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 Data Acquisition and Signal Processing for Smart Sensors
Nikolay Kirianaki, Sergey Yurish, Nestor Shpak, Vadim Deynega
Copyright  2002 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBNs: 0-470-84317-9 (Hardback); 0-470-84610-0 (Electronic)

DATA ACQUISITION AND

SIGNAL PROCESSING
FOR SMART SENSORS
DATA ACQUISITION AND
SIGNAL PROCESSING
FOR SMART SENSORS

Nikolay V. Kirianaki and Sergey Y. Yurish

International Frequency Sensor Association, Lviv, Ukraine

Nestor O. Shpak
Institute of Computer Technologies, Lviv, Ukraine

Vadim P. Deynega
State University Lviv Polytechnic, Ukraine
Copyright  2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Data acquisition and signal processing for smart sensors / Nikolay V. Kirianaki . . . [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-470-84317-9 (alk. paper)
1. Detectors. 2. Microprocessors. 3. Signal processing. 4. Automatic data collection
systems. I. Kirianaki, Nikolai Vladimirovich.

TA165. D38 2001

681
.2–dc21 2001046912
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 470 84317 9

Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford & King’s Lynn
This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry,
in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.
 CONTENTS

Preface ix

List of Abbreviations and Symbols xiii

Introduction xv

1 Smart Sensors for Electrical and Non-Electrical, Physical and

Chemical Variables: Tendencies and Perspectives 1
1.1 Temperature IC and Smart Sensors 8
1.2 Pressure IC and Smart Sensors and Accelerometers 14
1.3 Rotation Speed Sensors 18
1.4 Intelligent Opto Sensors 23
1.5 Humidity Frequency Output Sensors 24
1.6 Chemical and Gas Smart Sensors 24
Summary 27

2 Converters for Different Variables to Frequency-Time

Parameters of the Electric Signal 29
2.1 Voltage-to-Frequency Converters (VFCs) 29
2.2 Capacitance-to-Period (or Duty-Cycle) Converters 47
Summary 50

3 Data Acquisition Methods for Multichannel Sensor

Systems 51
3.1 Data Acquisition Method with Time-Division Channelling 52
3.2 Data Acquisition Method with Space-Division Channelling 55
3.3 Smart Sensor Architectures and Data Acquisition 57
3.4 Main Errors of Multichannel Data-Acquisition Systems 59
3.5 Data Transmission and Error Protection 61
3.5.1 Essence of quasi-ternary coding 62
3.5.2 Coding algorithm and examples 62
3.5.3 Quasi-ternary code decoding 65
Summary 67
vi CONTENTS

4 Methods of Frequency-to-Code Conversion 69

4.1 Standard Direct Counting Method (Frequency Measurement) 70
4.2 Indirect Counting Method (Period Measurement) 74
4.3 Combined Counting Method 79
4.4 Method for Frequency-to-Code Conversion Based on Discrete
Fourier Transformation 82
4.5 Methods for Phase-Shift-to-Code Conversion 85
Summary 86

5 Advanced and Self-Adapting Methods of Frequency-to-Code

Conversion 89
5.1 Ratiometric Counting Method 89
5.2 Reciprocal Counting Method 94
5.3 M/T Counting Method 94
5.4 Constant Elapsed Time (CET) Method 96
5.5 Single- and Double-Buffered Methods 96
5.6 DMA Transfer Method 97
5.7 Method of Dependent Count 98
5.7.1 Method of conversion for absolute values 99
5.7.2 Methods of conversion for relative values 100
5.7.3 Methods of conversion for frequency deviation 104
5.7.4 Universal method of dependent count 104
5.7.5 Example of realization 105
5.7.6 Metrological characteristics and capabilities 107
5.7.7 Absolute quantization error
q 107
5.7.8 Relative quantization error δq 109
5.7.9 Dynamic range 110
5.7.10 Accuracy of frequency-to-code converters based
on MDC 112
5.7.11 Calculation error 114
5.7.12 Quantization error (error of method) 114
5.7.13 Reference frequency error 114
5.7.14 Trigger error 115
5.7.15 Simulation results 117
5.7.16 Examples 120
5.8 Method with Non-Redundant Reference Frequency 121
5.9 Comparison of Methods 123
5.10 Advanced Method for Phase-Shift-to-Code Conversion 125
Summary 126

6 Signal Processing in Quasi-Digital Smart Sensors 129

6.1 Main Operations in Signal Processing 129
6.1.1 Adding and subtraction 129
6.1.2 Multiplication and division 130
6.1.3 Frequency signal unification 132
6.1.4 Derivation and integration 135
 CONTENTS vii

6.2 Weight Functions, Reducing Quantization Error 136

Summary 142

7 Digital Output Smart Sensors with Software-Controlled

Performances and Functional Capabilities 143
7.1 Program-Oriented Conversion Methods Based on Ratiometric
Counting Technique 145
7.2 Design Methodology for Program-Oriented Conversion Methods 150
7.2.1 Example 158
7.3 Adaptive PCM with Increased Speed 161
7.4 Error Analysis of PCM 164
7.4.1 Reference error 165
7.4.2 Calculation error 171
7.4.3 Error of T02 forming 173
7.5 Correction of PCM’s Systematic Errors 174
7.6 Modified Method of Algorithm Merging for PCMs 175
Summary 182

8 Multichannel Intelligent and Virtual Sensor Systems 183

8.1 One-Channel Sensor Interfacing 183
8.2 Multichannel Sensor Interfacing 184
8.2.1 Smart rotation speed sensor 185
8.2.2 Encoder 187
8.2.3 Self-adaptive method for rotation speed measurements 188
8.2.4 Sensor interfacing 190
8.3 Multichannel Adaptive Sensor System with Space-Division
Channelling 193
8.4 Multichannel Sensor Systems with Time-Division Channelling 197
8.5 Multiparameters Sensors 199
8.6 Virtual Instrumentation for Smart Sensors 199
8.6.1 Set of the basic models for measuring instruments 201
8.7 Estimation of Uncertainty for Virtual Instruments 215
Summary 224

9 Smart Sensor Design at Software Level 225

9.1 Microcontroller Core for Smart Sensors 225
9.2 Low-Power Design Technique for Embedded Microcontrollers 227
9.2.1 Instruction selection and ordering 234
9.2.2 Code size and speed optimizations 234
9.2.3 Jump and call optimizations 236
9.2.4 Cycle optimization 237
9.2.5 Minimizing memory access cost 239
9.2.6 Exploiting low-power features of the hardware 240
9.2.7 Compiler optimization for low power 241
Summary 244
viii CONTENTS

10 Smart Sensor Buses and Interface Circuits 245

10.1 Sensor Buses and Network Protocols 245
10.2 Sensor Interface Circuits 248
10.2.1 Universal transducer interface (UTI) 248
10.2.2 Time-to-digital converter (TDC) 252
Summary 253

Future Directions 255

References 257

Appendix A What is on the Sensors Web Portal? 267

Glossary 269

Index 275
 PREFACE

Smart sensors are of great interest in many fields of industry, control systems, biomed-
ical applications, etc. Most books about sensor instrumentation focus on the classical
approach to data acquisition, that is the information is in the amplitude of a voltage or a
current signal. Only a few book chapters, articles and papers consider data acquisition
from digital and quasi-digital sensors. Smart sensors and microsensors increasingly rely
on resonant phenomena and variable oscillators, where the information is embedded not
in the amplitude but in the frequency or time parameter of the output signal. As a rule,
the majority of scientific publications dedicated to smart sensors reflect only the tech-
nological achievements of microelectronics. However, modern advanced microsensor
technologies require novel advanced measuring techniques.
Because data acquisition and signal processing for smart sensors have not been
adequately covered in the literature before, this book aims to fill a significant gap.
This book is based on 40 years of the authors’ practical experience in the design and
creation of sensor instrumentation as well as the development of novel methods and
algorithms for frequency–time-domain measurement, conversion and signal processing.
Digital and quasi-digital (frequency, period, duty-cycle, time interval and pulse number
output) sensors are covered in this book.
Research results, described in this book, are relevant to the authors’ international
research in the frame of different R&D projects and International Frequency Sensor
Association (IFSA) activity.

Who Should Read this Book?

This book is aimed at PhD students, engineers, scientists and researchers in both
academia and industry. It is especially suited for professionals working in the field
of measuring instruments and sensor instrumentation as well as anyone facing new
challenges in measuring, and those involved in the design and creation of new digital
smart physical or chemical sensors and sensor systems. It should also be useful for
students wishing to gain an insight into this rapidly expanding area. Our goal is to
provide the reader with enough background to understand the novel concepts, principles
and systems associated with data acquisition, signal processing and measurement so
that they can decide how to optimize their sensor systems in order to achieve the best
technical performances at low cost.
x PREFACE

How this Book is Organized

This book has been organized into 10 chapters.

Chapter 1, Smart sensors for electrical and non-electrical, physical and chemical
quantities: the tendencies and perspectives, describes the main advantages of
frequency–time-domain signals as informative parameters for smart sensors. The
chapter gives an overview of industrial types of smart sensors and contains
classifications of quasi-digital sensors. Digital and quasi-digital (frequency, period,
duty-cycle, time interval and pulse number output) sensors are considered.
Chapter 2, Converters for different variables to frequency–time parameters of elec-
tric signals, deals with different voltage (current)-to-frequency and capacitance-to-
period (or duty-cycle) converters. Operational principles, technical performances and
metrological characteristics of these devices are discussed from a smart sensor point
of view in order to produce further conversion in the quasi-digital domain instead of
the analog domain. The open and loop (with impulse feedback) structures of such
converters are considered. (Figures 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15 and some of the text
appearing in Chapter 2, section 2.1, are reproduced from New Architectures of Inte-
grated ADC, PDS ’96 Proceedings. Reproduced by permission of Maciej Nowinski.)
Chapter 3, Data acquisition methods for multichannel sensor systems, covers multi-
channel sensor systems with cyclical, accelerated and simultaneous sensor polling. Data
acquisition methods with time-division and space-division channelling are described.
The chapter contains information about how to calculate the time-polling cycle for
a sensor and how to analyse the accuracy and speed of data acquisition. Main smart
sensor architectures are considered from a data acquisition point of view. Data transmit-
ting and error protection on the basis of quasi-ternary cyclic coding is also discussed.
Chapter 4, Methods of frequency-to-code conversion for smart sensors, discusses
traditional methods for frequency (period)-to-code conversion, including direct, indi-
rect, combined, interpolation, Fourier conversion-based counting techniques as well as
methods for phase-shift-to-code conversion. Such metrological characteristics as quan-
tization error, conversion frequency range and conversion speed as well as advantages
and disadvantages for each of the methods are discussed and compared.
Chapter 5, Advanced and self-adapting methods of frequency-to-code conversion,
discusses reciprocal, ratiometric, constant elapsed time (CET), M/T, single-buffered,
double-buffered and DMA transfer advanced methods. Comparative and cost-effective
analyses are given. Frequency ranges, quantization errors, time of measurement and
other metrological performances as well as hardware and software requirements for
realization from a smart sensor point of view are described. This chapter is very
important because it also deals with the concepts, principles and nature of novel self-
adapting methods of dependent count (MDC) and the method with non-redundant
reference frequency. The chapter covers main metrological performances including
accuracy, conversion time, frequency range as well as software and hardware for MDC
realization. Advanced conversion methods for frequencies ratio, deviations and phase
shifts are also described. Finally, some practical examples and modelling results are
presented.
Chapter 6, Signal processing for quasi-digital smart sensors, deals with the main
frequency signal manipulations including multiplication, division, addition, subtraction,
derivation, integration and scaling. Particular attention has been paid to new methods
 PREFACE xi

of frequency multiplication and scaling with the aim of frequency signal unification.
Different wave shapes (sine wave, sawtooth, triangular and rectangular) of a sensor’s
output are considered. It is also shown how the weight function averaging can be used
for noise and quantization error reduction.
Chapter 7, Digital output smart sensors with software-controlled performances and
functional capabilities, discusses program-oriented methods for frequency-, period-,
duty-cycle-, time-interval-, phase-shift- and pulse-number-to-code conversion and
digital smart sensors. The design methodology for optimal program-oriented conversion
methods, correction of systematic errors and the modified method of algorithms
merging are considered. Examples are given. This chapter also describes specific errors
and features.
Chapter 8, Multichannel intelligent and virtual sensor systems, describes smart
sensor systems with time- and space-division frequency channelling. Both are based
on the method of dependent count. Comparative analysis is given. Performances and
features are illustrated by an ABS smart sensor microsystem example. Multiparame-
ters sensors are also considered. The chapter includes information about virtual sensor
instrumentation and how to estimate the total error of arranged system. Definitions and
examples (temperature, pressure, rotation speed virtual instruments) are given.
Chapter 9, Smart Sensor Design at Software level, deals with embedded microcon-
troller set instruction minimization for metering applications (to save chip area) and
low-power design techniques–optimal low-power programming (for power consump-
tion reduction). Many practical ‘hints’ (e.g. instruction selection and ordering, jump,
call and cycle optimization, etc.), recommendations and examples are given.
Chapter 10, Smart sensor buses and interface circuits, describes sensor buses and
network protocols from the smart sensor point of view. Modern sensor interface circuits
are discussed. Particular attention has been given to the Universal Transducer Inter-
face (UTI) and Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC), which allow low-cost interfacing
with different analog sensors elements such as Pt resistors, thermistors, potentiometer
resistors, capacitors, resistive bridges, etc. and convert analog sensor signals to the
quasi-digital domain (duty-cycle or time interval).
Finally, we discuss what the future might bring.
References. Apart from books, articles and papers, this section includes a large
collection of appropriate Internet links, collected from the Sensors Web Portal launched
by the authors.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND
SYMBOLS

δq program-specified relative quantization error

q absolute quantization error
Df specified measuring range of frequencies
fx measurand frequency
f0 reference frequency
F greater of the two frequencies fx and f0
f lower of the two frequencies fx and f0
fbound lower frequency limit
Fbound upper frequency limit
m counter capacity
Nδ number, determined by the error δ = 1/Nδ
Nx number of periods of lower frequency f
T period of greater frequency (T = 1/F )
τ period of lower frequency (τ = 1/f )
Tq quantization window
T0 reference gate time interval
ABS antilock braking system
ADC analog-to-digital converter
ALU arithmetic logic unit
ASIC application specific integrated circuit
ASIP application specific instruction processor
CAD computer-aided design
CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductor
CT counter
DAC digital-to-analog converter
DAQ data acquisition
DFT discrete Fourier transformation
DSP digital signal processor
FCC frequency-to-code converter
FPGA field-programmable gate array
FS full scale
GUI graphical user interface
LCF Liapunov characteristic function
xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

MDC method of dependent count

µK microcontroller
µP microprocessor
MSM multichip module
PCA programable counter array
PCM program-oriented conversion method
PWM pulse width modulation
RAM random access memory
ROM read-only memory
VFC voltage-to-frequency converter
VLSI very large scale integration
 INTRODUCTION

Rapid advances in IC technologies have brought new challenges to the physical design
of integrated sensors and micro-electrical-mechanical systems (MEMS). Microsystem
technology (MST) offers new ways of combining sensing, signal processing and actu-
ation on a microscopic scale and allows both traditional and new sensors to be realized
for a wide range of applications and operational environments. The term ‘MEMS’ is
used in different ways: for some, it is equivalent to ‘MST’, for others, it comprises
only surface-micromechanical products. MEMS in the latter sense are seen as an
extension to IC technology: ‘an IC chip that provides sensing and/or actuation func-
tions in addition to the electronic ones’ [1]. The latter definition is used in this
book.
The definition of a smart sensor is based on [2] and can be formulated as: ‘a smart
sensor is one chip, without external components, including the sensing, interfacing,
signal processing and intelligence (self-testing, self-identification or self-adaptation)
functions’.
The main task of designing measuring instruments, sensors and transducers has
always been to reach high metrology performances. At different stages of measurement
technology development, this task was solved in different ways. There were technolog-
ical methods, consisting of technology perfection, as well as structural and structural-
algorithmic methods. Historically, technological methods have received prevalence
in the USA, Japan and Western Europe. The structural and structural-algorithmic
methods have received a broad development in the former USSR and continue devel-
oping in NIS countries. The improvement of metrology performances and extension
of functional capabilities are being achieved through the implementation of particular
structures designed in most cases in heuristic ways using advanced calculations and
signal processing. Digital and quasi-digital smart sensors and transducers are not the
exception.
During measurement different kinds of measurands are converted into a limited
number of output parameters. Mechanical displacement was the first historical type
of such (unified) parameters. The mercury thermometer, metal pressure gauge, pointer
voltmeter, etc. are based on such principles [3]. The amplitude of an electric current or
voltage is another type of unified parameter. Today almost all properties of substances
and energy can be converted into current or voltage with the help of different sensors.
All these sensors are based on the use of an amplitude modulation of electromagnetic
processes. They are so-called analog sensors.
Digital sensors appeared from a necessity to input results of measurement into
a computer. First, the design task of such sensors was solved by transforming an
xvi INTRODUCTION

analog quantity into a digital code by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The

creation of quasi-digital sensors, in particular, frequency sensors, was another very
promising direction [3]. Quasi-digital sensors are discrete frequency–time-domain
sensors with frequency, period, duty-cycle, time interval, pulse number or phase shift
output. Today, the group of frequency output sensors is the most numerous among all
quasi-digital sensors (Figure I). Such sensors combine a simplicity and universatility
that is inherent to analog devices, with accuracy and noise immunity, proper to
sensors with digital output. Further transformation of a frequency-modulated signal was
reduced by counting periods of a signal during a reference time interval (gate). This
operation exceeds all other methods of analog-to-digital conversion in its simplicity
and accuracy [4].
Separate types of frequency transducers, for example, string tensometers or induction
tachometers, have been known for many years. For example, patents for the string
distant thermometer (Patent No. 617 27, USSR, Davydenkov and Yakutovich) and
the string distant tensometer (Patent No. 21 525, USSR, Golovachov, Davydenkov
and Yakutovich) were obtained in 1930 and 1931, respectively. However, the output
frequency of such sensors (before digital frequency counters appeared) was measured
by analog methods and consequently substantial benefit from the use of frequency
output sensors was not achieved practically.
The situation has changed dramatically since digital frequency counters and
frequency output sensors attracted increasing attention. As far back as 1961 Professor
P.V. Novitskiy wrote: ‘. . . In the future we can expect, that a class of frequency
sensors will get such development, that the number of now known frequency sensors
will exceed the number of now known amplitude sensors. . .’ [3]. Although frequency
output sensors exist practically for any variables, this prognosis has not yet been fully
justified for various reasons.
With the appearance in the last few years of sensor microsystems and the heady
development of microsystem technologies all over the world, technological and cost
factors have increased the benefits of digital and quasi-digital sensors. Modern tech-
nologies are able to solve rather complicated tasks, concerned with the creation of
different sensors. Up to now, however, there have still been some major obstacles
preventing industries from largely exploiting such sensors in their systems. These are
only some subjective reasons:

Time Interval
6% Pulse Number
2%
Duty-Cycle
12%
Digital
45%

Frequency
35%

Figure I Classification of sensors from discrete group in terms of output signals (IFSA, 2001)
 INTRODUCTION xvii

• The lack of awareness of the innovation potential of modern methods for frequency-
time conversion in many companies, as processing techniques have mainly been
developed in the former Soviet Union.
• The tendency of companies to return, first of all, major expenditures, invested in
the development of conventional ADCs.
• The lack of emphasis placed on business and market benefits, which such measuring
technologies can bring to companies etc.

Today the situation has changed dramatically. According to Intechno Consulting,

the non-military world market for sensors has exceeded expectations with US$32.5
billion in 1998. By 2003, this market is estimated to grow at an annual rate of 5.3%
to reach US$42.2 billion. Under very conservative assumptions it is expected to reach
US$50–51 billion by 2008; assuming more favourable but still realistic economic
conditions, the global sensor market volume could even reach US$54 billion by 2008.
Sensors on a semiconductor basis will increase their market share from 38.9% in 1998
to 43% in 2008. Strong growth is expected for sensors based on MEMS-technologies,
smart sensors and sensors with bus capabilities [5]. It is reasonable to expect that silicon
sensors will go on to conquer other markets, such as the appliances, telecommunications
and PC markets [6].
We hope that this book will be a useful and relevant resource for anyone involved
in the design of high performance and highly efficient digital smart sensors and data
acquisition systems.
 Data Acquisition and Signal Processing for Smart Sensors
Nikolay Kirianaki, Sergey Yurish, Nestor Shpak, Vadim Deynega
Copyright  2002 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBNs: 0-470-84317-9 (Hardback); 0-470-84610-0 (Electronic)

INDEX

absolute quantization error 73, 79, 100, 107 Base Clock Accuracy 60
absolute temperature 12 base
absorption coefficient 23 energy cost 229–33, 241, 243
acceleration-to-frequency circuits 18 estimation 230
Accelerometers 14, 18 binary position sensors 7
Accuracy 4, 5, 91, 112 biomedical applications 8
acoustic gas sensor 26 biosensors 7
active sensor 19, 21 block codes 62
Active Sensor of Rotation Speed (ASRS) 20 boundary scan architecture 10
ActiveX 204 bulk micromachined piezoresistive 18
Adaptability 19 bus
Adaptive PCM 161–65 architecture 59, 229,
Adding 129 CAN 183, 246–47
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface controller 247
(ACPI) 14 D2 B 246–47
Advanced Methods 89, 120, 122, 126, 153 I2 C 2, 13, 14, 246–47
amplifier hysteresis 78 IS2 23, 246–47
amplitude-frequency characteristic 138 Hart 246
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) 6, 12, 14, SPI 13, 14
41
angle encoders 6 CAD tools 6, 225
angular caesium frequency standards 115
position sensor 21 calculating error 61, 105, 112, 114, 171–72
speed 19 calibration algorithm 15
anti-lock braking system (ABS) 185–90, CANOpen 247
192 capacitance-to-period converter 49
Application-Specific Instruction Processor Capacitive
(ASIP) 227 cell 24
approximating error 116 spring mass accelerometers 18
architectural-level power estimation 229 carbon steel 26
ASIC 2, 49, 225 central processing unit (CPU) 225
atomic frequency standard 115 centralized architecture 192
automated software development tools 228, charge balance technique 42
241 Chemical
automobile sensors network 185 sensor 7, 24
automotive applications 15, 183, 245 signal domain 8
automotive-network interface 245 chemisorbing polymer films 24
averaging windows 136 chrominance 23
Dirichlet, see Weight Functions, Dirichlet circuit state effect 232, 234
276 INDEX

circuit-breakers 211 degrees

clock oscillator 13 centigrade 13
code 61–67 Fahrenheit 13
block length 61 delta-sigma analog-to-digital converter 14
Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH), 62 Derivation 135
combination 61, 64–66 digital
correcting 62, 65 filtering 2
cyclic 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68 interface circuits 3
distance 63, 65, 66 modulator 12
Golay 62–64, digital signal processing (DSP) 2, 105, 129,
Hamming 62 183
iterated 62 direct counting method 52, 60, 70–73, 92,
redundancy 62, 65, 67 121
coding Direct Memory Access (DMA) 70, 97, 124
algorithm 61, 62 Dirichlet window 108, 109, 117, 118, 120,
efficiency 62, 65 137, 141
Combined Counting Method 79 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 82, 83
ComponentWorks 2.0 203 discretization step 217, 220, 221
condition jump instructions 235, 236, 238 distributed
conductivity 11, 199 control systems 248
confidence interval 221, 223 intelligence 183
constant elapsed time (CET) method 70, 96, distribution
123 anti-modal 221
Control Unit 81 Erlang 221
Controller Area Network (CAN) 183 trapezium 217, 221–23
conversion triangular 72, 75, 108, 115, 217, 221
cycles 29, 32, 33, 42, 47, 94, 107, 177 uniform 72, 74, 75, 105, 108, 115, 173,
speed 7, 46, 164, 174, 203 221–23
conversion Division 76, 89, 122, 130, 165, 171–72
current-to-frequency 6 DMA transfer method 70, 97, 124
voltage-to-frequency 5, 35 double buffered measurement method (DB)
correcting ability 62, 66 70, 96, 97, 123
correlation dependence 167 dual-slope converters 41, 43
crankshaft position sensor 20 duty cycle modulated square-wave output
criterion 11
conditional 153, 157, 158 duty factor 3, 29, 42, 46, 77
preference 151, 153, 156, 157, 158 dynamic
unconditional 153, 156, 158 average power 121
crystalline quartz 17 range 4, 23, 41, 76, 110–11,
temperature compensation 17, 30
DAQ Board 59, 67, 205
Data acquisition 1 effect
systems 1, 3, 7, 8, 14, 51–53, 55, 59–62, photoelectric 6
67, 197 piezoresistive 6
data capturing method 6, 7 Seebeck 6
data Elbert’s converters 43, 45, 46
coding 62 electrical signal domain 8, 18
logger 199 Electrochemical oscillations 26
transfer instruction 230 electrochemical reactions 26
transmission 3, 61 electronic nose 24, 199
data-acquisition rate 86, 183, 184 Embedded microcontroller 129, 143, 153,
decoding algorithm 62 200, 227
 INDEX 277

energy domains 4 instruction-level power analysis 229

error correction 66, 67, 174 integrated quality factor 157
error of method 100 integrated microcoil 23
Error of Rounding 77, 90, 105, 164, 171 Integrated Smart-Sensor Bus (IS2 ), see IS2
Error of Wavefront Forming 164, 175 Integration 135–36
Error of Wavetail Forming 164, 173–74 intelligent pressure standards 17
Error Protection 61, 68 intelligent sensor, see smart sensor
external interrupt processing 239 Interface Circuits 245, 248
inter-instruction effects 229, 241
fibre-optic pressure transducers 17 interpolation method 69, 79, 86, 92
finite impulse response filter (FIR) 136 Interrupt Response
firing-pins 211–14 Delay Error 164, 173
flow mesh 19 Shift Error 164, 173–75
free-running timer 97 inverse Fourier transform 137
frequency Inversed VFC 41, 43
deviation 104
function 217–18, 220–23 Jitter 87
multiplier 130–33
ratio 100–03 Karp’s algorithm 233
frequency instability
long-term 73, 114 LabVIEW software module 200–01
short-term 73, 114 LabWindows/CVI 201
Frequency Reference Error 73, 165, 168–69 left low bound determination 153, 156
Frequency Signals Unification 132 Liapunov characteristic functions (LCF) 217
frequency-determining element 6, 11 Light intensity 23
frequency-time domain sensors 3, 4, 7, 27 light-sensing elements 23
frequency-to-code converter 8, 52, 54, 55, linear block cyclic separable codes 62
57, 105, 112, 136, 143, 160 linear-broken distribution 221
low-power programming style 228, 235,
gas-filled cell 26 237, 242, 244
gate time 71 luminance 23
Gaussian distribution law 221
generating polynomial 62–64, 66, 67 M/T method 70, 94–96, 123
Graphical User Interface (GUI) 200–02 magnetic
field sensors 7
Harvard architecture 225 signal domain 8, 18
high-Q piezoelectric quartz crystal 26 magnetoresistor 18
hybrid technology 20 manipulation
hybrid-integrated processing electronics 3 absolute-phase 62
hydrogen peroxide 26 relative-phase 62
mass transport processes 26
I/O interface 203, 253 MCS-51 microcontroller family 225
IEEE 1149.1 standard 10 measurand-to-frequency conversion 5
IEEE-488 interfaces 200, 246 measurand-to-parameter-to-frequency
impedance matching 5 conversion 6
indirect counting method 69, 74, 77, 79, measurand-to-voltage-to-frequency
123 conversion 6
input sampler 13 measurement standard 165
input signal noise 77 measuring system 200
instruction level power model 229, 233 memory access cost 239–40
instruction set 225–27, 229 η-method 217
278 INDEX

method of accelerated sensors polling cycle 237

53–54 jump 236
method of algorithm merging 175 local 244
method of coincidence 70, 125 speed 234–35, 243–44
method of recirculation 69 optimizing compilers 227–28, 242, 244
method of delayed coincidences 70 Opto Sensors 23
Method of dependent count (MDC) 70, 98, oven-controlled crystal oscillator 73
124
Method with Non-Redundant Reference parallel
Frequency 121 data transmission 59
MI-Bus 246 information processing 184
Michigan Parallel Standard (MPS) 246 parametric (modulating) sensors 6
Michigan Serial Standard (MSS) 246 partial matrix algorithm schemes 175
microcontroller core 225 passive
mode sensors 6
idle 240, 243 peak detector 232
power down 240, 243 period-modulated oscillator 248
Modified Method of Algorithm Merging phase manipulation
175 digit-by-digit 62, 64, 65
monolithic light-to-frequency converter 23 Phase Shift-to-Code Conversion 85, 86, 125
monolithic silicon diffused piezoresistors 14 phase-frequency characteristics 221
monolithic temperature detectors 12 phosphoric acid 26
morphological photo diode matrix 23
matrix 154 photodetectors 6, 7
tensor 154 photosensors 6, 7
motion detectors 7 piece-wise linear approximation 217
multichannel sensor interfacing 184–85 piezo film 18
multichannel sensor systems 51, 197–98 piezoresistivity 14
multilayers architecture 183–84 polling
multiparameters sensor 199 cyclic synchronous 52
software controlled asynchronous 52
navigation sensors 7
polynomial function 17
negative feedback loop 13
position sensor 7, 19, 21
Network Protocols 245–46
power consumption graph 233–34
noise attenuation 42
probability distribution 217, 219, 221–23
immunity 3, 45, 47
programmable counter array 148
noise-resistant signal transmission 61
program-oriented conversion methods (PCM)
non-contact sensors 20, 22
143
non-linear phase selectors 65
proximity switches 7
non-redundant reference frequency 121–23
pulse width modulation (PWM) 26
nuclear magnetic resonance 127
numeration error 171
quantile multiplier 217
off-duty factor 3 quantization
offset 249, 251 error 60, 72, 91, 107, 109, 165
on-chip reference 13 noise 13
on-line time ratio 3 time 52
optical intensity 23 window 98
optimization quartz beam 17
call 236 Quasi-Ternary Code Decoding 65
code 234 quasi-pipelining data processing 203
compiler 228, 241 Quasi-Ternary Coding 62–64, 66
 INDEX 279

quasi-ternary cyclic code 65, 66 short infra red radiation 23

quaziparallel algorithms 184 Si-Al thermopiles 11
sigma-delta modulator 12
rain sensors 7 signal
ratiometric conditioning 1, 15
counting technique 145, 150 processing 1, 2, 15, 129
encoding format 12 redundancy 62, 65, 67
Rayleigh distribution 217 silicon diaphragms 14
reciprocal counting method 70, 94, 95, 123 silicon micromachining 2
reference time interval 90, 92, 95, 147, 173 Simpson distribution law 72, 75, 108
relaxation oscillator 42 single buffered measurement method (SB)
Reliability 5 96–97, 123
Residual Matrixes 64–65 smart sensor 2
resistance bridge 14 architecture 57–59
Resonant systems 200, 224
pressure transducer 18 Smart Sensors Buses 245
structures 6 software level design 225
rotation software low-power design 225, 228, 244
acceleration 21 solar cells 6
angle 19 sound velocity 26
speed 18–22 Space-Division Channelling 55, 57
rotor-modulator stand-alone instrument 200
rounding error 77, 105, 171 star configuration 2
rubidium frequency standards 115 static analysis 226
Steklov’s function 19
sampling time 251 step approximation 217
self-adaptation 2, 59 straight-line segment 217, 220–21
Self-Adapting Methods 89 strain measurement 15
self-checking systems 8 strain-gage signal 17
Self-diagnostic 2, 5 Subtraction 129–30
self-generating sensors 6 successive-approximation converter 13
self-identification 2 surface acoustic wave (SAW) 6, 26
self-testing 193 surface micromachined capacitive 18
semiconductor active position sensor 19 synchronized VFC 41
sensing diaphragm 15 syndromes 66
sensor bus standard 253 Systematic Error 146, 173–75
sensor networks 183
Sensor Tachometer 211, 215
analog 3, 7 Temperature Data Recorder 14
digital 7 Temperature-to-Digital Converter 13
flow 7 thermal
gas 24–26 compensation 18
frequency 3, 4, 7 conductivity 11
Hall 18, 21, 22, 186 delay line 11
humidity 24 diffusion constant 11
pressure 14–18 management 13
quasi-digital 3, 5 monitoring 9
system 183, 193, 197 noise 167
temperature 8–14 watchdog 14
sensor-driven process control 247 Thermal-Feedback Oscillator (TFO) 11
sensors array 27 thermocouple sensors 6
Sensors Web Portal 27 thickness sensors 7
280 INDEX

three-phase differential method of Universal Transducer Interface (UTI)

measurement 248 248–52
tilt sensors 7
time
valve photoelectric cells 6
cycle polling 52
vapour condensation 26
Time-Dividing Channelling 52
vibrating quartz crystal pressure transducer
time-domain oversampling 12
17
time-interval measurement 69
virtual
Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC) 252–53
counter 102, 147, 159
time-window counting 69
measuring channel 201–03
tracking error 116
instruments 200–03
transducer,
tachometric system 211, 214
intelligent 2
voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) 6, 7,
transferred polynomial 66
29–47
transmission rate 61
trigger
error 60, 77, 86, 112, 115–16 Weight Functions 136–41
hysteresis 115 Dirichlet (-shaped) 137
Truncation error 171–72 graded-triangular 137, 140
Tuning Algorithm 213 optimal 137, 141
two-wire interface 14 trapezoidal 137, 140–41
Wheatstone bridge 15
ultrasound transmitter 26 Wien Bridge oscillator circuit 12
unit-volume heat capacitance 11 window-comparator architecture 14
 Data Acquisition and Signal Processing for Smart Sensors
Nikolay Kirianaki, Sergey Yurish, Nestor Shpak, Vadim Deynega
Copyright  2002 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBNs: 0-470-84317-9 (Hardback); 0-470-84610-0 (Electronic)

1
SMART SENSORS FOR
ELECTRICAL AND
NON-ELECTRICAL, PHYSICAL
AND CHEMICAL VARIABLES:
TENDENCIES AND
PERSPECTIVES

The processing and interpretation of information arriving from the outside are the main
tasks of data acquisition systems and measuring instruments based on computers. Data
acquisition and control systems need to get real-world signals into the computer. These
signals come from a diverse range of transducers and sensors. According to [7] ‘Data
Acquisition (DAQ) is collecting and measuring electrical signals from sensors and
transducers and inputting them to a computer for processing.’ Further processing can
include the sensors’ characteristic transformation, joint processing for many parame-
ters as well as statistical calculation of results and presenting them in a user-friendly
manner.
According to the output signal, sensors and transducers can be divided into potential
(amplitude), current, frequency, pulse-time and code. As a result, the task of adequate
sensor interfacing with PCs arises before the developers and users of any data acqui-
sition systems. Therefore special attention must be paid to the problems of output
conversion into a digital format as well as to high accuracy and speed conversion
methods.
In general, a sensor is a device, which is designed to acquire information from an
object and transform it into an electrical signal. A classical integrated sensor can be
divided into four parts as shown in Figure 1.1. The first block is a sensing element
(for example, resistor, capacitor, transistor, piezo-electric material, photodiode, resistive
bridge, etc.). The signal produced from the sensing element itself is often influenced by
noise or interference. Therefore, signal-conditioning and signal-processing techniques
such as amplification, linearization, compensation and filtering are necessary (second
block) to reduce sensor non-idealities.
2 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

Signal
Sensing A/D Sensor-bus
conditioning
element converter interface
and processing

Figure 1.1 Classical integrated sensors

Sometimes if certain sensing elements are used on the same chip, a multiplexer is
necessary. In cases of data acquisition, the signal from the sensor must be in a serial
or parallel digital format. This function can be realized by the analog-to-digital or
frequency-to-digital converter. The last (but not least) block is a sensor-bus interface. A
data acquisition system can have a star configuration in which each sensor is connected
to a digital multiplexer. When using a large number of sensors, the total cable length
and the number of connections at the multiplexer can become very high. For this reason
it is much more acceptable to have a bus-organized system, which connects all data
sources and receivers. This bus system handles all data transports and is connected to
a suitable interface that sends accumulated data to the computer [8].
A smart sensor block diagram is shown in Figure 1.2. A microcontroller is typically
used for digital signal processing (for example, digital filtering), analog-to-digital or
frequency-to-code conversions, calculations and interfacing functions. Microcontrollers
can be combined or equipped with standard interface circuits. Many microcontrollers
include the two-wire I2 C bus interface, which is suited for communication over short
distances (several metres) [9] or the serial interface RS-232/485 for communication
over relatively long distances.
However, the essential difference of the smart sensor from the integrated sensor with
embedded data-processing circuitry is its intelligence capabilities (self-diagnostics, self-
identification or self-adaptation (decision-making)) functions. As a rule, these functions
are implemented due to a built-in microcontroller (microcontroller core (‘microcon-
troller like’ ASIC) or application-specific instruction processor (ASIP)) or DSP. New
functions and the potential to modify its performance are the main advantages of smart
sensors. Due to smart sensor adaptability the measuring process can be optimized for
maximum accuracy, speed and power consumption. Sometimes ‘smart sensors’ are
called ‘intelligent transducers’.
At present, many different types of sensors are available. Rapid advancement of
the standard process for VLSI design, silicon micromachining and fabrication provide
the technological basis for the realization of smart sensors, and opens an avenue that

Sensing Signal
element conditioning µK

Figure 1.2 Smart sensor

 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES 3

can lead to custom-integrated sensors to meet the new demands in performance, size
and cost. This suggests a smooth merging of the sensor and electronics and the fabri-
cation of complete data acquisition systems on a single silicon chip. The essential
issue is the fabrication compatibility of the sensor, sensor-related analogue micro-
electronic circuits and digital interface circuits [10]. In fact, for any type of silicon
sensing element and read-out circuitry, a process can be developed to merge them onto
a single chip. However, process development is very expensive and therefore only a
huge production volume will pay off the development cost. Successful integrated-sensor
processes must have an acceptable complexity and/or applicability for a wide range of
sensors [11]. MEMS technologies allow the miniaturization of sensors and, at the same
time, integration of sensor elements with microelectronic functions in minimal space.
Only MEMS technologies make it possible to mass-produce sensors with increasing
cost-effectiveness while improving their functionality and miniaturizing them.
Of course, the implementation of the microcontroller in one chip together with the
sensing element and signal-conditioning circuitry is an elegant and preferable engi-
neering solution. However, the combination of monolithic and hybrid integration with
advanced processing and conversional methods in many cases achieves magnificent
technical and metrological performances for the shorter time-to-market period without
additional expenditures for expensive CAD tools and the lengthy smart sensor design
process. For implementation of smart sensors with hybrid-integrated processing elec-
tronics, hardware minimization is a necessary condition to achieve a reasonable price
and high reliability. In this case, we have the so-called ‘hybrid smart sensor’ in which
a sensing element and an electronic circuit are placed in the same housing.
Frequency–time-domain sensors are interesting from a technological and fabrication
compatibility point of view: the simplifications of the signal-conditioning circuitry and
measurand-to-code converter, as well as metrology performances and the hardware for
realization. The latter essentially influences the chip area. Such sensors are based on
resonant phenomena and variable oscillators, whose information is embedded not in
the amplitude but in the frequency or the time parameter of the output signal. These
sensors have frequency (fx ), period (Tx = 1/fx ), pulse width (tp ), spacing interval
(ts ), the duty cycle (tp /Tx ), online time ratio or off-duty factor (Tx /tp ), pulse number
(N ), phase shift (ϕ) or single-time interval (τ ) outputs. These informative parame-
ters are shown in Figure 1.3. Because these informative parameters have analog and
digital signal properties simultaneously, these sensors have been called ‘quasi-digital’.
Frequency output sensors are the most numerous group among all quasi-digital sensors
(see Figure I, Introduction). Let us consider the main advantages of frequency as the
sensor’s output signal.

• High noise immunity. In frequency sensors, it is possible to reach a higher accuracy

in comparison with analog sensors with analog-to-code conversion. This property
of high noise immunity proper to a frequency modulation is apparently the principal
premise of frequency sensors in comparison with analog ones. The frequency signal
can be transmitted by communication lines for a much greater distance than analog
and digital signals. The frequency signal transmitted practically represents a serial
digital signal. Thus, all the advantages of digital systems are demonstrated. Also,
only a two-wire line is necessary for transmission of such a signal. In compar-
ison with the usual serial digital data transmission it has the advantage of not
4 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

Tx = 1/fx

1 2 N

...

ts tp

...

Figure 1.3 Informative parameters of frequency–time-domain sensors

requiring any synchronization. A frequency signal is ideal for high noise industrial
environments.
• High output signal power. The sensor’s signal can be grouped into six energy
domains: electrical, thermal, mechanical, chemical, radiant and magnetic. Electrical
signals are currently the most preferred signal form. Therefore, sensor design is
focused on developing transducers that convert the signal from one or other energy
domain into a quantity in the electrical domain. From the power point of view,
the section from a sensor output up to an amplifier input is the heaviest section
in a measuring channel for transmitting signals. Here the signal is transmitted by
a very small level of energy. The losses, originating in this section, cannot be
filled any more by signal processing. Output powers of frequency sensors are, as a
rule, considerably higher. In this case, the power affecting the generated frequency
stability is the oscillation (reactive) power of the oscillating loop circuit and due
to the higher quality factor of the oscillating loop its power is higher.
• Wide dynamic range. Because the signal is in the form of the frequency, the dynamic
range is not limited by the supply voltage and noise. A dynamic range of over
100 dB may be easily obtained.
• High accuracy of frequency standards. The frequency reference, for example, crystal
oscillators, can be made more stable than the voltage reference. This can be
explained in the same way as information properties of amplitude-modulated and
frequency-modulated signals.
• Simplicity of commutation and interfacing. Parasitic emf, transient resistances and
cross-feed of channels in analog multiplexers by analog sensors are reduced to
the occurrence of complementary errors. The frequency-modulated signal is not
sensitive to all the above listed factors. Multiplexers for frequency sensors and
transducers are simple enough and do not introduce any errors into observed results.
• Simplicity of integration and coding. The precise integration in time of frequency
sensors’ output signals can be realized simply enough. The adding pulse counter is
an ideal integrator with an unlimited measurement time. The frequency signal can
be processed by microcontrollers without any additional interface circuitry.
 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES 5

All this makes the design and usage of different frequency–time-domain smart sensors
very efficient.
The most important properties of smart sensors have been well described in [9]. Here
we will briefly describe only the basic focus points for an intelligent frequency–time-
domain smart sensor design.

• Adaptability. A smart sensor should be adaptive in order to optimize the measuring

process. For example, depending on the measuring conditions, it is preferable to
exchange measurement accuracy for speed and conversely, and also to moderate
power consumption, when high speed and accuracy are not required. It is also desir-
able to adjust a clock crystal oscillator frequency depending on the environment
temperature. The latter also essentially influences the following focus point–the
accuracy.
• Accuracy. The measuring error should be programmable. Self-calibration will allow
reduction of systematic error, caused, for example, by the inaccuracy of the system
parameters. The use of statistical algorithms and composited algorithms of the
weight average would allow reduction of random errors caused, for instance, by
interference, noise and instability.
• Reliability. This is one of the most important requirements especially in industrial
applications. Self-diagnostics is used to check the performance of the system and
the connection of the sensor wires.

For analysis of quasi-digital smart sensors, it is expedient to use the classification,

shown in Figure 1.4. Depending on conversion of the primary information into
frequency, all sensors are divided into three groups: sensors with measurand-to-
frequency conversion; with measurand-to-voltage-to-frequency conversion; and with
measurand-to-parameter-to-frequency conversion.

1. Sensors with x(t) → F (t) conversion. These are sensors that generate a frequency
output. Electronic circuitry might be needed for the amplification of the impedance
matching, but it is not needed for the frequency conversion step itself. Measuring
information like the frequency or the frequency-pulse form is most simply obtained
in inductive, photoimpulse, string, acoustic and scintillation sensors, since the
principle of operation allows the direct conversion x(t) → F (t). One group of

Quasi-digital
sensors

x (t )→F (t ) x (t )→V (t )→F (t ) x (t )→P (t )→F (t )

Figure 1.4 Quasi-digital smart sensor classification (x(t) — measurand; F (t) — frequency;
V (t) — voltage, proportional to the measurand; P (t) — parameter)
6 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

such sensors is based on resonant structures (piezoelectric quartz resonators, SAW

(surface acoustic wave) dual-line oscillators, etc.) whereas another group is based
on the periodic geometrical structure of the sensors, for example, angle encoders.
2. Sensors with x(t) → V (t) → F (t) conversion. This group has a numerous number
of different electric circuits. These are Hall sensors, thermocouple sensors and
photosensors based on valve photoelectric cells. When a frequency output is
required, a simple voltage-to-frequency or current-to-frequency conversion circuit
can be applied to obtain the desired result.
3. Sensors with x(t) → P (t) → F (t) conversion. The sensors of this group are rather
manifold and numerous. These are the so-called electronic-oscillator based sensors.
Such sensors are based on the use of electronic oscillators in which the sensor
element itself is the frequency-determining element. These are inductive, capacity
and ohmic parametric (modulating) sensors.

Parametric (modulating) sensors are devices that produce the primary information
by way of respective alterations of any electrical parameter of some electrical circuit
(inductance, capacity, resistance, etc.), for which it is necessary to have an external
auxiliary power supply. Examples of such types of sensors are pressure sensors based
on the piezoresistive effect and photodetectors based on the photoelectric effect.
In turn, self-generating sensors are devices that receive a signal immediately by way
of a current i(t) or voltage V (t) and do not require any source of power other than the
signal being measured. Examples of such types of sensors are Seebeck effect based
thermocouples and photoeffect based solar cells. Self-generating sensors are also called
‘active’ sensors, while modulating sensors are called ‘passive’ sensors.
The signal power of modulating sensors is the largest and, therefore, from the noise-
reduction point of view their usage is recommended.
The distinctiveness of these three sensor groups (Figure 1.4) is the absence of
conventional ADCs. In order to design digital output smart sensors, it is expedient
to use a microcontroller for the frequency-to-code conversion. The production of such
smart sensors does not require extra technological steps. Moreover, modern CAD tools
contain microcontroller cores and peripheral devices as well as voltage-to-frequency
converters (VFC) in the library of standard cells. So, for example, the Mentor Graphic
CAD tool includes different kinds of VFCs like AD537/650/652, the CAD tool from
Protel includes many library cells of different Burr–Brown VFCs.
In comparison with the data-capturing method using traditional analog-to-digital
converters (ADC), the data-capturing method using VFC has the following advan-
tages [12]:

• Simple, low-cost alternative to the A/D conversion.

• Integrating input properties, excellent accuracy and low nonlinearity provide perfor-
mance attributes unattainable with other converter types, make VFC ideal for high
noise industrial environments.
• Like a dual-slope ADC, the VFC possesses a true integrating input and features
the best, much better than a dual-slope converter, noise immunity. It is especially
 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES 7

important in industrial measurement and data acquisition systems. While a succes-

sive approximation ADC takes a ‘snapshot’ in time, making it susceptible to noise
peaks, the VFC’s input is constantly integrating, smoothing the effects of noise or
varying input signals.
• It has universality. First, its user-selected voltage input range (± supply). Second,
the high accuracy of the frequency-to-code conversion (up to 0.001%). The error
of such conversion can be neglected in a measuring channel. This is not true for
traditional analog-to-digital conversion. The ADC error is commensurable with the
sensor’s error, especially if we use modern high precision sensors with relative
error up to 0.01%.
• When the data-capturing method with a VFC is used, a frequency measurement
technique must also be chosen which meets the conversion speed requirements.
While it is clearly not a ‘fast’ converter in a common case, the conversion speed of
a VFC system can be optimized by using efficient techniques. Such optimization
can be performed due to advanced methods of frequency-to-code conversion, quasi
pipeline data processing in a microcontroller and the use of novel architectures
of VFC.

While pointing out the well-known advantages of frequency sensors, it is necessary

to note, that the number of physical phenomena, on the basis of which sensors with
frequency and digital outputs can be designed, is essentially limited. Therefore, analog
sensors with current and voltage outputs have received broad dissemination. On the
one hand, this is because of the high technology working off analog sensor units,
and also because of the heady development of analog-to-digital conversion in the last
few years. On the other hand, voltage and current are widely used as unified standard
signals in many measuring and control systems.
An important role is played by the technological and cost factors in the choice of
sensor. Therefore, the question, what sensors are the best–frequency or analog–is not
enough. With the appearance of sensor microsystems and the heady development of
microsystem technologies all over the world, technological and cost factors need to be
modified for the benefit of frequency sensors.
Sensor types with the highest demand volumes are temperature sensors, pressure
sensors, flow sensors, binary position sensors (proximity switches, light barriers,
reflector-type photosensors), position sensors, chemical sensors for measurement in
liquids and gases, filling sensors, speed and rpm sensors, flue gas sensors and fire
detectors worldwide. The fastest growing types of sensors include rain sensors,
thickness sensors, sensors that measure the quality of liquids, navigation sensors, tilt
sensors, photodetectors, glass breakage sensors, biosensors, magnetic field sensors and
motion detectors [5].
The frequency–time-domain sensor group is constantly increasing. First, it is con-
nected with the fast development of modern microelectronic technologies, secondly
with the further development of methods of measurement for frequency-domain param-
eters of signals and methods for frequency-to-code conversion, and thirdly, with advan-
tages of frequency as the informative parameter of sensors and transducers. Today it is
difficult to find physical or chemical variables, for which frequency output or digital
sensors do not exist. Of course, this book cannot completely describe all existing
8 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

Radiant

Chemical Mechanical

Signal
domains

Magnetic Thermal

Electrical

Figure 1.5 Six signal domains

sensors and their principles of operation. For readers wishing to learn more about
smart sensor development history we would like to recommend the article [6].
This review aims to illustrate state-of-the-art frequency–time-domain IC sensors
with high metrology performances, and also to formulate the basic requirements for
such an important smart sensor’s unit, as the frequency-to-code converter.
Frequency–time domain-sensors can be grouped in several different ways. We will
group them according to the measurand domains of the desired information. There are
six signal domains with the most important physical parameters shown in Figure 1.5.
Electrical parameters usually represent a signal from one of the non-electrical signal
domains.

1.1 Temperature IC and Smart Sensors

Temperature sensors play an important role in many measurements and other integrated
microsystems, for example, for biomedical applications or self-checking systems and
the design for the thermal testability (DfTT). IC temperature sensors take advantage
of the variable resistance properties of semiconductor materials. They provide good
linear frequency, the duty-cycle or pulse width output proportional to the temperature
typically in the range from −55 ◦ C to +150 ◦ C at a low cost. These devices can
provide direct temperature readings in a digital form, thus eliminating the need for an
ADC. Because IC sensors can have a memory, they can be very accurately calibrated,
and may operate in multisensor environments in applications such as communications
networks. Many IC sensors also offer communication protocols for use with bus-type
data acquisition systems; some also have addressability and data storage and retrieval
capabilities.
Smart temperature sensors need to be provided with some kind of output digital
signal adapted to microprocessors and digital-processing systems. This signal can be
a time-signal type, where the measurement is represented by the duty-cycle or the
 1.1 TEMPERATURE IC AND SMART SENSORS 9

frequency ratio, or the fully digital code that is sent to the processor in a serial way
through the digital bus [13]. Some important restraints, caused by the integration of
sensing and digital-processing function on the same chip are [14] (a) the limited chip
area, (b) the tolerances of the device parameters and (c) the digital interference. Perfor-
mances of some integrated temperature sensors are shown in Table 1.1.
Since CMOS is still the most extensively used technology the integration of temper-
ature sensors in high-performance, low-cost digital CMOS technologies is preferred in
order to allow signal conditioning and digital processing on the same chip [13].
In the framework of the COPERNICUS EC project CP0922, 1995–1998, THER-
MINIC (THermal INvestigations of ICs and Microstructures), the research group from
Technical University of Budapest has dealt for several years with the design problem
of small-size temperature sensors that must be built into the chip for thermal moni-
toring [18–21]. One such sensor is based on a current-to-frequency converter [18,19].
The analog signal of the current output CMOS sensor is converted into a quasi-digital
one using a current-to-frequency converter. The block diagram of the frequency output
sensor is shown in Figure 1.6. The Iout output current and its ‘copy’ generated by a
current mirror the charge and discharge the capacitor Cx . The signal of the capacitor
is led to a differential comparator the reference voltage of which is switched between
the levels VC and VD [19]. The resulting frequency is
Iout
f = . (1.1)
2 · Cx (VC − CD )
The sensitivity is −0.808%/◦ C. The output frequency 0.5–1.3 MHz is in a conve-
nient range. The complete circuit requires only an area of 0.018 mm2 using the ECPD
1 µm CMOS process. The low sensitivity on the supply voltage is a remarkable feature:
±0.25 V charge in VDD results in only ±0.28% charge in the frequency. The latter
corresponds to the ±0.35 ◦ C error. The total power consumption of this sensor is about
200 µW [20].
The characteristic of this sensor is quite linear and the output frequency of these
sensors can be approximately written as
◦
fout = f20Cels exp(γ (TCels − 20 C)), (1.2)

Table 1.1 Performances of some integrated temperature sensors

Sensor Output type Characteristic Area, mm2 IC technology
[15] Digital I → F converter + DSP 4.5 CMOS
[16] Duty-cycle Duty-cycle-modulated 5.16 Bipolar
[17] Frequency I → F converter 6 Bipolar

Temperature-to-current Current-to-frequency
converter converter

I = 5 ...15 mA f = 0.5 ...1.5 MHz

Figure 1.6 Block diagram of the temperature frequency output sensor

10 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

in the −50 · · · +120 ◦ C temperature range, where γ is the sensitivity, f20Cels is the
nominal frequency related to T = 20 ◦ C. Using the AMS 0.8 µm process, the area
consumption is 0.005 mm2 [21]. The THSENS-F [22] sensor characteristic and sensor
layout based on these researches are shown in Figure 1.7 and 1.8 respectively. This
sensor can be inserted into CMOS designs, which can be transferred and re-used as cell
(layout level) entities or as circuit netlists with transistor sizes. The sensor’s sensitivity
is ≈ −0.8%/◦ C; the temperature range is −50 · · · +150 ◦ C; the accuracy is ≈ ±2 ◦ C
for (0 . . . 120 ◦ C). The two latter parameters depend on the process.
If the temperature sensors described above are inserted into a chip design, additional
circuitry must be implemented in order to provide access to such sensors [21]. Built-in
temperature sensors can be combined with other built-in test circuitry. The boundary
scan architecture [23] is suitable for monitoring temperature sensors. This architecture
has led to the standard IEEE 1149.1 and is suitable for incorporating frequency output
temperature sensors.

2000
1800
1600
1400
Frequency [kHz]

1200
1000
800

600

400

−100 −50 0 50 100 150 200

Temperature [Celsius]

Figure 1.7 Sensor characteristic (output frequency vs. temperature) (Reproduced by permission
of MicReD)

Figure 1.8 Sensor layout (Reproduced by permission of MicReD)

 1.1 TEMPERATURE IC AND SMART SENSORS 11

A further interesting fully CMOS temperature sensor designed by this research team
is based on the temperature dependence of internal thermal diffusion constant of silicon.
In order to measure this diffusion constant an oscillating circuit is used in which the
frequency-determining element is realized by a thermal delay line. The temperature
difference sensors used in this delay line are Si-Al thermopiles. This circuit is the
Thermal-Feedback Oscillator (TFO). The frequency of this oscillator is directly related
to the thermal diffusion constant and thus to the temperature. This constant can be
defined as
Dth = λ/c, (1.3)
where λ is the thermal conductivity and c is the unit-volume heat capacitance. This
diffusion constant shows a reasonably large (−0.57%/◦ C) temperature dependence on
the silicon. In order to measure this diffusion constant, oscillating circuits were used
in which the frequency-determining feedback element is realized by a thermal time-
delay line. If the feedback element is a thermal two-port (thermal delay line) then the
frequency of the oscillator is directly related to the thermal diffusion constant and thus
shows similar temperature dependence as the thermal diffusion constant [18].
The thermal delay line requires, however, a significant power input. Because of this
disadvantage, the circuit is not really suitable for online monitoring purposes [19].
However, these sensors and the sensor principle can probably be used for other appli-
cations.
It is also necessary to note the low-power consumption smart temperature sensor
SMT 160-30 from Smartec (Holland) [24]. It is a sophisticated full silicon sensor with
a duty-cycle modulated square-wave output. The duty-cycle of the output signal is
linearly related to the temperature according to the equation:
tp
DC = = tp · fx = 0.320 + 0.00470 · t, (1.4)
Tx
where tp is the pulse duration; Tx is the period; fx is the frequency; t is the temperature
in ◦ C. This sensor is calibrated during the test and burn-in of the chip. The sensor
characteristic is shown in Figure 1.9.
One wire output can be directly connected to all kinds of microcontrollers without
the A/D conversion. The temperature range is −45 ◦ C–+150 ◦ C, the best absolute

140
120
Temperature [°C]

100
80
60
40
20
0
−20
−40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Duty cycle

Figure 1.9 Sensor characteristic (temperature vs. duty-cycle) (Reproduced by permission of

Smartec)
12 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

accuracy, including all errors is ±0.7 ◦ C, the relative error is 0.47%, the frequency range
is 1–4 kHz. The CMOS output of the sensor can handle cable length up to 20 metres.
This makes the SMT 160-30 very useful for remote sensing and control applications.
This smart temperature sensor represents a significant totally new development in
transducer technology. Its novel on-chip interface meets the progressively stringent
demands of both the consumer and industrial electronics sectors for a temperature
sensor directly connectable to the microprocessor input and thus capable of direct and
reliable communication with microprocessors.
In applications where more sensors are used, easy multiplexing can be obtained
by using more microprocessor inputs or by using simple and cheap digital multi-
plexers.
The next specialized temperature sensor is interesting due to the high metrology
performances (high accuracy). It is the SBE 3F temperature sensor with an initial
accuracy of 0.001 ◦ C and typically stable to 0.002 ◦ C per year [25]. It is used
for custom-built oceanographic profiling systems or for high-accuracy industrial
and environmental temperature-monitoring applications. Depth ratings to 6800
and 10 500 metres (22 300 and 34 400 ft) are offered to suit different application
requirements.
The sensing element is a glass-coated thermistor bead, pressure-protected in a thin-
walled 0.8 mm diameter stainless steel tube. Exponentially related to the temperature,
the thermistor resistance is the controlling element in the optimized Wien bridge oscil-
lator circuit. The resulting sensor frequency is inversely proportional to the square root
of the thermistor resistance and ranges from approximately 2 to 6 kHz, corresponding
to temperatures from −5 to +35 ◦ C.
In speaking about digital output IC and smart temperature sensors it is necessary
to mention interesting developments of companies such as Analog Devices, Dallas
Semiconductor and National Semiconductor.
The TMP03/TMP04 are monolithic temperature detectors from Analog Devices
[26,27] that generate a modulated serial digital output that varies in direct propor-
tion to the temperature of the device. The onboard sensor generates a voltage precisely
proportional to the absolute temperature, which is compared with the internal voltage
reference and the input to a precision digital modulator. The ratiometric encoding
format of the serial digital output is independent from the clock drift errors common to
most serial modulation techniques such as voltage-to-frequency converters. The overall
accuracy is ±1.5 ◦ C (typical) from −25 ◦ C to +100 ◦ C, with good transducer linearity.
The digital output of the TMP04 is CMOS/TTL compatible, and is easily interfaced to
the serial inputs of the most popular microprocessors. The open-collector output of the
TMP03 is capable of sinking 5 mA. The TMP03 is best suited for systems requiring
isolated circuits, utilizing optocouplers or isolation transformers.
The TMP03/TMP04 are powerful, complete temperature measurement systems on a
single chip. The onboard temperature sensor follows the footsteps of the TMP01 low-
power programmable temperature controller, offering excellent accuracy and linearity
over the entire rated temperature range without correction or calibration by the user.
The sensor output is digitized by the first-order sigma-delta modulator, also known
as the ‘charge balance’ type analog-to-digital converter. This type of converter utilizes
the time-domain oversampling and a high accuracy comparator to deliver 12 bits of
effective accuracy in the extremely compact circuit.
 1.1 TEMPERATURE IC AND SMART SENSORS 13

Basically, the sigma-delta modulator consists of an input sampler, a summing net-

work, an integrator, a comparator, and a 1-bit DAC. Similar to the voltage-to-frequency
converter, this architecture creates in effect a negative feedback loop whose intent is to
minimize the integrator output by changing the duty-cycle of the comparator output in
response to input voltage changes. The comparator samples the output of the integrator
at a much higher rate than the input sampling frequency, called the oversampling. This
spreads the quantization noise over a much wider band than that of the input signal,
improving the overall noise performance and increasing the accuracy.
The modulated output of the comparator is encoded using a circuit technique (patent
pending), which results in a serial digital signal with a mark-space ratio format that
is easily decoded by any microprocessor into either degrees centigrade or degrees
Fahrenheit values, and is readily transmitted or modulated over a single wire. It is
very important that this encoding method avoids major error sources common to other
modulation techniques, as it is clock-independent.
The AD7818 (single-channel) and AD7817 (4-channel) [28,29] are on-chip temper-
ature sensors with 10-bit, single and four-channel A/D converters. These devices
contain an 8 ms successive-approximation converter based around a capacitor DAC,
an on-chip temperature sensor with an accuracy of ±1 ◦ C, an on-chip clock oscillator,
inherent track-and-hold functionality and an on-chip reference (2.5 V ± 0.1%). Some
other digital temperature sensors from Analog Devices [30] are shown in Table 1.2.
Dallas Semiconductor offers a broad range of factory-calibrated 1-, 2-, 3- Wire or
SPI buses temperature sensors/thermometers that can provide straightforward thermal
management for a vast array of applications. This unparalleled product line includes
a variety of ‘direct-to-digital’ temperature sensors that have the accuracy and features
to easily improve system performance and reliability [31]. These devices reduce the
component count and the board complexity by conveniently providing digital data
without the need for dedicated ADCs. These sensors are available with accuracies
ranging from ±0.5 ◦ C to ±2.5 ◦ C (guaranteed over wide temperature and power-supply
ranges), and they can operate over a temperature range of −50 ◦ C to +125 ◦ C.
The conversion time range for the temperature into a digital signal is 750 ms–1.2 s.
The 1-Wire and 2-Wire devices have a multi-drop capability, which allows multiple
sensors to be addressed on the same bus. In addition, some devices (DS1624, DS1629
and DS1780) combine temperature sensing with other valuable features including

Table 1.2 Digital temperature sensors from Analog Devices

Type Description
AD7414 SMBus/I2 C digital temperature sensor in 6-pin SOT with SMBus alert and
over temperature pin
AD7415 SMBus/I2 C digital temperature sensor in 5-pin SOT
AD7416 Temperature-to-digital converter, I2 C, 10-bit resolution, −55 ◦ C to +125 ◦ C,
±2 ◦ C accuracy
AD7417 4-channel, 10-bit ADC with on-chip temperature-to-digital converter, I2 C,
±1 ◦ C accuracy
AD7418 Single-channel, 10-bit ADC with on-chip temperature-to-digital converter, I2 C,
±1 ◦ C accuracy
AD7814 10-bit digital temperature sensor in 6-lead SOT-23
AD7816 10-bit ADC, temperature monitoring only in an SOIC/µSOIC package
14 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

EEPROM arrays, real-time clocks and CPU monitoring. One more interesting feature
of Dallas Semiconductor’s temperature sensors is that they are expandable from 9 to
13 bits or user configurable to 9, 10, 11 or 12 bits resolution.
Dallas Semiconductor’s DS1616 Temperature Data Recorder with the 3-Input Analog
to Digital Converter adds the potential for three powerful external sensors to the
base design of the DS1615 Temperature Data Recorder. It permits logging of not
only the temperature, but also the humidity, the pressure, the system voltage, external
temperature sensors, or any other sensor with the analog voltage output. The DS1616
provides all of the elements of a multi-channel data acquisition system on one chip.
It measures the selected channels at user-programmable intervals, then stores the data
and a time/date stamp in the nonvolatile memory for later downloading through one
of the serial interfaces.
National Semiconductor also proposes some digital temperature sensors [32] with
different temperature ranges from −55 ◦ C up to +150 ◦ C: SPI/MICROWIRE plus the
sign digital temperature sensor LM70 (10-bit) and LM74 (12-bit); the digital temper-
ature sensor and the thermal watchdog with the two-wire (I2 CTM Serial Bus) interface
LM75 (±3 ◦ C); digital temperature sensors and the thermal window comparator with
the two-wire interface LM76 (±1 ◦ C), LM77 (±1.5 ◦ C) and LM92 (±0.33 ◦ C). The
sensors LM70, LM74 and LM75 include the delta-sigma ADC.
The window-comparator architecture of the sensors eases the design of the temper-
ature control systems conforming to the ACPI (advanced configuration and power
interface) specification for personal computers.
Another example of a digital output sensor is +GF+ SIGNET 2350 [33] with
a temperature range from −10 to +100 ◦ C and accuracy ±0.5 ◦ C. The temperature
sensor’s digital output signal allows for wiring distances between sensor and temper-
ature transmitter of up to 61 m. An integral adapter allows for the integration of the
sensor and the transmitter into a compact assembly.

1.2 Pressure IC and Smart Sensors and Accelerometers

Similar to temperature sensors, pressure sensors are also very widely spread. In Europe,
the first truly integrated pressure sensor was designed in 1968 by Gieles at Philips
Research Laboratories [34], and the first monolithic integrated pressure sensor with
digital (i.e., frequency) output was designed and tested in 197l at Case Western Reserve
University [35] as part of a programme addressing biomedical applications. Miniature
silicon diaphragms, with the resistance bridge at the centre of the diaphragm and sealed
to the base wafer with gold–tin alloy, were developed for implant and indwelling
applications.
Pressure sensors convert the external pressure into an electrical output signal. To
accomplish this, semiconductor micromachined pressure sensors use the monolithic
silicon-diffused piezoresistors. The resistive element, which constitutes the sensing
element, resides in the thin silicon diaphragm. Applying pressure to the silicon dia-
phragm causes its deflection and changes the crystal lattice strain. This affects the free
carrier mobility, resulting in a change of the transducer’s resistance, or piezoresistivity.
The diaphragm thickness as well as the geometrical shape of resistors, is determined
by the tolerance range of the pressure. Advantages of these transducers are:
 1.2 PRESSURE IC AND SMART SENSORS AND ACCELEROMETERS 15

• high sensitivity
• good linearity
• minor hysteresis phenomenon
• small response time.

The output parameters of the diffused piezoresistors are temperature dependent and
require the device to be compensated if it is to be used over a wide temperature range.
However, with occurrence smart sensors and MEMS, the temperature error can be
compensated using built-in temperature sensors.
Most of today’s MEMS pressure transducers produced for the automotive market
consist of the four-resistor Wheatstone bridge, fabricated on a single monolithic die
using bulk etch micromachining technology. The piezoresistive elements integrated
into the sensor die are located along the periphery of the pressure-sensing diaphragm,
at points appropriate for strain measurement [36].
Now designers can choose between two architectures for sensor compensation: the
conventional analog sensor signal processing or digital sensor signal processing. The
latter is characterized by full digital compensation and an error-correction scheme. With
a very fine geometry, mixed-signal CMOS IC technologies have enabled the incorpo-
ration of the sophisticated digital signal processor (DSP) into the sensor compensator
IC. The DSP was designed specifically to calculate the sensor compensation, enabling
the sensor output to realize all the precision inherent in the transducer.
As considered in [37] ‘as the CMOS process and the microcontroller/DSP tech-
nology have become more advanced and highly integrated, this approach may become
increasingly popular. The debate continues as to whether the chip area and the circuit
overhead of standard microprocessor designs used for this purpose will be competi-
tive with less flexible (but smaller and less costly) dedicated DSP designs that can be
customized to perform the specific sensor calibration function’.
The integrated pressure sensor shown in Figure 1.10 uses a custom digital signal
processor and nonvolatile memory to calibrate and temperature-compensate a family
of pressure sensor elements for a wide range of automotive applications.
This programmable signal conditioning engine operates in the digital domain using
a calibration algorithm that accounts for higher order effects beyond the realm of
most analog signal conditioning approaches. The monolithic sensor provides enhanced
features that typically were implemented off the chip (or not at all) with traditional
analog signal conditioning solutions that use either laser or electronic trimming. A
specially developed digital communication interface permits the calibration of the indi-
vidual sensor module via connector pins after the module has been fully assembled
and encapsulated. The post-trim processing is eliminated, and the calibration and the
module customization can be performed as an integral part of the end-of-line testing
by completion of the manufacturing flow. The IC contains a pressure sensor element
that is coprocessed in a submicron, mixed-signal CMOS wafer fabrication step and
can be scaled to a variety of automotive pressure-sensing applications [37].
Now, let us give some state-of-the-art and industrial examples of modern pressure
sensors and transducers. Major attention has been given to the creation of pressure
sensors with frequency output in the USSR [38,39]. The first of them was based on
the usage of VFC and had an accuracy up to 1%, the effective range of measuring
16 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

Figure 1.10 Monolithic pressure sensor (Reproduced by permission of Motorola)

frequencies 0–2 kHz in the pressure range 0–40 MPa. The second was founded on
the usage of the piezoresonator. The connection of this device into a self-oscillator
circuit receives a frequency signal, proportional to the force. The relation between the
measured pressure p and the output frequency signal f is expressed by the following
equation:
p = (f − f0 )/Kp ; Kp = KF · Seff , (1.5)

where f0 is the frequency at p = 0; f is the measurand frequency; Kp is the conversion

factor of pressure-to-frequency; KF is the force sensitivity factor; Seff is the membrane’s
effective area.
The silicon pressure sensor based on bulk micromachining technology and the VFC
based on CMOS technology was described in [40]. It has 0–40 kPa measuring pressure
range, 280–380 kHz frequency output range and main error ±0.7%.
The Kulite company produces the frequency output pressure transducer ETF-1-1000.
The sensor provides an output, which can be interfaced directly to a digital output.
The transducer uses a solid-state piezoresistive sensing element, with excellent relia-
bility, repeatability and accuracy. The pressure range is 1.7–350 bar, output frequency
is 5–20 kHz, the total error band is ±2%. Other examples are pressure transducers
VT 1201/1202 from Chezara (Ukraine) with 15–22 kHz frequency output range and
standard error ±0.25% and ±0.15% accordingly.
The shining example of a sensor with x(t) → V (t) → F (t) conversion is the pres-
sure sensor from ADZ Sensortechnik GmbH (Germany). The IC LM 331 was used
as the VFC. The output frequency of the converter can be calculated according to the
following equation:
(Uin − Uoffset ) · R6
fout = , (1.6)
2.09V · R4 · R8 · C6
where
V
Uin = Pabs · 0.533 + 0.5V (1.7)
bar
The measuring range is 0–8.8 bar, the frequency range is 1–23 kHz.
 1.2 PRESSURE IC AND SMART SENSORS AND ACCELEROMETERS 17

The model SP550 from Patriot [41] is a rugged pressure transducer which provides
full-scale output of 1–11 kHz. The output frequency can be offset to provide the output
of any span between 1 kHz to 150 kHz. In this transducer the strain–guage signal is
converted into the frequency via the precision monolithic VFC and the operational
amplifier.
Geophysical Research Corporation has announced the Amerada Quartz Pressure
Transducer [42]. The transducer employs a rugged crystalline quartz sensor that res-
ponds to the stress created by the pressure. This response is in the form of a change
in the resonant frequency created by the applied pressure. The pressure dependence of
the sensor is slightly non-linear but is easily corrected during the calibration using a
third-order polynomial function. In addition, the crystalline quartz is considered to be
perfectly elastic which contributes to the excellent repeatability that is characteristic of
this technology. Two additional quartz sensors are employed, one to measure temper-
ature, the second acting as a stable reference signal. The temperature measurement is
used for the dynamic temperature compensation of the pressure crystal while the refer-
ence signal is used as a stable timing base for the frequency counting. The pressure
range is up to 10 000 psia, the accuracy up to ±0.02% FS [42]. The output pressure
and temperature frequencies range between 10 kHz and 60 kHz.
The high-accuracy (0.01%) fibre-optic pressure transducers have been developed by
ALTHEN GmbH by applying optical technology to resonator-based sensors [43].
Further development of microelectronic technologies and smart sensors has declined
in the rise of high-precision (up to 0.01%) digital output pressure sensors and trans-
ducers. Some of which are described below.
The Paroscientific, Inc. Digiquartz Intelligent Transmitter [44] consists of a unique
vibrating quartz crystal pressure transducer and a digital interface board in the integral
package. Commands and data requests are sent via the RS-232 channel and the trans-
mitter returns data via the same two-way bus. Digital outputs are provided directly in
engineering units with typical accuracy of 0.01% over a wide temperature range. The
use of a frequency output quartz temperature sensor for the temperature compensation
yields the achievable full-scale accuracy of 0.01% over the entire operating temperature
range. The output pressure is fully thermally compensated using the internally mounted
quartz crystal specifically designed to provide a temperature signal. All transmitters
are programmed with calibration coefficients for full plug-in interchangeability. The
Intelligent Transmitter can be operated either as a stand-alone standard output pressure
sensor with the display, or as a fully integrated addressable computer-controlled system
component. Transducers use crystalline quartz as the key sensing elements for both
the pressure and the temperature because of its inherent stability and precision char-
acteristics. The pressure-sensing element is a quartz beam, which changes frequency
under the axial load. The transferred force acts on the quartz beam to give a controlled,
repeatable and stable change in the resonator’s natural frequency, which is measured
as the transducer output. The load-dependent frequency characteristic of the quartz
crystal beam can be characterized by a simple mathematical model to yield highly
precise measurements of the pressure and pressure-related parameters. The output is a
square wave frequency [44].
Other examples are intelligent pressure standards (series 960 and 970) [45]. In
the 960 series, the pressure is measured via the change in the resonant frequency
of the oscillating quartz beam by the pressure-induced stress. QuartzonixTM pressure
18 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

standards produce the output frequency between 30 and 45 kHz and can achieve accu-
racy of ±0.01% FS. The precise thermal compensation is provided via the integrated
quartz temperature sensor used to measure the operating temperature of the transducer.
The 970 series uses a multi-drop, 9600 baud ASCII character RS-485 type interface,
allowing a network of up to 31 transducers on the same bus. The output pressure
measurement is user programmable for both the pressure units and update rate.
The resonant pressure transducer RPT 200 (frequency, RS-232/485 outputs) and the
digital output pressure sensor RPT 301 (selectable output RS-232 or RS-485) series
with ±0.01% FS accuracy are produced by Druck Pressure Measurement [46].
Another very popular silicon sensor from the mechanical signal domain is the
accelerometer. The measurement of acceleration or one of its derivative properties
such as vibration, shock, or tilt has become very commonplace in a wide range of
products. The types of sensor used to measure the acceleration, shock, or tilt include
the piezo film, the electromechanical servo, the piezoelectric, the liquid tilt, the bulk
micromachined piezoresistive, the capacitive, and the surface micromachined capaci-
tive. Each has distinct characteristics in the output signal, the development cost, and
the type of the operating environment in which it best functions [47]. The piezoelectric
has been used for many years and the surface micromachined capacitive is relatively
new. To provide useful data, the first type of accelerometers require the proper signal-
conditioning circuitry. Over the last few years, the working range of these devices has
been broadened to include frequencies from 0.1 Hz to above 30 kHz.
Capacitive spring mass accelerometers with integrated electronics that do not require
external amplifiers are proposed by Rieker Inc. These accelerometers of the Sieka series
are available with analog DC output, digital pulse-width modulated, or frequency-
modulated outputs [48].
The surface micromachined products provide the sensor and the signal-conditioning
circuitry on the chip, and require only a few external components. Some manufacturers
have taken this approach one step further by converting the analog output of the analog
signal conditioning into a digital format such as a duty-cycle. This method not only
lifts the burden of designing the fairly complex analog circuitry for the sensor, but also
reduces the cost and the board area [47].
A very simple circuit can be used to measure the acceleration on the basis of
ADXL202/210 accelerometers from Analog Devices. Both have direct interface to
popular microprocessors and the duty-cycle output with 1 ms acquisition time [49].
For interfacing of the accelerometer’s analog output (for example, ADXL05) with
microcontrollers, Analog Devices proposes acceleration-to-frequency circuits based on
AD654 VFC to provide a circuit with a variable frequency output. A microcontroller
can then be programmed to measure the frequency and compute the applied accelera-
tion [50].

1.3 Rotation Speed Sensors

There are many known rotation speed sensing principles and many commercially avail-
able sensors. The overwhelming majority of such sensors is from the magnetic signal
domain (Hall-effect and magnetoresistor-based sensors) and the electrical signal domain
(inductive sensors). According to the nature, passive and active electromagnetic sensors
are from the frequency-time domain. Pulses are generated on its output. The frequency
 1.3 ROTATION SPEED SENSORS 19

is proportional to the measured parameter. In such sensors the flow mesh is connected
with the angle of rotation by the following equation:
 = m · cos θ, (1.8)
then the induced emf in the sensor sensitive element is
dϕ dθ
e=− = ψm · sin θ = Em sin θ (1.9)
dt dt
and can be determined by the instantaneous frequency in any moment of time
1 dθ
f = · (1.10)
2π dt
which is proportional to the instantaneous angular speed
dθ
ω= (1.11)
dt
The current averaging of the angular speed ω on the interval h, measured in the units
2π represents the frequency of rotation and is determined by Steklov’s function [51]:


t+0.5h
1
n(t) = ω(τ )dτ (1.12)
2πh
t−0.5h

This equation reflects only a common idea of the current average of some function
on its argument. Using the frequency measurement of the rotational speed the choice
of mathematical expression should agree with experiment. In this case, the rotational
speed and the angular velocity should be interlinked with the expression relevant to
the physics of the observable process and the requirements of their measurement in
a concrete system. For the description of rotational speed, it is expedient to use the
expression of the flowing average:

t
h
1 1
n(t) = ω(τ )dτ = ω(t − τ )dτ (1.13)
2πh 2πh
t−h 0

The measuring frequency of the rotational speed is given by

60
nx = fx · (1.14)
Z
where Z is the number of modulation rotor’s (encoder’s) gradations.
For modern applications the rotation speed sensor should provide the digital or the
quasi-digital output compatible with standard technologies. This means that the sensor
and the signal-processing circuitry (the microcontroller core) can be realized in the
same chip. An excellent solution in many aspects is when this signal is a square-wave
output of an oscillator, the frequency of which is linearly dependent on the rotating
speed and carries the information about it.
The semiconductor active position sensor of relaxation type designed by the
authors together with the Autoelectronic company (Kaluga, Russia) can serve as an
20 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

example [52,53]. It was developed on the basis of the crankshaft position sensor. Its
principle of action is based on the effect of the continuous suppression of oscillations
of the high frequency generator by passing each metal plate of the modulating rotor
in front of the active sensor element and its subsequent resumption. Due to that,
rectangular pulses with constant amplitude (+Vcc ) are continuously formed on the
sensor output. The frequency of these pulses is proportional to the rotating speed. If
the metal tooth of the rotor-modulator comes nearer to the active element (generator
coil), the logic level ‘1’ (+Vcc ) is formed as the sensor output. When the active sensor
part appears between the teeth, the logic level ‘0’ is formed as the output. Thus, the
active sensor forms the pulsing sequence, the frequency of which is proportional or
equal to the rotating speed. This sensor does not require any additional buffer devices
for the tie-in measuring system and has a very easy interface to the microsystem.
Moreover, the sensor meets the requirements of the technological compatibility with
other components of the microsystem.
The circuit diagram of the Active Sensor of Rotation Speed (ASRS) is shown in
Figure 1.11. It consists of a high frequency generator (f = 1 MHz), a sensing element
(the generator coil), an amplifier, a voltage stabilizer and an output forming transistor
with an opened collector [54]. The “chip & wire” technology was used in the sensor
design, which combines the advantages of both monolithic and hybrid integrated tech-
nologies. All electronics was realized in a single chip, only the inductance, two resistors
and the stabilitron were implemented in accordance with hybrid technology.
The ASRS is shown in Figure 1.12 and the sensor’s output waveforms in Figure 1.13.
The amplitude of the signal is constant and does not depend on temperatures and the
direction of the rotation. The online time ratio Q = 2 (50% duty-cycle independent of
the distance). But in a frequency range of more than 50 000 rpm, the pulse width will
be increased.
The comparative features of modern non-contact sensors of different principles of
function are shown in Table 1.3. Here sensors A5S07/08/09 are made by BR Braun
(Germany), DZXXXX by Electro Corporation (USA); VT1855, OO020 by NIIFI
(Penza, Russia); 4XXXX by Trumeter (UK); LMPC by Red Lion Controls (USA).

R5

Vcc
R1 R6
T1 T2
C2
R7
R2
L1
C1 R3
T3
R4

External
components

Figure 1.11 Circuit diagram of the Active Sensor of Rotation Speed (ASRS)
 1.3 ROTATION SPEED SENSORS 21

Figure 1.12 Active Sensor of Rotation Speed (ASRS)

Figure 1.13 Waveforms of sensor’s output horizontal scale 2.0 ms/div; vertical scale 5V/div

Active, magnetic and Hall-effect sensors are more suitable for the determination of
the object status ‘Stop’ (a shaft is stopping). The advantage of active semiconductor
sensors is the possibility of operation with the non-magnetic modulating rotor’s teeth
(steel, copper, brass, aluminium, nickel, iron). Therefore, the modulating rotor can
be made of plastic and its teeth — of the metallized coating. It essentially raises the
manufacturability and decreases the cost value. With the exception of the non-contact
rotation speed sensing, such sensors can be used like an angular position sensor, a
position sensor, a metallic targets counter and an end-switch. In addition, a smart
sensor on this basis allows the measurement of the rotation acceleration.
22 1 SMART SENSORS: TENDENCIES AND PERSPECTIVES

Table 1.3 Comparative features of non-contact sensors of rotation speed

Sensors Freq. range, Supply voltage, Current consumption, Type
kHz V mA
ASRS 0–50 4.5–24 7–15 active
A5S07 0.5–25 8–28 15+load current Hall-effect
A5S08/09 0.5–25 8–25 15 Hall-effect
DZ375 0–5 4.5–16 20–50 magnetic
DZH450 0–5 4.5–30 20 Hall-effect
DZP450 1–10 4.5–16 50 Hall-effect
VT1855 0.24–160 27 3 inductive
OO 020 0.24–720 27 100 photo
4TUC 0.3–2 10–30 200 mag./inductive
4TUN 0.3–2 6.2–12 3 mag./inductive
45515 0.002–30 25 20 Hall-effect
LMPC up to 10 9–17 25 mag./inductive

Active semiconductor sensors are not influenced by run-out and external magnetic
fields in comparison with Hall-effect sensors. With Hall-effect sensors, it is necessary
to take into account the availability of the initial level of the output signal between
electrodes of the Hall’s element by absence of the magnetic field and its drift. It is
especially characteristic for a broad temperature range. A Hall-effect rotation speed
sensor needs encoders with magnetic pole teeth.
Another good example of a smart sensor for rotation speed is the inductive posi-
tion, speed and direction active microsensor MS1200 from CSEM (Switzerland) [55].
The output can switch up to 1 mA and is compatible with CMOS digital circuits,
in particular with microprocessors. The frequency range is 0–40 kHz, the air-gap is
0–3 mm. The core is a sensor chip with one generator coil and two sets of detection
coils (Figure 1.14).
The detection coils are connected in a differential arrangement, to reject the common
mode signal. The sensor also includes an electronic interface, which is composed of

Sensor chip Supply(VDD)

Generator micro-coil Ground(VSS)
Driver Osc.
A

Demod.
Logic Direction
4x
Demod.

Detection micro-coils B

Metallic target

Figure 1.14 MS1200 functional block diagram (Reproduced by permission of POSIC S.A.,
Neuchatel, Switzerland)
 1.4 INTELLIGENT OPTO SENSORS 23

a high frequency excitation for the generator coil and two read-out channels for the
two sets of detection coils (channels A and B). The read-out electronics extract the
amplitude variation of the high frequency signal due to the presence of a metallic target.
The output stage is a first-order low-pass filter and a comparator. For a nominal target
period of 2 mm, the outputs are two channels in quadrature (A quad B) as well as a
direction signal and a speed signal (4X interpolation). It is composed of two silicon
chips, one for the integrated microcoil and the other for the integrated interface circuit.
The sensor produces a two-channel digital output, as well as a direction signal.

1.4 Intelligent Opto Sensors

Next, we shall examine a technique of delivering the output from optical (light) sensors
into the frequency–time (quasi-digital) domain. Light is a real-world signal that is often
measured either directly or used as an indicator of some other quantity. Most light-
sensing elements convert light into an analog signal in the form of the current or the
voltage, then a photodiode current can be converted into the frequency output. Light
intensity can vary over many orders of the magnitude, thus complicating the problem
of maintaining resolution and signal-to-noise ratio over a wide input range. Converting
the light intensity to a frequency overcomes limitations imposed on the dynamic range
by the supply voltage, the noise and the ADC resolution.
One such device is a low-cost programmable silicon opto sensor TSL230/235/245
from Texas Instruments with a monolithic light-to-frequency converter [56]. The output
of these devices is a square wave with a frequency (0–1 MHz) that is linearly propor-
tional to the light intensity of the visible and short infra red radiation. Additionally the
devices provide programming capability for the adjustment of the input sensitivity and
the output scaling. These capabilities are effected by a simple electronic technique,
switching in different numbers of the 100 elements of the photodiode matrix. For costs
reasons, the low-cost microcontroller with a limited frequency range may be used for
the frequency-to-digital converter due to the output scaling capability. Options are an
undivided pulse train with the fixed pulse width or the square wave (50% duty-cycle)
divided by 2, 10 or 100 outputs. Light levels of 0.001 to 100 000 µW/am2 can be
accommodated directly without filters [56].
Since the conversion is performed on-chip, effects of external interference such as
noise and leakage currents are minimized and the resulting noise immune frequency
output is easily transmitted even from remove locations to other parts of the system.
The isolation is easily accomplished with optical couples or transformers.
Another interesting example is the integrated smart optical sensors developed in
Delft University of Technology [57,58]. Integrated on-chip colour sensors have been
designed and fabricated to provide a digital output in the IS2 bus format. The readout
of photodiodes in the silicon takes place in such a way that pulse series are gener-
ated with the pulse frequency proportional to the optical intensity (luminance) and the
duty-cycle to the colour (chrominance). The colour information is obtained using the
wavelength dependence of the absorption coefficient in the silicon in the optical part
of the spectrum, so no filters are required. The counters and the bus interface have
been realized in a bipolar and CMOS version with enhanced resolution which is being
investigated.
 Another Random Document on
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In thee will I glory and rejoice all the day; but for myself I will
glory in nothing but in my infirmities.

6. Let the Jews seek the glory which one man receives from
another: I will seek that which is from God alone.

All human glory, all temporal honour, all worldly grandeur,

compared to thy eternal glory, is but vanity and foolishness.

O my truth, and my mercy, my God, O blessed Trinity, to thee

alone be all praise, honour, power, and glory, for endless ages of
ages.

Chap. XLI.
Of the contempt of all temporal honour.

1. My Son, take it not to heart, if thou seest others honoured and

advanced, and thyself despised and debased.

Lift up thy heart to me in heaven, and thou wilt not be concerned

at thy being contemned by men upon earth.

2. Lord, we are in blindness, and are quickly seduced by vanity. If I

look well into myself, never was any injury done me by any
creature; and therefore I cannot justly complain of thee.

For, because I have often and grievously sinned against thee, all
creatures have reason to take up arms against me.

To me therefore confusion and contempt is justly due, but to thee

praise, honour, and glory.

And unless I put myself in this disposition, to be willing to be

despised and forsaken of all creatures, and to be esteemed nothing
at all, I cannot arrive at inward peace and strength, nor be
spiritually enlightened, nor fully united to thee.
 Chap. XLII.
That our peace is not to be placed in men.

1. Son, if thou placest thy peace with any person, for the sake of
thy contentment in his company, thou shall be unsettled and
entangled:

But if thou hast recourse to the everliving and subsisting Truth,

thou shalt not be grieved when a friend departs or dies.

In me the love of thy friend must stand; and for me is he to be

loved, whoever he be, who appears to thee good, and is very dear
to thee in this life.

Without me no friendship is of any strength, nor will be durable;

nor is that love true and pure of which I am not the author.

Thou oughtest to be so far mortified to such affections of persons

beloved, as to wish (for as much as appertains to thee) to be
without any company of man.

By so much the more does a man draw nigh to God, by how much
the farther he withdraws himself from all earthly comfort.

So much the higher he ascends into God, by how much the lower
he descends into himself, and by how much the meaner he
esteems himself.

2. But he that attributes any thing of good to himself, stops the

grace of God from coming into him; for the grace of the Holy Ghost
ever seeks an humble heart.

If thou couldst perfectly annihilate thyself, and cast out from thyself
all created love, then should I flow into thee with abundance of
grace.
When thou lookest towards creatures, the sight of the Creator is
withdrawn from thee.

Learn for the Creator's sake, to overcome thyself in all things; and
then thou shalt be able to attain to the knowledge of God.

How little soever it be, if a thing be inordinately loved and

regarded, it keeps us back from the Sovereign Good, and corrupts
the soul.

Chap. XLIII.
Against vain and worldly learning.

1. Son, be not moved with the fine and quaint sayings of men: For
the kingdom of God consists not in talk, but in virtue.

Attend to my words, which inflame the heart, and enlighten the

mind: which excite to compunction, and afford manifold
consolations.

Never read any thing that thou may appear more learned or more
wise.

Study therefore to mortify thy vices, for this will avail thee more
than the knowledge of many hard questions.

2. When thou shalt have read, and shalt know many things, thou
must always return to one beginning.

I am he that teacheth man knowledge, and I give a more clear

understanding to little ones than can be taught by man.

He to whom I speak will quickly be wise, and will make great

progress in spirit.
Wo to them that enquire of men after many curious things, and are
little curious of the way to serve me.

The time will come, when Christ, the Master of masters, the Lord of
angels, shall appeal, to hear the lessons of all men; that is, to
examine the consciences of every one.

And then he will search Jerusalem with candles, and the hidden
things of darkness shall be brought to light, and the arguments of
tongues shall be silent.

3. I am he that in an instant elevates an humble mind, to

comprehend more reasons of the eternal truth than could be got
by ten years study in the schools.

I teach without noise of words, without confusion of opinions,

without ambition of honour, without contention of arguments.

I teach to despise all earthly things, to loathe things present, to

seek things eternal, to relish things eternal, to fly honours, to
endure scandals, to repose all hope in me, to desire nothing out of
me, and above all things ardently to love me.

4. For a certain person, by loving me, entirely learned divine things,

and spoke wonders.

He profited more by forsaking all things, than by studying

subtleties.

But to some I speak things common, to others things more

particular; to some I sweetly appear in signs and figures; to others
in great light I reveal mysteries.

The voice of the books is the same, but it teacheth not all men
alike; because I within am the teacher of truth, the searcher of
hearts, the understander of thoughts, the promoter of actions;
distributing to every one as I judge fitting.
 Chap. XLIV.
Of not drawing to ourselves exterior things.

1. Son, in many things it behoveth thee to be ignorant and to

esteem thyself as one dead upon earth, and as one to whom the
whole world is crucified.

Many things also must you pass by with a deaf ear, and think
rather of those things that appertain to thy peace.

It is more profitable to turn away thy eyes from such things as

displease thee, and to leave to every one his own way of thinking,
than to give way to contentious discourses.

If thou standeth well with God, and lookest at his judgment, thou
wilt more easily bear to see thyself overcome.

2. O Lord, to what are we come? Behold a temporal loss is greatly

bewailed, for a small gain men labour and toil; but the loss of the
soul is little thought on, and hardly ever returns to mind.

That which is of little or no profit takes up our thoughts; and that

which is above all things necessary is negligently passed over: for
the whole man sinks down into outward things; and unless he
quickly recovers himself, he willingly continues immersed in them.

Chap. XLV.
That credit is not to be given to all men;
and that men are prone to offend in words.

1. Grant me help, O Lord, in my tribulation, for vain is the

aid of man. Psalms lix.

[USCCB: Psalms lx. 13.]

How often have I not found faith there, where I thought I might
depend upon it?

And how often have I found it where I did not expect it?

Vain therefore is all hope in men; but the safety of the Just is in
thee, O Lord.

Blessed be thou, O Lord my God, in all things that befal us.

We are weak and unsettled, we are quickly deceived and changed.

2. Who is the man that is able to keep himself so warily, and with
so much circumspection in all things, as not to fall sometimes into
some deceit or perplexity?

But he that trusts in thee, O Lord, and seeks thee with a simple
heart, does not so easily fall;

And if he lights into some tribulation, in what manner soever he

may be entangled therewith, he will quickly be rescued or
comforted by thee; for thou wilt not forsake forever him that trusts
in thee.

A trusty friend is rarely to be found, that continues faithful in all the

distresses of his friend.

Thou, O Lord, thou alone art most faithful in all things, and besides
thee there is no other such.

3. Oh! how wise was that holy soul that said, My mind is
strongly settled and grounded upon Christ. St. Agatha.

If it were so with me, the fear of man would not so easily give me
trouble, nor flying words move me.

Who can foresee all things, or who is able to provide against all
future evils?
If things foreseen do yet often hurt us, how can things unlooked
for fail of wounding us grievously?

But why did I not provide better for myself, miserable wretch as I
am? Why also have I so easily given credit to others?

But we are men, and are but frail men, though by many we are
reputed and called angels.

To whom shall I give credit, O Lord? to whom but thee? Thou art
the truth, which neither canst deceive nor be deceived.

And on the other side, Every man is a liar, (Psalms cxi.) infirm,
unstable, and subject to fail, especially in words; so that we ought
not readily to believe even that which in appearance seems to
sound well.

4. How wisely didst thou forewarn us to take heed of men,

(Matthew. x. 17.) and that man's enemies are those of his own
household. (Matthew. x. 36.) And that we are not to believe, if
any one should say, Behold here, or behold there. Matthew xxiv.

I have been taught to my cost, and I wish it may serve to make

me more cautious, and not to increase my folly.

Be wary, saith one, be wary, keep in thyself what I tell thee: and
whilst I hold my peace, and believe the matter to be secret, he
himself cannot keep the secret which he desired me to keep, but
presently discovers both me and himself, and goes his way.

From such tales and such unwary people defend me, O Lord, that I
may not fall into their hands, nor ever commit the like.

Give to my mouth truth and constancy in my words, and remove

far from me a crafty tongue.

What I am not willing to suffer, I ought by all means to shun.

5. O how good a thing and how peaceable it is to be silent of
others, nor to believe all that is said, nor easily to report what one
has heard; to lay one's self open to few; always to seek thee the
Beholder of the Heart; and not to be carried about with every wind
of words; but to wish that all things both within and without us
may go according to the pleasure of thy will!

How secure it is for the keeping of heavenly grace, to fly the sight
of men, and not to seek those things that seem to cause
admiration abroad; but with all diligence to follow that which brings
amendment of life and fervour!

To how many hath it been hurtful to have their virtue known, and
over-hastily praised? How profitable indeed hath grace been kept
with silence in this frail life, which is all but a temptation and a
warfare?

Chap. XLVI.
Of having confidence in God,
when words arise against us.

1. Son, stand firm, and trust in me; for what are words but words?
they fly through the air, but hurt not a stone.

If thou art guilty, think that thou wilt willingly amend thyself.

If thy conscience accuse thee not, think that thou wilt willingly
suffer this for God's sake.

It is a small matter that thou shouldst sometimes bear with words,

if thou hast not as yet the courage to endure hard stripes.

And why do such small things go to thy heart; but because thou
art yet carnal, and regardest man more than thou oughtest?
For because thou art afraid of being despised, thou art not willing
to be reprehended for thy faults, and seekest to shelter thyself in
excuses.

2. But look better into thyself, and thou shalt find that the world is
still living in thee, and a vain desire of pleasing men:

For when thou art unwilling to be humbled and confounded for thy
defects, it is plain indeed that thou art not truly humble, nor truly
dead to the world, nor the world crucified to thee.

But give ear to my word, and thou shalt not value ten thousand
words of men.

Behold, if all should be said against thee, which the malice of men
can invent, what hurt could it do thee, if thou wouldst let it pass,
and make no reckoning of it? Could it even so much as pluck one
hair away from thee?

3. But he who has not his heart within, nor God before his eyes,
is easily moved with a word of dispraise:

Whereas he that trusts in me, and desires not to stand by his own
judgment, will be free from the fear of men.

For I am the judge and discerner of all secrets; I know how the
matter passed; I know both him that offers the injury, and him that
suffers it.

From me this word went forth; by my permission it happened, that

out of many hearts thoughts may be revealed. Luke ii.

I shall judge the guilty and the innocent; but by a secret judgment
I would beforehand try them both.

4. The testimony of men oftentimes deceives: my judgment is true,

it shall stand and not be overthrown.
It is hidden for the most part, and to few laid open in every thing;
yet it never errs, nor can it err, though to the eyes of fools it seems
not right.

To me therefore must thou run in every judgment, and not depend

upon thy own will.

For the just man will not be troubled whatever happens to

him from God. Proverbs xii.

And if any thing be wrongfully pronounced against him, he will not

much care; neither will he vainly rejoice, if by others he be
reasonably excused; for he considers that I am he that
searcheth the heart and the reins, (Apoc. ii.) who judge not
according to the face, nor according to human appearance;

[USCCB: Revelation 3:23, "…I am the searcher of hearts

and minds…".]

For oftentimes that is found blameworthy in my eyes, which in the

judgment of men is esteemed commendable.

5. O Lord God, the best judge, strong and patient, who knowest
the frailty and perverseness of men, be thou my strength, and all
my confidence, for my own conscience sufficeth me not.

Thou knowest that which I know not; and therefore in every

reprehension I ought to humble myself, and bear it with meekness.

Pardon me, I beseech thee in thy mercy, as often as I have not

done thus, and give me again the grace to suffer still more.

For better to me is thy great mercy, for the obtaining of pardon,

than the justice which I imagine in myself for the defence of my
hidden conscience.
Although my conscience accuse me not, yet I cannot hereby justify
myself; for setting thy mercy aside, no man living shall be
justified in thy sight. Psalms cxlii.

[USCCB: Psalms cxliii.]

Chap. XLVII.
That all grievious things
are to be endured for life everlasting.

1. Son, be not dismayed with the labours which thou hast

undertaken for me; neither let the tribulations which befal thee
quite cast thee down; but let my promise strengthen thee, and
comfort thee in all events.

I am sufficient to reward thee beyond all measure.

Thou shalt not labour here long, nor shalt thou be always
oppressed with sorrows.

Wait a little while, and thou shalt see a speedy end of all thy evils.

The hour will come when labour and trouble shall be no more.

All is little and short which passeth away with time.

2. Mind what thou art about; labour faithfully in my vineyard; I will

be thy reward.

Write, read, sing, sigh, keep silence, pray, bear thy crosses
manfully: eternal life is worthy of all these, and greater combats.

Peace shall come in one day, which is known to the Lord: and it
shall not be day, nor night, viz. such as is at present, but
everlasting light, infinite brightness, steadfast peace, and secure
rest.
Thou shalt not then say, Who shall deliver me from the body
of this death, (Romans vii.) nor shalt thou cry out, Wo to me for
that my sojourning is prolonged. (Psalms cxix.) For death shall
be no more; but never failing health, no anxiety, but blessed
delight, and a society sweet and lovely.

[USCCB: Psalms cxx. 6. "Too long did I live among those

who hated peace."]

3. Oh! if thou hadst seen the everlasting crowns of the saints in

heaven, and in how great glory they now triumph, who appeared
contemptible heretofore to this world, and in a manner unworthy
even of life, doubtless thou wouldst immediately cast thyself down
to the very earth, and wouldst rather seek to be under the feet of
all, than to have command so much as over one.

Neither wouldst thou covet the pleasant days of this life, but
wouldst rather be glad to suffer tribulation for God's sake, and
esteem it thy greatest gain to be reputed as nothing amongst men.

4. Ah! if thou didst but relish these things, and didst suffer them to
penetrate deeply thy heart, how wouldst thou dare so much as
once to complain!

Are not all painful labours to be endured for everlasting life?

It is no small matter to lose or to gain the kingdom of God.

Lift up therefore thy face to heaven. Behold I, and all my saints

with me, who in this world have had a great conflict, do now
rejoice, are comforted now, are now secure, are now at rest, and
for all eternity shall abide with me in the kingdom of my Father.

Chap. XLVIII.
Of the day of eternity,
and of the miseries of this life.
1. O Most happy mansion of the city above! O most bright day of
eternity, which knows no night, but is always enlightened by the
Sovereign Truth; a day always joyful, always secure, and never
changing its state for the contrary!

Oh! that this day would shine upon us, and all these temporal
things would come to an end!

It shines indeed upon the saints, resplendant with everlasting

brightness; but to us pilgrims upon earth it is seen only as afar off,
and through a glass.

2. The citizens of heaven know how joyful that day is; but the
banished children of Eve lament that this our day is bitter and
tedious.

The days of this life are short and evil, full of sorrows and miseries:
where man is defiled with many sins, is ensnared with many
passions, attacked with many fears, disquieted with many cares,
distracted with many curiosities, entangled with many vanities,
encompassed with many errors, broken with many labours, troubled
with temptations, weakened with delights, tormented with want.

3. Oh! when will there be an end of these evils? When shall I be

set at liberty from the wretched slavery of sin?

When, O Lord, shall I be so happy as to think of thee alone? When

shall I to the full rejoice in thee?

When shall I be without any impediment in true liberty, without any

trouble of mind or body?

When shall I enjoy a solid peace, a peace never to be disturbed

and always secure, a peace both within and without, a peace every
where firm?

O good Jesu, when shall I stand to behold thee?

When shall I contemplate the glory of thy kingdom? When wilt thou
be all in all to me? O when shall I be with thee in thy kingdom,
which thou hast prepared for thy Beloved from all eternity?

I am left a poor and banished man, in an enemy's country, where

there are wars every day, and very great misfortunes.

4. Comfort me in my banishment, assuage my sorrows; for all my

desire is after thee: and all that this world offers for my comfort is
burthensome to me.

I long to enjoy thee intimately, but cannot attain to it.

I desire to cleave to heavenly things, but the things of this life and
my unmortified passions bear me down. I am willing in mind to be
above all things, but by the flesh am obliged against my will to be
subject to them.

Thus, unhappy man that I am, I fight with myself, and am become
burthensome to myself, whilst the spirit seeks to tend upwards, and
the flesh downwards.

5. Oh! what do I suffer interiorly, whilst in my mind I consider

heavenly things, and presently a crowd of carnal thoughts offers to
interrupt my prayer? O my God, remove not thyself far from
me, and depart not in thy wrath from thy servant.

Dart forth thy lightning, and disperse them: shoot thy

arrows, and let all the phantoms of the enemy be put to flight.

Gather my senses together to thee; make me forget all worldly

things; give me the grace speedily to cast away and to despise all
wicked imaginations.

Come to my aid, O eternal truth, that no vanity may move me.

Come, heavenly sweetness, and let all impurity fly before thy face.
Pardon me also, and mercifully forgive me the times that I have
thought of any thing else in prayer besides thee.

For I confess truly, that I am accustomed to be very much

distracted:

For oftentimes I am not there, where I am bodily standing or

sitting, but am rather there where my thoughts carry me.

There I am, where my thought is: and there oftentimes is my

thought, where that is which I love.

That thing most readily comes to my mind, which naturally delights

me, or which through custom is pleasing to me.

6. For this reason thou, who art the truth, hast plainly said,
Where thy treasure is, there also is thy heart. Matthew vi.

If I love heaven, I willingly think of heavenly things.

If I love the world, I rejoice in the prosperity of the world, and am

troubled at its adversity.

If I love the flesh, my imagination is often taken up with the things

of the flesh.

If I love the spirit, I delight to think of spiritual things.

For whatsoever things I love, of the same I willingly speak and

hear, and carry home with me the images of them.

But blessed is the man, who for thee, O Lord, lets go all things
created: who offers violence to his nature; and through fervour of
spirit crucifies the lusts of the flesh: that so his conscience being
cleared up, he may offer to thee pure prayer, and may be worthy
to be admitted, among the choirs of angels, having shut out all
things of the earth both from without and within.
 Chap. XLIX.
Of the desire of eternal life: and how great things are
promised to them that fight.

1. Son, when thou perceivest a longing after eternal bliss to be

infused into thee from above, and that thou desirest to go out of
the dwelling of this body, that thou mayest contemplate my
brightness, without any shadow of change; dilate thy heart, and
with all thy affection embrace this holy inspiration.

Return very great thanks to the divine bounty, which deals so

favourably with thee, which mercifully delivers thee, ardently
excites thee, and powerfully raises thee up, lest by thy own weight
thou fall down to the things of the earth.

For it is not by thy own thought or endeavours that thou attainest

to this; but only by the favour of heavenly grace and the divine
visit: that so thou mayest advance in virtues, and greater humility,
and prepare thyself for future conflicts, and labour with the whole
affection of thy heart to stick close to me, and serve me with a
fervent will.

2. Son, the fire often burns, but the flame ascends not without
smoke:

So also some people's desires are on fire after heavenly things, and
yet they are not free from temptation of fleshly affection:

And therefore it is not altogether purely for God's honour that they
do what they so earnestly request of him.

Such also is oftentimes thy desire, which thou hast signified to be

so strong.

For that is not pure and perfect, which is infected with self-interest.
4. Ask not what is delightful and commodious for thee, but what is
pleasing and honourable to me: for if thou judgest rightly, thou
oughtest to follow my appointment rather than thy own desire, and
to prefer it before all that thou desirest.

I know thy desire, and I have often heard thy sighs.

Thou wouldst be glad to be at present in the liberty of the glory of

the children of God:

Thou wouldst be pleased to be now at thy eternal home, and in thy

heavenly country abounding with joy: but that hour is not yet
come; for there is yet another time, viz. a time of war, a time of
labour and trial.

Thou wishest to be replenished with the Sovereign Good, but thou

canst not at present attain to it.

I am [that Sovereign Good] wait for me, saith the Lord, till the
kingdom of God comes.

4. Thou must yet be tried upon earth, and exercised in many

things.

Consolation shall sometimes be given thee; but to be fully satisfied

shall not be granted thee.

Take courage therefore, and be valiant as well in doing as in

suffering things repugnant to nature.

Thou must put on the new man, and be changed into another man.

Thou must oftentimes do that which is against thy inclination, and

let alone that which thou art inclined to:

That which is pleasing to others shall go forward, that which thou

wouldst have shall not succeed:
That which others say, shall be hearkened to; what thou sayest
shall not be regarded:

Others shall ask, and shall receive; thou shalt ask, and not obtain.

5. Others shall be great in the esteem of men; but of thee no

notice shall be taken.

To others this or that shall be committed; but thou shalt be

accounted fit for nothing.

At this nature will sometimes repine, and it will be no small matter

if thou bear it with silence.

In these and many such like things, the faithful servant of the Lord
is used to be tried, how far he can renounce himself, and break
himself in all things.

There is scarce any one thing in which thou standest so much in

need of mortifying thyself, as in seeing and suffering the things that
are repugnant to thy will; and especially when that is commanded
which seems to thee incongruous and to little purpose.

And because being under authority thou darest not resist the
higher power, therefore thou art apt to think it hard to walk at the
beck of another, and wholly to give up thy own sentiment.

6. But consider, Son, the fruit of these labours, how quickly they
will end, and their exceeding great reward; and thou wilt not be
troubled at them, but strongly comforted in thy sufferings.

For in regard of the little of thy will, which thou now willingly
forsakest, thou shalt for ever have thy will in heaven.

For there thou shalt find all that thou willest, all that thou canst
desire.
There thou shalt enjoy all good without fear of ever losing it.

There thy will being always one with mine, shall desire nothing
foreign or private.

There no one shall resist thee, no man shall complain of thee, no

man shall hinder thee, nothing shall stand in thy way: but all that
thou desirest shall be there together present, and shall replenish
thy whole affection, and shall satiate it to the full.

There I will give thee glory for the affronts which thou hast
suffered; a garment of praise for thy sorrow; and for thy having
been seated here in the lowest place, a royal throne for all eternity.

There will the fruit of obedience appear, there will the labour of
penance rejoice, and humble subjection shall be gloriously crowned.

7. Bow down thyself then humbly at present under the hands of all;
and heed not who it was that has said or commanded this;

But let it be thy great care, that whether thy superior or inferior, or
equal, desire any thing of thee, or hint at any thing, thou take all in
good part, and labour with a sincere will to perform it.

Let one man seek this, another that; let this man glory in this
thing, another in that, and be praised a thousand thousand times:
but thou, for thy part, rejoice neither in this nor in that, but in the
contempt of thyself, and in my good pleasure and honour alone.

This is what thou oughtest to wish, that whether in life, or in

death, God may be always glorified in thee.

Chap. L.
How a desolate person
ought to offer himself into the hands of God.
1. O Lord God, O Holy Father, be thou now and for ever blessed,
for as thou wilt, so it has happened; and what thou dost is always
good.

Let thy servant rejoice in thee, not in himself, nor in any other; for
thou alone art true joy, thou my hope, and my crown; thou my
gladness, and my honour, O Lord.

What hath thy servant but what he hath received from thee, and
this without any merit on his side? All things are thine which thou
hast given, and which thou hast made.

I am poor, and in my labours from my youth; and my soul is

grieved even unto tears sometimes; and sometimes is disturbed
within herself by reason of the passions which encompass her.

2. I long for the joy of peace, I beg for the peace of thy children,
who are fed by thee in the light of thy consolation.

If thou givest peace, if thou infusest holy joy, the soul of thy
servant shall be full of melody, and devout in thy praise.

But if thou withdraw thyself, as thou art very often accustomed to

do, he will not be able to run in the way of thy commandments;
but rather must bow down his knees, and knock his breast,
because it is not with him, as it was yesterday and the day before,
when thy lamp shined over his head, and he was covered under
the shadow of thy wings from temptation rushing in upon him.

3. O just Father, holy, and always to be praised, the hour is come

for thy servant to be tried.

O Father, worthy of all love, it is fitting that thy servant should at

this hour suffer something for thee.

O Father, always to be honoured, the hour is come, when thou

didst foresee from all eternity, that thy servant for the short time
should be oppressed without, but always live within to thee; that
he should be a little slighted, and humbled, and should fall in the
sight of men; that he should be severely afflicted with sufferings
and diseases; that so he may rise again with thee in the dawning
of a new light, and be glorified in heaven.

O holy Father, thou hast so appointed, and such is thy will; and
that has come to pass which thou hast ordered.

4. For this is a favour to thy friend, that he should suffer and be

afflicted in this world for the love of thee; how often soever, and by
whomsoever thou permittest it to fall upon him.

Without thy counsel and providence, and without cause nothing is

done upon earth.

It is good for me, O Lord, that thou hast humbled me, that
I may learn thy justifications, (Psalms cxviii.) and cast away
from me all pride of heart and presumption.

[USCCB: Psalms cxix. 71. "It was good for me to be

afflicted, in order to learn your laws."]

It is advantageous for me that shame has covered my face, that I

may rather seek my comfort from thee, than from men.

I have also learned hereby to fear thy impenetrable judgment, who

afflicting the just together with the wicked, but not without equity
and justice.

5. Thanks be to thee, that thou hast not spared me in my evils, but

hast bruised me with bitter stripes, inflicting pains, and sending
distress both within and without.

And of all things under heaven, there is none can comfort me but
thou, O Lord my God, the heavenly physician of souls, who
woundest and healest, bringest down to hell, and leadest
back again.

Thy discipline is on me, and thy rod shall instruct me.

6. Behold, dear Father, I am in thy hands, I bow myself down

under the rod of thy correction.

Strike thou my back and my neck, that I may bend my crookedness

to thy will:

Make me a pious and humble disciple of thine, as thou art wont

well to do, that I may walk at thy beck at all times.

To thee I commit myself and all that is mine, to be corrected by

thee: it is better to be chastised here than hereafter.

Thou knowest all and every thing, and there is nothing in man's
conscience hidden from thee.

Thou knowest things to come, before they are done; and thou hast
no need to be taught or admonished by any one of these things
that pass upon earth.

Thou knowest what is expedient for my progress, and how

serviceable tribulation is to rub away the rust of sin.

Do with me according to thy good pleasure, it is what I desire, and

despise not my sinful life, to no one better or more clearly known
than to thyself alone.

7. Grant, O Lord, that I may know what I ought to know; that I

may love what I ought to love; that I may praise that which is
most pleasing to thee; that I may esteem that which is valuable in
thy sight; that I may despise that which is despicable in thy eyes.
Suffer me not to judge according to the sight of the outward eye,
nor to give sentence according to the hearing of the ears of men
that know not what they are about: but to determine both of
visible and spiritual matters with true judgment, and above all
things ever to seek thy good-will and pleasure.

8. The sentiments of men are often wrong in their judgments; and

the lovers of this world are deceived in loving visible things alone;

What is a man the better for being reputed greater by man?

One deceitful man deceives another; the vain deceives the vain, the
blind deceives the blind, the weak the weak, whilst he extols him;

And in truth doth rather confound him whilst he vainly praiseth

him: for how much each one is in thy eyes, so much is he, and no
more, saith the humble St. Francis.

Chap. LI.
That we must practise ourselves in humble works, when we
cannot attain to high things.

1. Son, thou must not always continue in the most fervent desire of
virtues, nor stand in the highest degree of contemplation; but it
must needs be that thou sometimes descend to lower things, by
reason of original corruption; and that thou bear the burden of this
corruptible life, even against thy will, and with irksomeness.

As long as thou carriest about with thee thy mortal body, thou shalt
feel trouble and heaviness of heart.

Thou oughtest therefore, as long as thou art in the flesh,

oftentimes to bewail the burden of the flesh; for that thou canst
not without intermission be employed in spiritual exercises and
divine contemplation.
2. At these times it is expedient for thee to fly to humble and
exterior works, and to recreate thyself in good actions; to look for
my coming and heavenly visitation with an assured hope; to bear
with patience thy banishment, and the aridity of thy mind, till thou
be visited again by me, and delivered from all anguish.

For I will make thee forget thy pains, and enjoy eternal rest.

I will lay open before thee the pleasant fields of the scriptures, that
thy heart being dilated, thou mayest begin to run the way of my
commandments.

And that thou shalt say, the sufferings of this time have no
proportion with the future glory, which shall be revealed in
us. Romans viii.

Chap. LII.
That a man ought not to esteem himself worthy of
consolation; but rather guilty of stripes.

1. Lord, I am not worthy of thy consolation, or any spiritual

visitation; and therefore thou dealest justly with me, when thou
leavest me poor and desolate.

For if I could shed tears like a sea, yet should I not be worthy of
thy comfort;

Since I have deserved nothing but stripes and punishments,

because I have grievously and often offended thee, and in very
many things sinned against thee.

Therefore according to all just reason I have not deserved the least
of thy comforts.
But thou, who art a good and merciful God, who wilt not have thy
works perish, to shew the riches of thy goodness towards the
vessels of mercy, vouchsafest beyond all his deserts to comfort thy
servant above human measure; for thy consolations are not like the
consolations of men.

2. What have I done, O Lord, that thou shouldst impart any

heavenly comfort to me?

I can remember nothing of good that ever I have done; but that I
was always prone to vice, and sluggish to amendment.

It is the truth, and I cannot deny it. If I should say otherwise, thou
wouldst stand against me, and there would be none to defend me.

What have I deserved for my sins but hell and everlasting fire?

In truth, I confess I am worthy of all scorn and contempt; neither

is it fitting that I should be named among thy devout servants. And
though it goes against me to hear this, yet for truth's sake I will
condemn my sins against myself, that so I may the easier obtain
thy mercy.

3. What shall I say, who am guilty, and full of all confusion?

I have not the face to say any thing but this one word, I have
sinned, O Lord, I have sinned; have mercy on me, and pardon me.

Suffer me a little, that I may mourn out my grief, before I

go to the darksome land that is covered with the dismal
shade of death. Job x.

What dost thou chiefly require of a guilty and wretched sinner, but
that he should heartily repent, and humble himself for his sins.

In true contrition and humility of heart is brought forth hope of

forgiveness; a troubled conscience is reconciled; grace that was lost
is recovered; a man is secured from the wrath to come, and God
meets the penitent soul in the holy kiss of peace.

4. Humble contrition for sins is an acceptable sacrifice to thee, O

Lord; of far sweeter odour in thy sight than the burning of
frankincense.

This is also that pleasing ointment which thou wouldst have to be

poured upon thy sacred feet: for thou never yet hast despised
a contrite and humble heart. Psalms l.

[USCCB: Psalms li. 19. "…God, do not spurn a broken,

humbled heart." ]

Here is a sure place of refuge from the face of the wrath of the
enemy: here whatever has been elsewhere contracted of
uncleanness is amended and washed away.

Chap. LIII.
That the grace of God
is not communicated to the earthly minded.

1. Son, my grace is precious; it suffers not itself to be mingled with

external things, or earthly consolations.

Thou must therefore cast away all impediments of grace, if thou

desire to have it infused into thee.

Choose a secret place to thyself; love to dwell with thyself alone;

seek not to be talking with any one; but rather pour forth devout
prayers to God, that thou mayest keep thy mind in compunction,
and thy conscience clean.

Esteem the whole world as nothing: prefer the attendance on God

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