function we have come to expect surface system, down the drill string, through the bit, up
from the fluid and the companies that supply the many the annulus (the space between the hole wall and the drill
chemicals that go to make up the drilling fluids. pipe), through the pits and back to the suction pump.
It will also bring into to the picture mud cleaning Fluid flowing from the bit nozzles exerts a jetting action
equipment and the circulating system along with that keeps the face of the hole and the teeth edge of the bit
Hydraulics clear of the cuttings.
Just how much faction expected from the fluid can be seen The horsepower required to move the mud through the
from the list below. remaining system should be minimized in order to
 Removes cuttings from the bottom of the hole and maximize horsepower at the bit.
carries them to the surface The heavier a fluid becomes, the greater the horsepower
 Holds cuttings and weight material in suspension that is required to move it through the system. This results
when circulation is interrupted in less horsepower at the bit and slower penetration rates.
 Releases sand and cuttings at the surface Hydraulic energy can be used to maximize the rate of
 Walls the hole with an impermeable cake penetration by improving cuttings removal at the bit. It
 Minimizes adverse effects upon the formation also provides power for mud motors to rotate the bit.
 Cools and lubricates the bit and drill string Hydraulic energy is measured in terms of hydraulic
 Supports part of the weight of the drill stem and horsepower.
casing Hydraulic horsepower is determined by multiplying pump
 Controls subsurface pressure pressure by the flow rate and dividing it by the constant
 Transmits hydraulic horsepower 1714.
 Maximizes down hole information obtained Example
 Transmit electronic data from down hole tools. Given a standpipe pressure of 3000 psi
 Help preserver and protect the drill string and casing A pump rate of 750 gallons a minute.
From the list we now start to see how important the drilling The constant being 1714
and workover fluid is for safe and successful drilling and what is the hydraulic horsepower. hp.
completion operation. = (3000 psi * 750 gallons) / 1714 = 1312.71 hp.
Each page on the menu will be dedicated to one subject to When pumping through a pipe pressure is lost due to
enable information to be added. Other pages will be made friction. Drill string pressure losses are higher in fluids
up to incorporate new information as and when I is with higher densities, plastic viscosities and solids.
gathered. The use of small diameter drill rods and mud motors all
reduce the amount of pressure available for use at the bit.

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Low-solids, shear thinning drilling fluids or those that have This is due to the fact that you are not getting the force you
drag reducing characteristics, such as polymer fluids, are think you are to the bit.
more efficient at transmitting hydraulic energy to drilling The most important aspect of steering control is to produce
tools and the bit. In shallow bores, sufficient hydraulic a smooth bore path and not a serpentine path. The
horsepower usually is available to clean the bit efficiently. serpentine path will greatly increase the difficulty of
Because drill string pressure losses increase with length a pulling the product line into place
point will be reached where there is insufficient pressure Fewer problems that cause rig down time are encountered
for optimum bit cleaning. This length can be extended by when using a a good system Problems such as stuck pipe,
carefully controlling the fluid properties. lost circulation and inadequate directional control can be
As stated the hydraulic horsepower starts at the stand pipe reduced.
and finishes at the flow line out let at "0" psi having been Each one of these problems causes non-productive rig time
lost due to the circulating system and cost money. These problems are traceable to
inadequate hole stability and hole cleaning. A properly
Drilling Fluid Bottom Line formulated fluid system will enhance both of these critical
Everyone want to make a profit this can only be achieve by functions.
optimizing equipment and the condition that prevail at the
rig site. Running a rig at maximum rate will eventually Water quality
cost the operator in downtime. The system will reduce the operational stress experienced
by the rig. A rig that is operating at or near its operational
A well prepared and maintained drilling fluid combined limits is detrimental.
with optimizing other essence equipment with well trained The ideal situation would be to accomplish the job using a
people are the answer to a successful operation minimum of available rig power. Running a rig at 75% 0f
There are large advantages to to using a good system its efficiency will improve over all efficiency of an
Reduce the amount of time it takes to complete a bore. The operation by as much as 40%.
rate of penetration will be increased by improving the hole
cleaning efficiency and the lubricity of the fluid. The rate The Drilling contractor is in business to make money. The
of penetration is controlled, by the torque available at the best way to increase the amount of money that is earned is
bit, the thrust applied at the bit and the amount of hydraulic to increase revenue and decrease costs. Another way is to
energy available at the bit. charge more for your services. In competitive situations
The fluid used will heavily influence each of these areas. where the work is done on a bid basis this is not possible.
Using fluid systems will improve each of these areas.
The thrust applied at the bit is dependent on hole cleaning So, is it possible to improve the efficiency of the drilling
efficiencies. If cutting beds are eliminated more thrust will process and at the same time reduce costs? I know that it
be available at the bit. can be done but it will take some effort on the part of the
Conservatively, a rate of penetration increase of 5-15% drilling contractor.
should be achievable with the use of a fluid system. The The effort will be to learn how fluid systems can improve
bore will be completed in a shorter amount of time thus the drilling operation and then teach crews how to use and
allowing the rig to move onto another project. implement them.
Good fluid systems will provide better directional steering
control. Steering control is directly related to hole MUD MIXING AND USAGE
cleaning. Steering control is improved by eliminating This section will delve into mud mixing and usage. The
cutting beds and being able to apply thrust to the bit. various aspects of mud mixing include water quality,
Sometimes it is very difficult to initiate and maintain a products, mixing order and adequate mixing of the
build rate. The problem usually is that the thrust applied by products.
the rig will not reach the bit. Part of the thrust is used in
overcoming the drag imposed by the cutting beds. WATER QUALITY
When a direction change is required, the rotation is An ample supply of fresh water often simplifies the
stopped. The head is then rotated to the proper angle and selection of the drilling fluid. Clarity alone, however,
pushed forward without rotation. Ground force against the should not be accepted as evidence of purity of water, or
wedge forces the cutting head to change direction. even of its suitability for mud making. A few simple tests
Once the drill string is aligned with the intended path, the usually serve to define water quality.
drilling procedure resumes. Many times multiple attempts
have to be made in order to turn the direction of the bore. Water pH: Fresh water should have a pH of 7. Test the
water with pH paper. If the pH is below 7, add soda ash to

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raise the pH to between 8 and 9. All fluid products will foaming problem, especially in the case of drilling
perform better in this pH range. detergent.

Sulphide: Note odor. Sulphide contaminated water will Caution: If you are using a PHPA polymer in the fluid
have the characteristic smell of rotten eggs. Add caustic make sure you rinse out the mixing tank before you mix
soda to raise pH to 10. If caustic soda is not available then another batch of fluid. PHPA polymer is an effective
change water source. flocculent in dilute solution. If there is a residue of
polymer left in the tank it will flocculate the bentonite that
Hardness: Test with calcium indicator. Hard water will not you try to mix. Rinsing out the tank is a good practice to
produce lather with bar soap. In the absence of a calcium implement and takes very little time.
test use the bar soap test. Add soda ash until calcium test is
negative and the pH is between 8 and 9. Soda ash
precipitates out the calcium as insoluble calcium
carbonate, making it harmless. SUMMARY
Recommending a drilling fluid system should be based on
Salt: Change water source if tasted. There is no chemical the ability of the fluid to achieve these critical functions
method to remove chlorides from water. Salt will and to minimize problems. Initially, anticipated problems
drastically reduce the yield of bentonite and increase the helps in selecting a particular drilling fluid system but
water loss of the fluid. other considerations may exist that dictate use of a
If you notice severe thickening or separation of bentonite different system.
or polymer in the mixing tank, then you probably have a The cost, availability of products and environmental
water quality problem. This is not always the problem factors are always important considerations. Drilling fluids
since other factors can cause separation but water quality almost always require tradeoffs in treating and maintaining
should be the first thing that should be investigated. the properties needed to accomplish the required
functions.
Mixing in the correct order
It is essential that products be mixed in the correct order. For example, a high mud viscosity might improve hole
Some products have an adverse effect on other products cleaning, yet it might lower hydraulic efficiency, increase
when they are mixed in an incorrect order. For example, if solids retention and slow the penetration rate. A driller that
PHPA polymers are mixed before the bentonite then the understands fluids and knows how to change them will
bentonite will not yield properly. The following mixing have a powerful drilling tool at his disposal.
guidelines should be adhered to when mixing products.
Bentonite slurries will continue as the fluid of choice for
If there is a water quality problem, treat the water before most contractors. The slurry will be effective for most
you add any products. short, shallow and small diameter bores. Bear in mind the
Add the required amount of bentonite and mix for 5-10 shortcomings that are inherent in bentonite slurries and be
minutes. This should be adequate if the mixing system has prepared to use additives when needed.
sufficient shear. I would recommend mixing longer if the
mixing system shear is not adequate. As the bores become larger and longer, the contractor
The fluid should look smooth and not have any large should consider using a fluid system in place of the
lumps floating around. In general, the longer you mix any bentonite slurries. When the geological sequence also
fluid products the better they will work. One sack products becomes challenging then fluid systems are demanded.
that have polymer additives will need to be mixed longer
than high yield bentonite products. There are some contractors that have mini rigs and boring
small diameter, shallow holes using only water.
After the bentonite is hydrated, add any polymer additives How well does water meet the functional requirements.
that you might be using. Here again, the mixing time water will clear cuttings from the hole when in turbulent
should be extended to allow the polymers to hydrate and flow. However, water that is not in turbulent flow is a poor
shear. hole cleaning medium.
The hole cleaning ability of water is entirely dependent on
The last addition should be lubricants or drilling detergent. the pumping capacity of the rig. Water will lubricate and
Only mix long enough to make sure the additives are cool the bit. In fact water has a better coefficient of friction
homogeneous in the fluid. Over mixing may cause a than bentonite fluids at high pressure.

Page 31 of 46
Water will not stabilize the hole. Water in turbulent flow The bigger and heavier the cutting the faster it will settle. It
will erode weak formations leading to hole enlargement. is impossible to know the exact physical properties of the
Large amounts of water can be lost to highly permeable fluid without testing being done. A simple way to check
formations such as gravel. In clays that hydrate and swell, settling is to collect a sample of mud at the return pit in a
water is your worst enemy. container.
Since water is a Newtonian fluid it does not have any yield Let the container set for 5-10 minutes and then carefully
point or thixotropic characteristics. This means that as soon pour out the mud and see how many cuttings are on the
as the pump is shut off all the cuttings will fall to the bottom of the container. If there are more than you want
bottom of the hole. then increase the viscosity of the fluid with bentonite
Any colloidal clay particles will stay in suspension but the and/or polymer.
majority of the cuttings will settle out on the low side of The suspension ability of bentonite slurries are much
the hole. Water is fairly efficient at transmitting hydraulic greater than water but not as great as some other fluid
energy to the bit. Efficiency is lost as the water becomes types. When it comes to transmitting hydraulic energy to
loaded with solids. Water is not a good choice for a drilling the bit the bentonite slurries are not good.
fluid. Bentonite slurries contain 4 - 6 % solids. The solids create
friction as they rub against the pipe and each other. So the
BENTONITE pumping friction loss is increased. That means that less
The vast majority of drilling contractors will utilize a pressure reaches the bit and less work is done.
bentonite slurry when doing an HDD bore. The bentonite If you had to give an honest evaluation of bentonite
that is used will normally be high yield or a comber nation slurries then the best rating would be average. Of the five
mix that has additives such as polymer, soda ash, water critical functions they are deficient in at least two to three
loss control agents and thinners added to the bentonite. areas. This is the reason that most drilling fluid suppliers
Bentonite slurries in general are good hole cleaners as long will recommend adding some supplemental products in
as a couple of rules are followed. Utilize an elevated certain drilling situations.
viscosity from the start and use the highest possible The products most often recommend are a bio-polymer to
annular velocity as it provides the impact force necessary increase the gel strengths and improve suspension of
for good cuttings transport. solids, PAC polymers to decrease the filtrate water loss,
This is only applicable to the main hole since cutting PHP A polymers to inhibit clay hydration and swelling and
transport is severely limited when reaming. During drilling detergent to water wet the tools and reduce torque.
reaming suspension is the most critical function rather than These products will improve hole conditions and reduce
cutting transport. however the reader should be aware that certain problems. However, drilling detergent although
boycott settling will still occur in the 30-60 degree section widely used is not an efficient torque reducer and has a
of the hole and that cutting beds will form on the low side serious drawback. If you refer back to the table that
of the hole especially during extended periods of sliding. compare various lubricants you will see that the detergents
Bentonite slurries were thought to provide lubrication since did not provide much reduction in the coefficient of
they feel slippery. However, they are good lubricants only friction.
under low pressure conditions. They are not good
lubricants when exposed to high pressure conditions. Wall Cake
The coefficient of friction in the bentonite slurry is higher A drilling fluid will deposit a filter cake on the wall of the
at 720 psi than water. However bentonite slurries are good well bore.
hole stabilizers in permeable formations such as sand and This wall cake helps protect the formation by retarding the
gravel. passage of mud filtrate into it. The higher the permeability
The slurry will deposit a filter cake on the permeable of a formation, the greater its ability to accept and receive
formation allowing the hydrostatic pressure to push against large volumes of mud filtrate.
it. The filter cake should be thin and tough. How well Therefore, the nature of this filter cake will have a direct
bentonite slurries do in stabilizing clay sections is effect on such problems as formation damage, sloughing
dependent on the water loss. The lower the water loss the and caving, tight hole and stuck pipe.
better it will stabilize the clay. The type of wall cake is determined by the quantity and
Since clay is not permeable no filter cake will be quality of particles in the mud system. It would normally
deposited. be regarded as the thinner the better.
Suspending cuttings when circulation is stopped is another The bentonite particles should be kept in the dispersed or
critical function. Settling of cuttings in bentonite slurries deflocculated state and not allowed to flocculate. Bentonite
are controlled by the size, shape and density of the cutting, in the flocculated state will increase the water loss and
as well as, the physical properties of the fluid. have a thick, soft filter cake. It is important to control the

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filtrate loss of the mud so that the water will not destabilize Removing cuttings from below the drill bit is still a crucial
the formation. function of a drilling fluid. The circulatory fluid rising
A drilling mud with a low filtrate water loss will form a from the bottom of the well bore carries the cuttings
thin, tough filter cake. Specially formulated, bentonite toward the surface.
product can provides filtrate control and a thin, tough filter Under the influence of gravity, these cuttings tend to fall
cake. through the ascending fluid. This is known as slip
Any contaminates that flocculate the bentonite should be velocity.
treated out immediately. To minimize erosion, avoid any The slip velocity will depend upon the viscosity
unnecessary reaming or circulating opposite (thickness) and density of the fluid. The thicker the fluid,
unconsolidated formations. the lower the slip velocities. The more dense the fluid, the
Bentonite, polymers and starch are use to control the water lower the slip velocity. For effective cuttings removal, the
loss It is essential that products be mixed in the correct fluid velocity must be high enough to overcome the slip
order. Some products have an adverse effect on other velocity of the cuttings.
products when they are mixed in an incorrect order. This means that fluid velocity can be lowered in a highly
For example, if PHPA polymers are mixed before the viscous (thick) or very dense fluid and cuttings still
bentonite then the bentonite will not yield properly. The effectively removed from the well bore.
following mixing guidelines should be adhered to when The density of a fluid is determined by other factors and is
mixing products. not usually considered a factor in hole cleaning; therefore
If there is a water quality problem, treat the water before we limit adjustment of hole cleaning properties to viscosity
you add any products. and velocity adjustments to the drilling fluid.
Add the required amount of bentonite and mix for 5-10 The viscosity desired will depend upon the desired
minutes. This should be adequate if the mixing system has hydraulics and the size of the cuttings contained in the
sufficient shear. I would recommend mixing longer if the fluid. The velocity will depend on several factors -the
mixing system shear is not adequate. The fluid should look pump (capacity, speed, efficiency), the drill pipe size and
smooth and not have any large lumps floating around. the size of the bore hole.
In general, the longer you mix any fluid products the better The velocity of a fluid will determine its flow
they will work. characteristics, or flow profile.
After the bentonite is hydrated, add any polymer additives There are five stages, or different profiles, for a drilling
that you might be using. Here again, the mixing time fluid:
should be extended to allow the polymers to hydrate and (1) no flow,
shear. (2) plug flow,
The last addition should be lubricants or drilling detergent. (3) transition,
Only mix long enough to make sure the additives are (4) laminar,
homogeneous in the fluid. Over mixing may cause a 5) turbulent.
foaming problem, especially in the case of drilling The ideal velocity is one that will achieve laminar (or
detergent. streamline) flow because it provides the maximum cuttings
Caution: If you are using a PHPA polymer in the fluid removal without eroding the well bore.
make sure you rinse out the mixing tank before you mix On the other hand, turbulent flow (resulting from too high
another batch of fluid. PHPA polymer is an effective a velocity or too low fluid viscosity) not only requires
flocculent in dilute solution. If there is a residue of more horsepower but can cause excessive hole erosion and
polymer left in the tank it will flocculate the bentonite that undesirable hole enlargement.
you try to mix. Rinsing out the tank is a good practice to The proper combination of velocity and viscosity is a must
implement and takes very little time. for the right hydraulics and efficient hole cleaning.
Cuttings will have a tendency to collect at points of low
Hole cleaning fluid velocity in the well bore annulus.
Hole cleaning is one of the basic functions of any drilling These areas are found in washouts and where the drill pipe
fluid. Cuttings generated by the bit, plus any caving and/or rests against the wall of the well bore. To that end, it is a
sloughing, must be carried to the surface by the mud. good practice to rotate and work (raise and lower ) the drill
Failure to achieve effective hole cleaning can lead to string while just circulating to clean the hole, as this will
serious problems, including stuck pipe, excessive torque help keep the cuttings in the main flow of the fluid and not
and drag, annular pack-off, lost circulation, high mud costs allow them to gather next to the wall or pipe.
and slow drilling rates. Cuttings transport is affected by Hole angle, annular velocity and mud viscosity are
several interrelated mud and drilling parameters. considered to be the most important. Cuttings and particles

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that must be circulated from the well have three forces Thus there is an equal distribution of fluid energy for
working on them: cuttings transport. However, the drill string tends to lay on
(1) a downward force due to gravity, the low side of the hole in inclined sections, shifting or
(2) an upward force due to buoyancy from the fluid and skewing the velocity profile, the results of which is not
(3) a force parallel to the direction of the mud flow due to conducive to cuttings transport.
mud flowing around the particle. Cuttings accumulate on the bottom of the hole adjacent to
the drill pipe where the mud flow is minimal. In this
The hole-cleaning process must counteract gravitational situation, pipe rotation is critical to achieve effective hole
forces acting on cuttings to minimize settling during both cleaning. However, there are times when drilling a
dynamic and static periods. Three basic settling directional hole that pipe rotation will not be possible.
mechanisms can apply: All is not lost at this point since we can offset the
(1) free, detrimental effects of not rotating with different mud types
(2) hindered and and changing certain mud properties.
(3) Boycott settling. Generally speaking, different drilling fluid types provide
Free settling occurs when a single particle falls through a similar cuttings transport if their down hole properties are
fluid without interference from other particles or container similar.
walls. The larger the difference between the density of the Properties of particular interest to hole cleaning include
cutting and the density of the liquid, the faster the particle mud weight, viscosity and gel strengths. Mud weight helps
will settle. buoy cuttings and slow their settling rate but it is really not
used to improve hole cleaning. Instead, mud weights
The larger the particle is the faster it settles and the lower should be adjusted based only on pore pressure, fracture
the liquid’s viscosity, the faster the settling rate. Hindered gradient and well-bore stability requirements.
settling is more realistic settling mode for near-vertical and Mud viscosities helps determine carrying capacity. Yield
near-horizontal intervals. points historically has been used as the key parameter
Hindered settling occurs when fluid displaced by falling which was though to affect hole cleaning.
particles creates upward forces on adjacent particles, More recently, evidence concludes that Fann 6 and 3 RPM
thereby slowing down their settling rate. values are better indicators of carrying capacity. These
The net results is still an overall downward movement, but values are more representative of the Low Shear Rate
the settling rate is always less (hindered), thus the name. Viscosity (LSRV) which affects hole cleaning in marginal
Boycott settling is an accelerated settling pattern that can situations. One common rule of thumb is to maintain the 3
occur in inclined well bores. RPM value so that it is greater than the hole size
Boycott settling is the consequence of rapid settling (expressed in inches) in high angle wells.
adjacent to the high and low sides of inclined well bores. Gel strengths provide suspension under both static and low
This causes a pressure imbalance which drives the lighter, shear rate conditions. The ideal situation is for the fluid to
upper fluid upwards and any cutting beds on the low side have high, fragile gels that develop quickly and are easily
downwards. broken. Excessive high, progressive gels, on the other
At relatively low flow rates, mud flows mainly along the hand, should be avoided as they cause high transient
high side and accelerates or enhances the Boycott effect. pressures that cause a number of serious drilling problems.
High flow rates and pipe rotation can disrupt the pattern Listed below are practical hole-cleaning guidelines aimed
and improve hole cleaning. at field use on directional bores.
If not properly supported, cuttings can accumulate at the Use hole-cleaning techniques to minimize cuttings-bed
bottom of the hole or on the low side of inclined intervals. formation and subsequent slumping which can occur in 30-
"Plugs" and stuck pipe can be caused by dragging bottom 60 degree hole sections.
hole tools up through pre-existing beds. Utilize elevated-viscosity fluids from the start because
Cuttings accumulations can be difficult to erode or re- cuttings beds are easy to deposit but difficult to remove.
suspend, so mud properties and drilling practices which Maintain LSRV between 1.0 and 1.2 times the hole
minimize their formation should be emphasized. diameter when in laminar flow. This requirement will be
Cuttings transport efficiency is largely a function of easier to accomplish if the fluid is treated with a super's or
annular velocity and the annular velocity profile. high vis. This product is a bio-polymer that elevates the
Increasing annular velocity will always improve hole LSRV in fluids.
cleaning, though it still must work with other hole Treat mud to obtain elevated, flat gels for suspension
parameters. In fully concentric annulus, flow is evenly during static and low flow rate periods. Consider using the
distributed around the drill string. mud system that will give you excellent LSRV values and

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superior suspension abilities. The system uses an untreated This pressure create an added pressure to the fluid at the
bentonite and a mixed metal hydroxide additive. bottom of the hole. This same pressure loss is used as a
Schedule periodic wiper trips and pipe rotation intervals safety factor when a well is being circulated out during a
for situations where sliding operations are extensive. kill and will remain in place as long as the fluid is being
Rotate pipe at speeds above about 50 RPM if possible to moved.
prevent bed formations and to help remove pre-existing A kick is killed by Constant Bottom Hole Pressure. this
beds. pressure is created by using constant pump stroke to
Expect little help from viscous sweeps, unless they are maintain a constant drill pipe pressure. this pressure is
accompanied by high flow rates and pipe rotation known as the final circulating and is maintained and
controlled by the use of a choke and the APL until the New
Primary Well Control Kill fluid has replaced all the old drilling fluid from the
Under normal conditions the drilling fluid in the wellbore wellbore
is the primary Well Control be it drilling mud or workover A kick would be described as an influx from the formation
brine. One of its prime reasons for being there is to hold that enters the well bore where the primary well control
back the formation pressure. fluid has a lower pressure gradient than that of the
This is done by it having a higher pressure gradient in the formation. The longer it is allowed to come in the harder, it
fluid then the formation. If the formation gradient is not is to control.
known we can work off the gradient of salt water until Not all flows are kicking. Sometimes a well will take fluid
such time as a test is preformed and more accurate and give it back there are many reasons for this. Too
information is forthcoming. higher circulating pressure with a high annular pressure
The drilling/workover fluid is kept a little higher that that lose could force fluid into the pores and hold it there until
of the expected formation fluids but not so high that it will such pressures are release. " the circulation stopped" such a
break down or damage the formations. flow will not show while circulating.
It must also be remember the the fluid column exert a Imbalance fluid, expansion of fluid or pipe. bottoms up
pressure against the complete open wellbore section, after a round trip can often confuse people. Such flows are
although this pressure varies with depth so does that of the short lived, however all should be investigated.
formation. The key to primary well control is keeping the fluid weight
Should the formation at any given depth be unable to correct. Gas cut fluid coming from long gas sands will very
except the pressure being applied and the fluid level in the often cut the fluid weight back. Gas in cutting will do the
wellbore drop, formation that were being held in place same. However, if treated before re-circulating will have
could very well start to intrude into the wellbore. Such no effect, as all the gas will be take out.
intrusions can be in varied forms. If to server one should stop drilling and circulate on the
Splinters from the side of the hole can be blown off or lose choke as fluid being belched out over the bell nipple could
"unconsolidated" formation start to full in. formation fluid reduce the hydrostatic head to the point that the well will
may start to enter the wellbore. kick. Such sand should be "controlled drilled"
The differential in pressure is commonly referred to as a Oil will cut the mud weight. If the fluid is hot, it may be
trip margin or safety margin. As the well gets deeper so the hard to detect. Water will lower the mud weight if drilling
mud gradient will be raised. But not excessively unless one with fresh water mud, salt water starts to contaminate it,
is expecting a much higher formation pressure (gradient). both the viscosity, and chlorides will rise. It is therefore
The closer you can keep the ratio between both drilling important that a consent check on the weight of the fluid be
fluid and formation gradient the faster it will drill. made both in and out of the hole.
The hydrostatic head of the fluid column can be worked The mud watcher or shaker man play a very big part in
out using the formula well control Beside keeping a check on the mud weight
(True vertical depth * .052 * the weight of the drilling fluid they should keep an eye on the shape and size of the
in pounds per gallon): cutting.
And as the name says this is with the fluid static. If the As often when the primary well control starts to brake
fluid is moving (being pumped) this then changes to what down other indication come over the shaker. Shape and
is known as the dynamic fluid head. size of cutting could be the first indication of a problem.
The dynamic fluid head is grater than that of the Long splinter type slivers will often indicate the mud
hydrostatic head due to the friction of the fluid moving weight being too low. The splinters will often come from
back up the wellbore and is cause by the the resistant to the wall of the hole Blown of by the formation pressure.
flow created by the walls of the outer wellbore and the pipe A pump pressure drops could be another indication of mud
in the string . we call this The Annular Pressure Loss) problems but can also indicate the start of other problems.
(APL)

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Pump pressure could also indicate a kick, as often it will 1. Max R. Annis and Martin V. Smith. Drilling Fluid
drop if the bit penetrate a gas sand Technology. Revised Edition August 1996. Exxon
A rise in the mud temperature another indicator. Why? Company, USA.
Heat is often caused by friction. What would cause friction 2. Baker Hughes. Drilling Fluids Reference Manual,
in a hole. Tight hole. Tight hole could be the swelling of Revision 2006.
the walls this would indict the hydrostatic head of the fluid 3. Drilling Fluids and Health Risk Management,
column was not holding back the wall. IPIECA. OGP.
So you see that stuff you keep dumping every time you 4. Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee
open the wrong valve is not only expensive. but it also Ltd (1992) Australian Drilling Manual 3rd edition",
important and like the blood in your veins it plays an awful Macquarie Centre: Australian Drilling Industry
big part in the drilling and safety of the well. Training Committee Ltd, ISBN 0-949279-20X.
5. Driscoll, F. (1986) Groundwater and Wells, St.
Paul: Johnson Division
Transmit information
Never before has the fluid had so much depending on it.
Gone are many of the wire line tools. Incoming are the GLOSSARY
remote control valves, logging tools, MWD. The list is Abandon v: to temporarily or permanently cease
endless. production from a well or to cease further drilling
What possibly started out with a bunch of cows munching operations.
around in a pool of water has now become a science. Bleed v: to drain off liquid or gas, generally slowly,
As new chemicals come to the market daily, You and I will through a valve called a bleeder. To bleed down, or
need to understand there basic functions. Knowing your bleed off, means to release pressure slowly from a well or
tools is knowing your job. from pressurized equipment.
Drilling fluid is a tool and as said many times. The drilling Blowout n: an uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other well
people that understand drilling fluid will, have a much fluids from the well.
better understanding of there work Blowout preventer (BOP) n: one or more valves installed
When a drilling fluid is controlled and properly at the wellhead to prevent the escape of pressure either in
maintained, it not only insures proper formation protection, the annular space between the casing and the drill pipe or in
optimum penetration rates, greater well production and open hole (for example, hole with no drill pipe) during
lower equipment wear, but can also, within given drilling or completion operations.
parameters maximize down hole information. Blowout preventer control panel n: controls, opens and
A well bore is drilled to: closes the blowout preventers. See blowout preventer.
Blowout preventer control unit n: a device that stores
(1) gather information on formations, such information is hydraulic fluid under pressure in special containers and
then stored as locale information and is used in many other provides a method to open and close the blowout
areas not all are involve with the oil industry. preventers.
Locale area information then becomes part of the regional Blowout preventer stack (BOP stack) n: the assembly of
data bank and it is such information that has allowed well control equipment including preventers, spools, valves,
scientist to start to pin point much of the worlds past. and nipples connected to the top of the wellhead.
Brake n: The braking device on the drawworks or airhoist
(2) find and recover usable fluids. to stop a load being lifted. It is a device for arresting the
motion of a mechanism, usually by means of friction,
A properly controlled drilling fluid is necessary not only to as in the drawworks and airhoist brakes.
recover adequate rock cuttings for their analysis and study, Brake band n: a part of the brake mechanism consisting of
but also to safely control subsurface pressures, optimize a flexible steel band lined with a material that grips a drum
penetration rates for controlling drilling costs, minimize when tightened. On drawworks, the brake band acts on the
formation damage and therefore maximize well drum to control the lowering of the traveling block and its
productivity. load.
Cable n: 1. a rope of wire, hemp, or other strong fibers. 2.
braided wire used to conduct electricity, often called power
References cable.
Caliper log n: a record showing variations in wellbore
diameter by depth, indicating undue enlargement due to
caving in, washout, or other causes. The caliper log also

Page 36 of 46
reveals corrosion, scaling, or pitting inside tubular goods. cement retainer n: a tool set temporarily in the casing or
Casing n: 1. steel pipe placed in an oil or gas well to well to prevent the passage of cement, thereby forcing it to
prevent the wall of the hole from caving in, to prevent follow another designated path. It is used in squeeze
movement of fluids from one formation to another and to cementing and other remedial cementing jobs.
aid in well control. Centralizer n: see casing centralizer
Cased hole n: a wellbore in which casing has been run. Christmas tree n: the control valves, pressure gauges, and
Casing centralizer n: a device secured around the casing at chokes assembled at the top of a well to control flow of oil
regular intervals to center it in the hole. and/or gas after the well has been drilled and completed. It
Casing cutter n: a heavy cylindrical body, fitted with a set is used when reservoir pressure is sufficient to cause
of knives, used to cut and free a section of casing in a well. reservoir fluids to rise to the surface.
Casing coupling (collar) n: a tubular section of pipe that is Complete a well v: to finish work on a well and bring it to
threaded inside and used to connect two joints of casing. productive status. See well completion.
Casing crew n: the employees of a company that Core n: a cylindrical sample taken from a formation for
specializes in preparing and running casing into a well. geological analysis.
Casing gun n: a perforating gun run into the casing string. Core analysis n: laboratory analysis of a core sample that
Casing hanger n: a circular device with a frictional may determine porosity, permeability, lithology, fluid
gripping arrangement of slips and packing rings used content, angle of dip, geological age, and probable
to suspend casing from a casing head in a well. productivity of the formation.
Casinghead n: a heavy, flanged steel fitting connected to Core barrel n: a tubular device, usually from 10 to 60 feet
the first string of casing. It provides a housing for slips and (3 to 18 meters) long, run in place of a bit and used to cut a
packing assemblies, allows suspension of intermediate and core sample.
production strings of casing, and supplies the means for the Core sample n: 1. a small portion of a formation obtained
annulus to be sealed off. Also called a casing spool. by using a core barrel and core bit in an existing wellbore.
Casing point n: the depth in a well at which casing is set, See core bit. 2. a spot sample of the contents of an oil or oil
generally the depth at which the casing shoe rests. product storage tank usually obtained with a thief, or core
Casing pressure n: the pressure in a well that exists sampler, at a given height in the tank.
between the casing and the tubing or the casing and the drill Coring n: the process of cutting a vertical, cylindrical
pipe. sample of the formations encountered as a well is drilled.
CASING spider n: see spider. Coring bit n: a bit that does not drill out the center portion
Casing slip n: see spider. of the hole, but allows this center portion (the core) to pass
Casing string n: the entire length of all the joints of casing through the round opening in the center of the bit and into
run in a well. the core barrel.
Casing shoe n: see guide shoe. Density log n: a special radioactivity log for open -hole
Casing tongs n pl: large wrench used for turning when surveying that responds to variations in the specific gravity
making up or breaking out casing. See tongs. of formations. It is a contact log (i.e., the logging tool is
Casing-tubing annulus n: in a wellbore, the space between held against the wall of the hole). It emits neutrons and then
the inside of the casing and the outside of the tubing. measures the secondary gamma radiation that is scattered
Cementing n: The application of a liquid slurry of cement back to the detector in the instrument. The density log is an
and water to various points inside or outside the casing. excellent porosity-measure device, especially for shaley
Cementing materials n pl: a slurry of cement and water sands. Some trade names are Formation Density Log,
and sometimes one or more additives that affect either the Gamma-Gamma Density Log, and Densilog.
density of the mixture or its setting time. The cement used Derrick n: a large load-bearing structure, usually of bolted
may be high early strength, common (standard), or slow construction. In drilling, the standard derrick has four legs
setting. Additives include accelerators (such as calcium standing at the corners of the substructure and reaching to
chloride), retarders (such as gypsum), weighting materials the crown block. The substructure is an assembly of heavy
(such as barium sulfate), lightweight additives (such as beams used to elevate the derrick and provide space to
bentonite), or a variety of lost circulation materials. install blowout preventers, casingheads, and so forth.
Cement plug n: 1. a portion of cement placed at some point Derrick floor n: also called the rig floor.
in the wellbore to seal it. 2. a wiper plug. See cementing. Derrickhand n: the crew member who handles the upper
Cementing pump n: a high-pressure pump used to force end of the drill string as it is being hoisted out of or lowered
cement down the casing and into the annular space between into the hole. On a drilling rig, he or she may be responsible
the casing and the wall of the borehole. for the circulating machinery and the conditioning of the
Cementing time n: the total elapsed time needed to drilling or workover fluid.
complete a cementing operation. Dipmeter log n: see dipmeter survey.

Page 37 of 46
Dipmeter survey n: an oilwell-surveying method that Drill in v: to penetrate the productive formation after the
determines the direction and angle of formation dip in casing is set and cemented on top of the pay zone.
relation to the borehole. It records data that permit Drilling contract n: an agreement made between a drilling
computation of both the amount and direction of formation company and an operating company to drill a well. It
dip relative to the axis of the hole and thus provides generally sets forth the obligation of each party,
information about the geologic structure of the formation. compensation, identification, method of drilling, depth to be
Also called dipmeter log or dip log. drilled, and so on.
Directional drilling n: 1. intentional deviation of a Drilling crew n: a driller, a derrickhand, and two or more
wellbore from the vertical. Although wellbores are helpers who operate a drilling or workover rig for one tour
normally drilled vertically, it is sometimes necessary or each day.
advantageous to drill at an angle from the vertical. Drilling engine n: an internal-combustion engine used to
Controlled directional drilling makes it possible to reach power a drilling rig. These engines are used on a rotary rig
subsurface areas laterally remote from the point where the and are usually fueled by diesel fuel, although liquefied
bit enters the earth. petroleum gas, natural gas, and, very rarely, gasoline can
Directional hole n: a wellbore intentionally drilled at an also be used.
angle from the vertical. See directional drilling. Drilling engineer n: an engineer who specializes in the
Displacement fluid n: in well cementing, the fluid, usually technical aspects of drilling.
drilling mud or salt water, that is pumped into the well after Drilling fluid n: circulating fluid, one function of which is
the cement is pumped into it to force the cement out of the to lift cuttings out of the wellbore and to the surface. It also
casing and into the annulus. serves to cool the bit and to counteract downhole formation
Drawworks n: the hoisting mechanism on a drilling rig. It pressure.
is essentially a large winch that spools off or takes in the Drilling hook n: the large hook mounted on the bottom of
drilling line and thus lowers or raises the drill stem and bit. the traveling block and from which the swivel is suspended.
Drawworks brake n: the mechanical brake on the Drilling mud n: a specially compounded liquid circulated
drawworks that can slow or prevent the drawworks drum through the wellbore during rotary drilling operations. See
from moving. drilling fluid, mud.
Drawworks drum n: the spool-shaped cylinder in the Drill pipe n: the heavy seamless tubing used to rotate the
drawworks around which drilling line is wound or spooled. bit and circulate the drilling fluid. Joints of pipe are
Drill v: to bore a hole in the earth, usually to find and generally approximately 30 feet long are coupled together
remove subsurface formation fluids such as oil and gas. by means of tool joints.
Drill bit n: the cutting or boring element used in drilling oil Drill stem n: all members in the assembly used for rotary
and gas wells. Most bits used in rotary drilling are roller- drilling from the swivel to the bit, including the kelly, the
cone bits. The bit consists of the cutting elements and the drill pipe and tool joints, the drill collars, the stabilizers,
circulating element. The circulating element permits the and various specialty items. Compare drill string.
passage of drilling fluid and utilizes the hydraulic force of Drill stem test (DST) n: a method of formation testing. The
the fluid stream to improve drilling rates. basic drill stem test tool consists of a packer or packers,
Drill collars n: a heavy, thick -walled tube, usually steel, valves or ports that may be opened and closed from the
used between the drill pipe and the bit in the drill stem, surface, and two or more pressure-recording devices. The
used to stiffen the drilling assembly an put weight on the bit tool is lowered on the drill string to the zone to be tested.
so that the bit can drill. The packer or packers are set to isolate the zone from the
Drill collar sub n: a sub made up between the drill string drilling fluid column.
and the drill collars that is used to ensure that the drill pipe Driller's console n: the control panel, where the driller
and the collar can be joined properly. controls drilling operations.
Driller n: the employee normally in charge of a specific Drilling line n: a wire rope hoisting line, reeved on sheaves
(tour) drilling or workover crew. The driller’s main duty is of the crown block and traveling block (in effect a block
operation of the drilling and hoisting equipment, but this and tackle), the primary purpose of which is to hoist or
person may also be responsible for downhole condition of lower drill pipe or casing from or into a well.
the well, operation of downhole tools, and pipe Drilling out n: the operation during the drilling procedure
measurements. when the cement is drilled out of the casing.
Driller’s position n: the area immediately surrounding the Drill string n: the column, or string, of drill pipe with
driller’s console. attached tool joints that transmits fluid and rotational power
Drill floor n: also called rig floor or derrick floor. See rig from the kelly to the drill collars and the bit. Often, the term
floor. is loosely applied to include both drill pipe and drill collars.

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Dry hole n: any well that does not produce oil or gas in Hoisting components n pl: drawworks, drilling line, and
commercial quantities. A dry hole may flow water, gas, or traveling and crown blocks. Auxiliary hoisting components
even oil, but not in amounts large enough to justify include catheads, catshaft, and air hoist.
production. Hoisting drum n: the large, flanged spool in the drawworks
Fish n: an object that is left in the wellbore during drilling on which the hoisting cable is wound. See drawworks.
or workover operations and that must be recovered before hoisting line n: a wire rope used in hoisting operations.
work can proceed. It can be anything from a piece of scrap Hook n: a large, hook-shaped device from which the
metal to a part of the drill stem. elevator bails or the swivel is suspended. It turns on
Fishing n: the procedure of recovering lost or stuck bearings in its
equipment in the wellbore. supporting housing.
Fishing magnet n: a powerful magnet designed to recover Hoisting system n: The system on the rig that performs all
metallic objects lost in a well. the lifting on the rig, primarily the lifting and lowering of
Fishing tool n: a tool designed to recover equipment lost in drill pipe out of and into the hole. It is composed of drilling
a well. line, traveling block, crown block, and drawworks. See also
Fishing-tool operator n: the person (usually a service hoisting components.
company employee) in charge of directing fishing Induction log n: an electric well log in which the
operations. conductivity of the formation rather than the resistivity is
Flowing well n: a well that produces oil or gas by its own measured. Because oil-bearing formations are less
reservoir pressure rather than by use of artificial means conductive of electricity than water-bearing formations, an
(such as pumps). induction survey, when compared with resistivity readings,
Flow line n: the surface pipe through which oil or gas can aid in determination of oil and water zones.
travels from a well to processing equipment or to storage. Injection gas n: 1. a high-pressure gas injected into a
Flow rate n: the speed, or velocity, of fluid or gas flow formation to maintain or restore reservoir pressure. 2. gas
through a pipe or vessel. injected in gas-lift operations.
Fluid injection n: injection of gases or liquids into a Injection log n: a survey used to determine the injection
reservoir to force oil toward and into producing wells. profile, that is, to assign specific volumes or percentages to
Fluid loss n: the unwanted migration of the liquid part of each of the formations taking fluid in an injection well. The
the drilling mud or cement slurry into a formation, often injection log is also used to check for casing or packer
minimized or prevented by the blending of additives with leaks, proper cement jobs, and fluid migration between
the mud or cement. zones.
Formation fluid n: fluid (such as gas, oil, or water) that Injection water n: water that is introduced into a reservoir
exists in a subsurface formation. to help drive hydrocarbons to a producing well.
Formation gas n: gas initially produced from an Injection well n: a well through which fluids are injected
underground reservoir. into an underground stratum to increase reservoir pressure
Formation pressure n: the force exerted by fluids or gas in and to displace oil. Also called input well.
a formation, recorded in the hole at the level of the Injector head n: a control head for injecting coiled tubing
formation with the well shut in. Also called reservoir into a well that seals off the tubing and makes a pressure
pressure or shut-in bottomhole pressure. tight connection.
Formation testing n: the gathering of pressure data and Kelly n: the heavy square or hexagonal steel member
fluid samples from a formation to determine its production suspended from the swivel through the rotary table and
potential before choosing a completion method. connected to the topmost joint of drill pipe to turn the drill
Formation water n: 1. the water originally in place in a stem as the rotary table turns.
formation. 2. any water that resides in the pore spaces of a Kelly bushing n: a device fitted to the rotary table through
formation. which the kelly passes and the means by which the torque
Gamma ray log n: a type of radioactivity well log that of the rotary table is transmitted to the kelly and to the drill
records natural radioactivity around the wellbore. stem. Also called the drive bushing.
Shales generally produce higher levels of gamma radiation Kelly bypass n: a system of valves and piping that allows
and can be detected and studied with the gamma ray tool. drilling fluid to be circulated without the use of the kelly.
See radioactivity well logging. Kelly cock n: a valve installed at one or both ends of the
Geologist n: a scientist who gathers and interprets data kelly. When a high-pressure backflow occurs inside the
pertaining to the formations of the earth’s crust. drill stem, the valve is closed to keep pressure off the
Hoist n: 1. an arrangement of pulleys and wire rope used swivel and rotary hose.
for lifting heavy objects; a winch or similar device. 2. the Kelly drive bushing n: see kelly bushing.
drawworks. v: to raise or lift.

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Kelly driver n: a device that fits inside the head and inside cannot be raised to a working position as a unit. For
of which the kelly fits. The kelly driver rotates with the transporting by land, the mast can be divided into two or
kelly. more sections to avoid excessive length extending from
Kelly saver sub n: a heavy and relatively short length of truck beds on the highway.
pipe that fits in the drill stem between the kelly and the drill Master bushing n: a device that fits into the rotary table to
pipe. The threads of the drill pipe mate with those of the accommodate the slips and drive the kelly bushing so that
sub, minimizing wear on the kelly. the rotating motion of the rotary table can be transmitted to
Kelly spinner n: a pneumatically operated device mounted the kelly.
on top of the kelly that, when actuated, causes the kelly to Master valve n: 1. a large valve located on the Christmas
turn or spin. tree and used to control the flow of oil and gas from a well.
Keyseat n: 1. an undergauge channel or groove cut in the Also called master gate.
side of the borehole and parallel to the axis of the hole. A Mud n: the liquid circulated through the wellbore during
keyseat results from the rotation of pipe on a sharp bend in rotary drilling and workover operations.
the hole. 2. a groove cut parallel to the axis in a shaft or a Mud acid n: a mixture of hydrochloric and/or hydrofluoric
pulley bore. acids and surfactants used to remove wall cake from the
Kick n: an entry of water, gas, oil, or other formation fluid wellbore.
into the wellbore during drilling. It occurs because the Mud cake n: the sheath of mud solids that forms on the
pressure exerted by the column of drilling fluid is not great wall of the hole when liquid from mud filters into the
enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in formation. Also called filter cake or wall cake.
the formation drilled. If prompt action is not taken to Mud centrifuge n: a device that uses centrifugal force to
control the kick, or kill the well, a blowout may occur. separate small solid components from liquid drilling fluid.
Kick fluids n pl: oil, gas, water, or any combination that Mud cleaner n: a cone-shaped device, a hydrocyclone,
enters the borehole from a permeable formation. designed to remove very fine solid particles from the
Kick off v: 1. to bring a well into production; used most drilling mud.
often when gas is injected into a gas lift well to start Mud engineer n: an employee of a drilling fluid supply
production. 2. in workover operations, to swab a well to company whose duty it is to test and maintain the drilling
restore it to production. 3. to deviate a wellbore from the mud properties that are specified by the operator.
vertical, as in directional drilling. Mud-gas separator n: a device that removes gas from the
Kickoff point (KOP) n: the depth in a vertical hole at mud coming out of a well when a kick is being circulated
which a deviated or slant hole is started; used in directional out.
drilling. Mud hopper n: see hopper.
Kill v: 1. in drilling, to control a kick by taking suitable Mud hose n: also called kelly hose or rotary hose. See
preventive measures (for example, to shut in the well with rotary hose.
the blowout preventers, circulate the kick out, and increase Mud line n: a mud return line.
the weight of the drilling mud). 2. Mud logging n: the recording of information derived from
in production, to stop a well from producing oil and gas so examination and analysis of formation cuttings made by the
that reconditioning of the well can proceed. bit and of mud circulated out of the hole. A portion of the
Log n: a systematic recording of data, such as a driller’s mud is diverted through a gas -detecting device. Cuttings
log, mud log, electrical well log, or radioactivity log. Many brought up by the mud are examined under ultraviolet light
different logs are run in wells to discern various to detect the presence of oil or gas. Mud logging is often
characteristics of downhole formation. v: to record data. carried out in a portable laboratory set up at the well site.
Log a well v: to run any of the various logs used to Mud motor n: see downhole motor.
ascertain downhole information about a well. Mud pit n: originally, an open pit dug in the ground to hold
Logging devices n pl: any of several electrical, acoustical, drilling fluid or waste materials discarded after the
mechanical, or radioactivity devices that are treatment of drilling mud. For some drilling operations,
used to measure and record certain characteristics or events mud pits are used for suction to the mud pumps, settling of
that occur in a well that has been or is being drilled. mud sediments, and storage of reserve mud. Steel tanks are
Manifold n: 1. an accessory system of piping to a main much more commonly used for these purposes now, but
piping system (or another conductor) that serves to divide a they are still usually referred to as pits.
flow into several parts, to combine several flows into one, Mud pump n: a large, high-pressure reciprocating pump
or to reroute a flow to any one of several possible used to circulate the mud on a drilling rig. A typical mud
destinations. pump is a two or three-cylinder piston pump whose
Mast n: a portable derrick that is capable of being raised as replaceable pistons travel in replaceable liners and are
a unit, as distinguished from a standard derrick, which driven by a crankshaft actuated by an engine or a motor.

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Mud return line n: a trough or pipe that is placed between and waste of gas, oil, or water around a wireline (as when
the surface connections at the wellbore and the shale swabbing a well).
shaker. Oil spotting n: pumping oil, or a mixture of oil and
Mud tank n: one of a series of open tanks, usually made of chemicals, to a specific depth in the well to lubricate stuck
steel plate, through which the drilling mud is cycled to drill collars.
remove sand and fine sediments. Oil string n: the final string of casing set in a well after the
Mud weight n: a measure of the density of a drilling fluid productive capacity of the formation has been determined to
expressed as pounds per gallon, pounds per cubic foot, or be sufficient. Also called the long string or production
kilograms per cubic metre. Mud weight is directly related to casing.
the amount of pressure the column of drilling mud exerts at Oilwell n: a well from which oil is obtained.
the bottom of the hole. Oil zone n: a formation or horizon of a well from which oil
Multiple completion n: an arrangement for producing a may be produced. The oil zone is usually immediately
well in which one wellbore penetrates two or more under the gas zone and on top of the water zone if all three
petroleum-bearing formations. In one type, multiple tubing fluids are present and segregated.
strings are suspended side by side in the production casing Packer n: a piece of downhole equipment that consists of a
string, each a different length and each packed to prevent sealing device, a holding or setting device, and an inside
the commingling of different reservoir fluids. Each passage for fluids.
reservoir is then produced through its own tubing string. Packer fluid n: a liquid, usually salt water or oil, but
Alternatively, a small diameter production casing string sometimes mud, used in a well when a packer is between
may be provided for each reservoir, as in multiple the tubing and the casing. Packer fluid must be heavy
miniaturized or multiple tubingless completions. See dual enough to shut off the pressure of the formation being
completion. produced, and should not stiffen or settle out of suspension
Natural gas n: a highly compressible, highly expansible over long periods of time,
mixture of hydrocarbons with a low specific gravity and and must be non -corrosive.
occurring naturally in a gaseous form. Packer squeeze method n: a squeeze cementing method in
Neutron log n: a radioactivity well log used to determine which a packer is set to form a seal between the working
formation porosity. The logging tool bombards the string (the pipe down which cement is pumped) and the
formation with neutrons. When the neutrons strike casing. Another packer or a cement plug is set below the
hydrogen atoms in water or oil, gamma rays are released. point to be squeeze -cemented. By setting packers, the
Since water or oil exists only in pore spaces, a measurement squeeze point is isolated from the rest of the well.
of the gamma rays indicates formation porosity. See Packing n: 1. a material used in a cylinder on rotating
radioactivity well logging. shafts of an engine or pump in the stuffing box of a valve,
Oil n: a simple or complex liquid mixture of hydrocarbons or between flange joints to maintain a leak proof seal. 2. the
that can be refined to yield gasoline, kerosene, specially fabricated filling in packed fractionation columns
diesel fuel, and various other products. and absorbers.
Oil-base mud n: a drilling or workover fluid in which oil is Packing assembly n: the arrangement of the downhole
the continuous phase and which contains from less than 2 tools used in running and setting a packer.
percent and up to 5 percent water. This water is spread out, Packing elements n pl: the set of dense rubber, washer-
or dispersed, in the oil as small droplets. See oil mud. shaped pieces encircling a packer, which are
Oil-emulsion mud n: a water-base mud in which water is designed to expand against casing or formation face to seal
the continuous phase and oil is the dispersed phase. off the annulus.
Oilfield n: the surface area overlying an oil reservoir or Pack-off n: a device with an elastomer packing element
reservoirs. The term usually includes not only the surface that depends on pressure below the packing to effect a seal
area, but also the reservoir, the wells, and the production in the annulus. Used primarily to run or pull pipe under low
equipment. or moderate pressures. Also called a stripper.
Oil mud n: a drilling mud, such as, oil-base mud and Pack off v: to place a packer in the wellbore and activate it
invert-emulsion mud, in which oil is the continuous phase. so that it forms a seal between the tubing and the casing.
It is useful in drilling certain formations that may be Perforate v: to pierce the casing wall and cement of a
difficult or costly to drill with waterbase mud.Compare oil- wellbore to provide holes through which formation fluids
emulsion mud. may enter or to provide holes in the casing so that materials
Oil sand n: 1. a sandstone that yields oil. 2. (by extension) may be introduced into the annulus between the casing and
any reservoir that yields oil, whether or not it is sandstone. the wall of the borehole. Perforating is accomplished by
Oil saver n: a gland arrangement that mechanically or lowering into the well a perforating gun, or perforator.
hydraulically seals by pressure. It is used to prevent leakage

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Perforated completion n: 1. a well completion method in combination of these. The four basic types of hydrocarbon
which the producing zone or zones are cased reservoirs are oil, volatile oil, dry gas, and gas condensate.
through, cemented, and perforated to allow fluid flow into An oil reservoir generally contains three fluids—gas, oil,
the wellbore. 2. a well completed by this method. and water—with oil the dominant product. In the typical oil
Perforated liner n: a liner that has had holes shot in it by a reservoir, these fluids become vertically segregated because
perforating gun. of their different densities. Gas, the lightest, occupies the
Perforated pipe n: sections of pipe (such as casing, liner, upper part of the reservoir rocks; water, the lower part; and
and tail pipe) in which holes or slots have been cut before it oil, the intermediate section.
is set. In addition to its occurrence as a cap or in solution, gas may
Perforating gun n: a device fitted with shaped charges or accumulate independently of the oil; if so, the reservoir is
bullets that is lowered to the desired depth in called a gas reservoir. Associated with the gas, in most
a well and fired to create penetrating holes in casing, instances, are salt water and some oil. Volatile oil reservoirs
cement, and formation. are exceptional in that during early production they are
Perforation n: a hole made in the casing, cement, and mostly productive of light oil plus gas, but, as depletion
formation through which formation fluids enter a occurs, production can become almost totally completely
wellbore. Usually several perforations are made at a time. gas.
Perforation depth control log (PDC log) n: a special type Volatile oils are usually good candidates for pressure
of nuclear log that measures the depth of each casing collar. maintenance, which can result in increased reserves. In the
Knowing the depth of the collars makes it easy to determine typical dry gas reservoir natural gas exists only as a gas and
the exact depth of the formation to be perforated by production is only gas plus fresh water that condenses from
correlating casing-collar depth with formation depth. the flow stream reservoir. In a gas condensate reservoir, the
Radioactivity log n: a record of the natural or induced hydrocarbons may exist as a gas, but, when brought to the
radioactive characteristics of subsurface surface, some of the heavier hydrocarbons condense and
formations. Also called nuclear log. See radioactivity well become a liquid.
logging. Resistivity log n: a record of the resistivity of a formation.
Radioactivity well logging n: the recording of the natural Usually obtained when an electric log is run.
or induced radioactive characteristics of subsurface See resistivity well logging.
formations. A radioactivity log, also known as a radiation Resistivity well logging n: the recording of the resistance
log or a nuclear log, normally consists of two recorded of formation water to natural or induced electrical current.
curves: a gamma ray curve and a neutron curve. Both help The mineral content of subsurface water allows it to
to determine the types of rocks in the formation and the conduct electricity. Rock, oil, and gas are poor conductors.
types of fluids contained in the rocks. Resistivity measurements can be correlated to formation
Ram n: the closing and sealing component on a blowout lithology, porosity,
preventer. One of three types—blind, pipe, or shear—may permeability, and saturation and are very useful in
be installed in several preventers mounted in a stack on top formation evaluation.
of the wellbore. Blind rams, when closed, form a seal on a Rig n: the derrick or mast, drawworks, and attendant
hole that has no drill pipe in it; pipe rams, when closed, seal surface equipment of a drilling or workover unit.
around the pipe; shear rams cut through drill pipe and then Rig down v: to dismantle a drilling rig and auxiliary
form a seal. equipment following the completion of drilling operations.
Ram blowout preventer n: a blowout preventer that uses Also called tear down.
rams to seal off pressure on a hole that is with or without Rig floor n: the area immediately around the rotary table
pipe. It is also called a ram preventer. Ram-type And extending to each corner of the derrick or mast—that
preventers have interchangeable ram blocks to is, the area immediately above the substructure on which
accommodate different O.D. drill pipe, casing, or tubing. the rotary table, and so forth rest.
Range of load n: in sucker rod pumping, the difference Rig up v: to prepare the drilling rig for making hole, for
between the polished rod peak load on the upstroke and the example, to install tools and machinery before drilling is
minimum load on the downstroke. started.
Rate of penetration (ROP) n: a measure of the speed at Rod blowout preventer n: a ram device used to close the
which the bit drills into formations, usually annular space around the polished rod or sucker rod in a
expressed in feet (meters) per hour or minutes per foot pumping well.
(meter). Rod hanger n: a device used to hang sucker rods on the
Reservoir n: a subsurface, porous, permeable or naturally mast or in the derrick.
fractured rock body in which oil or gas are stored. Most Rotary table n: The principal component of a rotary, or
reservoir rocks are limestones, dolomites, sandstones, or a rotary machine, used to turn the drill stem and support the

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drilling assembly. It has a beveled gear arrangement to temperature increase will be found at the level where
create the rotational motion and an opening into which cement is found behind the casing.
bushings are fitted to drive and support the drilling Tracer log n: a survey that uses a radioactive tracer such as
assembly. a gas, liquid, or solid having a high gamma ray emission.
Spontaneous potential (SP) n: one of the natural electrical When the material is injected into any portion of the
characteristics exhibited by a formation as measured by a wellbore, the point of placement or movement can be
logging tool lowered into the wellbore. Also called self- recorded by a gamma ray instrument. The tracer log is used
potential or SP. to determine channeling or the travel of squeezed cement
Spontaneous potential (SP) curve n: a measurement of the behind a section of perforated casing.
electrical currents that occur in the wellbore when fluids of Well n: the hole made by the drilling bit, which can be
different salinities are in contact. The SP curve is usually open, cased, or both. Also called borehole, hole, or
recorded in holes drilled with freshwater -base drilling wellbore.
fluids. It is one of the curves on an electric well log. Also Wellbore n: a borehole; the hole drilled by the bit. A
called selfpotential curve. wellbore may have casing in it or it may be open
Spontaneous potential (SP) log n: a record of a (uncased); or part of it may be cased, and part of it may be
spontaneous potential curve. open. Also called a borehole or hole.
Spool n: the drawworks drum. Also a casing head or Wellbore soak n: an acidizing treatment in which the acid
drilling spool. v: to wind around a drum. is placed in the wellbore and allowed to react by merely
Spot v: to pump a designated quantity of a substance (such soaking. It is a relatively slow process, because very little of
as acid or cement) into a specific interval in the well. For the acid actually comes in contact with the formation. Also
example, 10 barrels (1,590 litres) of diesel oil may be called wellbore cleanup. Compare acid fracture.
spotted around an area in the hole in which drill collars are Well completion n: 1. the activities and methods of
stuck against the wall of the hole in an effort to free the preparing a well for the production of oil and gas or for
collars. other purposes, such as injection; the method by which one
Spud v: 1. to begin drilling a well; such as, to spud in. 2. to or more flow paths for hydrocarbons are established
force a wireline tool or tubing down the hole by using a between the reservoir and the surface. 2. the system of
reciprocating motion. tubulars, packers, and other tools installed beneath the
Spud in v: to begin drilling; to start the hole. wellhead in the production casing; that is, the tool assembly
Spud mud n: the fluid used when drilling starts at the that provides the hydrocarbon flow path or paths.
surface, often a thick bentonite-lime slurry. Well control n: the methods used to control a kick and
split master bushing n: a master bushing that is made in prevent a well from blowing out. Such techniques include,
two pieces. but are not limited to, keeping the borehole completely
Squeeze n: 1. a cementing operation in which cement is filled with drilling mud of the proper weight or density
pumped behind the casing under high pressure to recement during operations, exercising reasonable care when tripping
channeled areas or to block off an uncemented zone. pipe out of the hole to prevent swabbing, and keeping
Squeeze cementing n: the forcing of cement slurry by careful track of the amount of mud put into the hole to
pressure to specified points in a well to cause seals at the replace the volume of pipe removed from the hole during a
points of squeeze. It is a secondary cementing method that trip.
is used to isolate a producing formation, seal off water, Well fluid n: the fluid, usually a combination of gas, oil,
repair casing leaks, and so forth. Compare plug-back water, and suspended sediment, that comes out of a
cementing. reservoir. Also called well stream.
Sonic log n: a type of acoustic log that records the travel Wellhead n: the equipment installed at the surface of the
time of sounds through objects, cement, or formation rocks. wellbore. A wellhead includes such equipment as the
Often used to determine whether voids exist in the cement casinghead and tubing head. adj: pertaining to the wellhead.
behind the casing in a wellbore. Well logging n: the recording of information about
Swivel n: a rotary tool that is hung from the rotary hook and subsurface geologic formations, including records kept by
traveling block to suspend and permit free rotation of the the driller and records of mud and cutting analyses, core
drill stem. It also provides a connection for the rotary hose analysis, drill stem tests, and electric, acoustic, and
and a passageway for the flow of drilling fluid into the drill radioactivity procedures.
stem. Well servicing n: the maintenance work performed on an
Temperature log n: a survey run in cased holes to locate oil or gas well to improve or maintain the production from a
the top of the cement in the annulus. Since cement formation already producing. It usually involves repairs to
generates a considerable amount of heat when setting, a the pump, rods, gas-lift valves, tubing, packers, and so
forth.

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Well-servicing rig n: a portable rig, truck-mounted, trailer- A workover fluid is compounded carefully so that it will not
mounted, or a carrier rig, consisting of a hoist and engine cause formation damage.
with a self-erecting mast. See carrier rig. Compare Workover rig n: a portable rig used for working over a
workover rig. well.
Well site n: see location. Work string n: 1. in drilling, the string of drill pipe or
Well stimulation n: any of several operations used to tubing suspended in a well to which is attached a
increase the production of a well, such as acidizing or special tool or device that is used to carry out a certain task,
fracturing. See acidize. such as squeeze cementing or fishing. 2. In pipeline
Wickers n pl: broken or frayed strands of the steel wire that construction, the string of washpipe that replaces the pilot
makes up the outer wrapping of wire rope. string in a directionally drilled river crossing. The work
Wildcat n: 1. a well drilled in an area where no oil or gas string remains in place under the river until the actual
production exists. pipeline is made up and is ready to be pulled back across
Window n: 1. a slotted opening or a full section removed in the river.
the pipe lining (casing) of a well, usually made to permit Squeeze cementing
sidetracking. A cementing repair technique involving injecting cementing
Wireline n: a slender, rodlike or threadlike piece of metal under pressure to fill channels in the primary cementing
usually small in diameter, that is used for lowering special treatment.
tools (such as logging sondes, perforating guns, and so Cementing
forth) into the well. Also called slick line. 1. the application of a liquid slurry of cement and water to
Wireline formation tester n: a formation fluid sampling various points inside or outside the casing. 2. to prepare and
device, actually run on conductor line rather than wireline, pump cement into place in a wellbore. cementing
that also logs flow and shut-in pressure in rock near the operations may be undertaken to seal the annulus after a
borehole. A spring mechanism holds a pad firmly against casing string has been run, to seal a lost circulation zone, to
the sidewall while a piston creates a vacuum in a test set a [...]
chamber. Formation fluids enter the test chamber through a Cement squeeze
valve in the pad. A recorder logs the rate at which the test A remedial cementing operation designed to force cement
chamber is filled. Fluids may also be drawn to fill a into leak paths in wellbore tubulars. the required squeeze
sampling chamber. Wireline formation tests may be done pressure is achieved by carefully controlling pump pressure.
any number of times during one trip in the hole, so they are squeeze cementing operations may be performed to repair
very useful in formation testing. poor primary cement jobs, isolate perforations or repair
Wireline log n: any log that is run on wireline. damaged casing or liner.
Wireline logging n: see well logging.
Wireline operations n pl: the lowering of mechanical Secondary cementing
tools, such as valves and fishing tools, into the well for Any cementing operation after the primary cementing
various purposes. Electric wireline operations, such as operation. secondary cementing includes a plug-back job, in
electric well logging and perforating, involve the use of which a plug of cement is positioned at a specific point in
conductor line. the well and allowed to set. wells are plugged to shut off
Wireline survey n: a general term used to refer to any type bottom water or to reduce the depth of the well for other
of log being run in a well. reasons.
Wireline tools n pl: special tools or equipment made to be Primary cementing
lowered into and retrieved from the well on a wireline, for The cementing operation that takes place immediately after
example, packers, swabs, gas-lift valves, measuring the casing has been run into the hole. it provides a
devices. protective sheath around the casing, segregates the
Wire rope n: a cable composed of steel wires twisted producing formation, and prevents the undesirable
around a central core of fiber or steel wire to create a rope migration of fluids.
of great strength and considerable flexibility. Plug-back cementing
Workover n: the performance of one or more of a variety A secondary-cementing operation in which a plug of
of remedial operations on a producing well to try to cement is positioned at a specific point in the well and
increase production. Examples of workover jobs are allowed to set.
deepening, plugging back, pulling and resetting liners, and Circulation squeeze
squeeze cementing. See recompletion. A variation of squeeze cementing for wells with two
Workover fluid n: a special drilling mud used to keep a producing zones in which (1) the upper fluid sand is
well under control while it is being worked over. perforated; (2) tubing is run with a packer, and the packer is
set between the two perforated intervals; (3) water is

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circulated between the two zones to remove as much mud Note: For simplicity’s sake, this discussion and its
as possible from the channel; [...] accompanying Case Study examine the drilling and
Cementing head completion process as it relates to a single well. In reality,
An accessory attached to the top of the casing to facilitate most projects—particularly those relating to field
cementing of the casing. it has passages for cement slurry development—are based on drilling multiple wells, and
and retain chambers for cementing wiper plugs. project budgets, drilling contracts, regulatory requirements
Channel (cement) and so forth are developed in this "multi-well" context.
A flow area in the cement from inefficient cementing
displacement of the drilling mud. The Job
Cement plug The mud engineer (or drilling fluids engineer) may be a
A portion of cement placed at some point in the wellbore to university, college, or technical institute graduate, or may
seal it. see cementing. have no tertiary education at all, having gained experience
Scratcher working on rigs which could be over 10 years. On land, this
A device that is fastened to the outside of casing to remove experience would come from being a derrick hand, and
mud cake from the wall of a hole to condition the hole for offshore, the experience would come from being a pump
cementing. by rotating or moving the casing string up and man. Prior to working on his own, he has been on a special
down as it is being run into the hole, the scratcher, formed training course, known as "mud school", and often spends
of stiff wire, removes the cake so that [...] time working with a senior mud engineer to gain
Casing pack experience.
A means of cementing casing in a well so that the casing
may, if necessary, be retrieved with minimum difficulty. a Prior to drilling a well, a "mud program" will be worked out
special mud, usually an oil mud, is placed in the well ahead according to the expected geology, in which products to be
of the cement after the casing has been set. non-solidifying used, concentrations of those products, and fluid
mud is used so that it does not bind or stick to [...] specifications at different depths are all predetermined. As
Unconsolidated formation the hole is drilled and gets deeper, more mud is required,
Formations with insufficient cementing agents between the and the mud engineer is responsible for making sure that
grains to stop movement of individual grains when fluid the new mud to be added is made up to the required
flows through the formation. usually less than 2 to 10 psi specifications. The chemical composition of the mud will
compressive strength. be designed so as to stabilize the hole. It is sometimes
Bradenhead squeeze necessary to completely change the mud to drill through a
A process used to repair a hole in the casing by pumping particular subsurface layer.
cement down tubing or drill pipe. first, the casinghead, or
bradenhead, is closed to prevent fluids from moving up the As drilling proceeds, the mud engineer will get information
casing. then the rig’s pumps are started. pump pressure from the mud logger (mud logging technician) about
moves the cement out of the tubing or pipe and, since the progress through the geological zones, and will make
top of [...] regular physical and chemical checks on the drilling mud.
Wiper plug In particular the Marsh funnel viscosity and the density are
A rubber-bodied, plastic- or aluminum-cored device used to frequently checked. As drilling proceeds, the mud tends to
separate cement and drilling fluid as they are being pumped accumulate small particles of the rocks which are being
down the inside of the casing during cementing operations. drilled through, and its properties change. It is the job of the
a wiper plug also removes drilling mud that adheres to the mud engineer to specify additives to correct these changes,
inside of the casing. or to partially or wholly replace the mud when necessary.
Phases of Well Construction He or she must also keep an eye on the equipment which is
Well drilling and completion involves a number of distinct used to pump the mud and to remove particles, and be
project functions. Companies may differ as to who is prepared if the geologists' predictions are not entirely
primarily responsible for each function, and where one correct, or if other problems arise.
function ends and another begins, but one good breakdown
would be as follows: It is sometimes necessary to stabilize the wall of a borehole
 Well Planning at a particular depth by pumping cement down through the
 Well Design mud system, and the mud engineer is sometimes in charge
 Drilling Operations of this process.
 Formation Evaluation and Testing
 Well Completion The mud engineer is well supported by the mud supply
company with computer aids and manuals dealing with all

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known problems and their solution, but it is his or her
responsibility to get it right in a situation where mistakes Compliance engineer
can be very costly indeed. The compliance engineer is the most common name for a
relatively new position in the oil field, emerging around
A mud engineer's job may involve long shifts of over 12 2002 due to new environmental regulations on synthetic
hours a day. Typical offshore and foreign work schedules mud in the United States. Previously, synthetic mud was
are four weeks working and four weeks off. regulated the same as water-based mud and could be
disposed of in offshore waters due to low toxicity to marine
Mud engineer’s duty organisms. New regulations restrict the amount of synthetic
The mud engineer’s duties are to stay on the rig site oil that can be discharged. These new regulations created a
(usually) and constantly monitor and readjust the properties significant burden in the form of tests needed to determine
and weight of the drilling fluid or “mud”. the "ROC" or retention on cuttings, sampling to determine
the percentage of crude oil in the drilling mud, and
The mud or drilling fluid is what lubricates the drill bit, extensive documentation. It should be noted that no type of
keeps it cool, flushes cuttings from the hole being drilled oil/synthetic based mud (or drilled cuttings contaminated
and holds back underground pressure from dangerous zones with OBM/SBM) may be dumped in the North Sea.
that contain natural gas. Contaminated mud must either be shipped back to shore in
skips or processed on the rigs.
If the mud weight is not heavy enough or is A new monthly toxicity test is also now performed to
“underbalanced” a blowout can occur, burning down the rig determine sediment toxicity, using the amphipod
and casing an out of control wild well and loss of life. Leptocheirus plumulosus. Various concentrations of the
drilling mud are added to the environment of captive L.
If the mud or drilling fluid is too heavy it can flush out into plumulosus to determine its effect on the animals. The test
the formation causing a “lost circulation” situation which is controversial for two reasons:
can ruin the well being drilled. 1. These animals are not native to many of the areas
The mud engineer adds weight to the drilling fluid or mud regulated by them, including the Gulf of Mexico
by means of adding the mineral barite. Barite is a heavy 2. The test has a very large standard deviation and
mineral that mixes with oil and water based muds. The samples that fail badly may pass easily upon
weight of the drilling fluid is measured in PPG or pounds retesting
per gallon. Ten pound mud would weight ten pounds to the
gallon.

The mud enginner uses a set of scales to constantly weight

the mud and make sure that it is heavy enough for the
pressures that are expected at a certain depth.

An influx of gas or water, mixing with the drilling mud can

cause it to suddenly get light, causing an under-balanced
situation so the process of monitoring the weight of the mud
is constant during the drilling of the well.

Mud engineer’s salary

The position of mud engineer carries a salary of around
$72,500 and involves setting up a ‘mud program’ according
to the geology of the project.

Mud engineer’s qualification

The Mud Engineer is likely to have a degree in chemistry or
some secondary chemistry qualification and an excellent
understanding of the drilling procedures. The Mud Engineer
should be good at math and science.

Before taking up the position, a special training course

needs to be completed.

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