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CNS Viva Preparation

The document provides a comprehensive overview of various encryption and decryption techniques, including ciphers such as Caesar, Hill, Mono-alphabetic, Playfair, and Vigenère, as well as algorithms like Linear Congruential Generator and Blum Blum Shub. It also covers the Rail Fence and Columnar Transpositional Ciphers, and details the Data Encryption Standard (DES), its drawbacks, and enhancements like Double DES and Triple DES. Each method is explained with examples, highlighting their processes and security considerations.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views43 pages

CNS Viva Preparation

The document provides a comprehensive overview of various encryption and decryption techniques, including ciphers such as Caesar, Hill, Mono-alphabetic, Playfair, and Vigenère, as well as algorithms like Linear Congruential Generator and Blum Blum Shub. It also covers the Rail Fence and Columnar Transpositional Ciphers, and details the Data Encryption Standard (DES), its drawbacks, and enhancements like Double DES and Triple DES. Each method is explained with examples, highlighting their processes and security considerations.

Uploaded by

cisagev917
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 43

CNS Viva Preparation

1_GTU_Syllabus_Cryptography and …
PDF

Crypto Lab manual.pdf


PDF

Crypto Lab manual Index.pdf


PDF

These are the CNS syllabus and lab manuals. Tomorrow is


my viva so I will ask a few question. answer them.

Feel free to ask any specific questions regarding your Cryptography and Network Security
viva. Whether it's about theoretical concepts, lab exercises, or coding implementations, I'll be
happy to help!

Explain encryption and decryption using Caesar Cipher, Hill


Cipher, Mono-alphabetic Cipher, Playfair Cipher and
Vegnere Cipher in detail

Here’s a detailed explanation of encryption and decryption techniques using the mentioned
ciphers:

1. Caesar Cipher
Encryption: Shifts each letter in the plaintext by a fixed number (key).
For example, with a key of 3:

Plaintext: HELLO

Encrypted: KHOOR
Formula: Encrypted letter = (Plain letter's ASCII + Shift) % 26 .

Decryption: Shifts each letter in the ciphertext by the negative of the key.
Formula: Decrypted letter = (Encrypted letter's ASCII - Shift + 26) % 26 .

Example:

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Key = 3

Plaintext: ABC

Encrypted: DEF

Decrypted: ABC

2. Hill Cipher
Encryption: Uses linear algebra and a matrix multiplication to encrypt blocks of
plaintext.

A key matrix is chosen, such as a 2x2 matrix:


3 3
K=[ ]
2 5
​ ​

Plaintext is divided into pairs, and each pair is multiplied with the key matrix modulo
26.

Example:

Key: K = [[3, 3], [2, 5]]

Plaintext: HI

Numerical representation: H=7, I=8

Encrypted:

3 3 7 9
C =K ⋅P mod 26 = [ ][ ] mod 26 = [ ]
2 5 8 24
​ ​ ​

→ Ciphertext: JY .

Decryption: Involves finding the inverse of the key matrix modulo 26 and multiplying it
with the ciphertext vector.

3. Mono-alphabetic Cipher

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Encryption: Replaces each plaintext character with a corresponding character in a
shuffled alphabet.

Key: A fixed mapping of letters (e.g., A → D , B → X , ...).

Example: HELLO with key mapping becomes KHOOR .

Decryption: Reverse the mapping to retrieve the original plaintext.

Ciphertext: KHOOR

Plaintext: HELLO .

Example:
Key: A → M, B → N, ..., Z → L

Plaintext: HELLO → Ciphertext: OLSSV

Decrypted: HELLO .

4. Playfair Cipher
Encryption: Uses a 5x5 key matrix (constructed from a keyword). Letters are paired, and
based on their positions in the matrix:

1. Same row: Shift right.

2. Same column: Shift down.

3. Rectangle: Swap corners.

Example:

Keyword: MONARCHY

Plaintext: HELLO → HE LL OX (if repeated or odd-length pairs are padded).

Key Matrix:

mathematica

M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I K

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L P Q S T
U V W X Z

Pair: HE → CF , LL → PP .

Decryption: Reverse the rules applied during encryption.

5. Vigenère Cipher
Encryption: Uses a repeating keyword to create shifts for each letter.

Key repeats to match the length of the plaintext.

Formula: Encrypted letter = (Plain letter ASCII + Key letter ASCII) % 26 .

Example:

Plaintext: HELLO

Keyword: KEY → Expanded: KEYKE .

Encryption:

mathematica

H + K → R
E + E → I
L + Y → J
L + K → V
O + E → S

Ciphertext: RIJVS .

Decryption: Subtract the key's ASCII value instead of adding.

Example:
Ciphertext: RIJVS
Keyword: KEY

Decrypted: HELLO .

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These ciphers illustrate different approaches to encryption and decryption, from simple
substitutions (Caesar and Mono-alphabetic) to matrix-based (Hill), digraph (Playfair), and
polyalphabetic techniques (Vigenère).

Explain Linear Congruential and Blum Blum Shub


Algorithm

1. Linear Congruential Generator (LCG)


The Linear Congruential Generator is a method of generating pseudo-random numbers. It is
widely used due to its simplicity and speed but is not cryptographically secure.

Formula

The sequence of random numbers X0 , X1 , X2 , … is generated using:


​ ​ ​

Xn+1 = (a ⋅ Xn + c) mod m
​ ​

Where:

X0 : Initial seed (starting value).


a: Multiplier.
c: Increment.
m: Modulus (determines the range of values).
Xn : Current state.

Properties

1. The values of a, c, m, and X0 determine the quality and period of the generator.

2. Full period: The generator can produce all integers between 0 and m − 1 before
repeating, achieved if:

m and c are relatively prime.


a − 1 is divisible by all prime factors of m.
a − 1 is divisible by 4 if m is a multiple of 4.

Example

Given:

X0 = 5 (seed),

a = 7,

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c = 3,
m = 16,

The sequence is:

X1 = (7 ⋅ 5 + 3) mod 16 = 38 mod 16 = 6

X2 = (7 ⋅ 6 + 3) mod 16 = 45 mod 16 = 13

X3 = (7 ⋅ 13 + 3) mod 16 = 94 mod 16 = 14

Resulting sequence: 5, 6, 13, 14, ….

Advantages

Simple and fast.

Requires little memory.

Disadvantages

Not suitable for cryptographic purposes.

Easy to predict future values if parameters are known.

2. Blum Blum Shub (BBS) Generator


The Blum Blum Shub algorithm is a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number
generator based on modular arithmetic.

Formula

The sequence X0 , X1 , X2 , … is generated using:


​ ​ ​

Xn+1 = (Xn2 ) mod M


​ ​

Where:

X0 : Seed (initial value), chosen as a random integer relatively prime to M .


M = p ⋅ q : Product of two large prime numbers p and q , both congruent to 3 mod 4 (


p, q mod 4 = 3).

Output

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The random bit stream is derived from the least significant bit (LSB) or a subset of bits of Xn . ​

Steps

1. Choose two large primes p and q , and compute M = p ⋅ q.


2. Select a seed X0 , such that gcd(X0 , M )
​ ​ = 1 (seed is relatively prime to M ).
3. Generate the sequence:
Xn+1 = (Xn2 ) mod M
​ ​

4. Extract random bits from Xn (e.g., the LSB).


Example

Given:

p = 7,
q = 11,
M = 7 ⋅ 11 = 77,
Seed X0 ​ = 3,

The sequence is:

X1 = (32 ) mod 77 = 9

X2 = (92 ) mod 77 = 4

X3 = (42 ) mod 77 = 16

Resulting sequence: 3, 9, 4, 16, ….

Advantages

Cryptographically secure: Its security is based on the difficulty of factoring large


numbers (M ).

Generates high-quality random numbers suitable for cryptographic applications.

Disadvantages

Computationally intensive due to modular squaring.

Requires large primes, making it slower than simpler PRNGs like LCG.

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Comparison
Feature LCG Blum Blum Shub (BBS)

Speed Very fast Slower (due to modular squaring)

Security Not cryptographically secure Cryptographically secure

Complexity Simple to implement More complex (requires large primes)

Use Case Simulations, games Cryptography, secure applications

Predictability Easy to predict if parameters known Hard to predict due to factoring problem

Both algorithms serve different purposes: LCG is suitable for general-purpose randomness,
while BBS is designed for cryptographic security.

Explain encryption and decryption using Rail Fence Cipher


and Columnar Transpositional Cipher

1. Rail Fence Cipher


The Rail Fence Cipher is a transposition cipher that arranges plaintext characters in a zigzag
pattern across multiple rows (rails). After arranging the characters, they are read row by row
to create the ciphertext.

Encryption

1. Choose the number of rails (e.g., 2 or 3).

2. Write the plaintext in a zigzag pattern across the rails.

3. Read the characters row by row to generate the ciphertext.

Example:

Plaintext: HELLO WORLD

Number of Rails: 3

Write the text in zigzag:

mathematica

H O R
E L W L D
L O

Ciphertext (row-wise): HOR ELWLD LO → HORLWLDLO

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Decryption

1. Determine the zigzag pattern based on the number of rails.

2. Place the ciphertext characters in their respective positions according to the zigzag
pattern.

3. Read the plaintext row-wise.

Example:

Ciphertext: HORLWLDLO

Number of Rails: 3

Reconstruct the zigzag:

mathematica

H O R
E L W L D
L O

Read zigzag: HELLO WORLD .

2. Columnar Transpositional Cipher


The Columnar Transposition Cipher is a transposition cipher that rearranges the plaintext
based on a keyword. The characters are written row by row in a grid and then read column
by column based on the alphabetical order of the keyword.

Encryption

1. Choose a keyword (e.g., ZEBRA ).

2. Write the plaintext row by row in a grid where the number of columns equals the length
of the keyword.

3. Rearrange the columns in alphabetical order of the keyword.

4. Read the ciphertext column by column.

Example:

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Plaintext: HELLO WORLD

Keyword: ZEBRA

Write the plaintext in a grid:

mathematica

Z E B R A
H E L L O
W O R L D

Rearrange the columns based on the alphabetical order of ZEBRA (A, B, E, R, Z):

mathematica

A B E R Z
O L E L H
D R O L W

Ciphertext (column-wise): OLODRELEHLW .

Decryption

1. Determine the number of rows from the length of the ciphertext and the keyword.

2. Arrange the ciphertext in columns based on the alphabetical order of the keyword.

3. Reorder the columns to their original positions based on the keyword.

4. Read the plaintext row by row.

Example:

Ciphertext: OLODRELEHLW

Keyword: ZEBRA

Rearrange the columns based on A, B, E, R, Z :

mathematica

A B E R Z
O L E L H
D R O L W

Reorder to ZEBRA :

10/43
mathematica

Z E B R A
H E L L O
W O R L D

Plaintext: HELLO WORLD .

Comparison of Rail Fence and Columnar Transpositional Cipher


Feature Rail Fence Cipher Columnar Transpositional Cipher

Type Zigzag transposition Grid-based columnar transposition

Key Number of rails Keyword

Encryption Process Write in zigzag, read row-wise Write in rows, read column-wise

Decryption Process Reconstruct zigzag Reconstruct grid based on keyword order

Security Moderate Higher (depends on keyword complexity)

Both methods are transposition ciphers that rearrange the characters of the plaintext
without changing the actual characters, but the Columnar Cipher is generally more secure
due to the use of a keyword.

Explain encryption and decryption using DES Algorithm and


explain DES in detail, also its drawbacks, meet in the middle
in double DES and triple DES algorithm too

Data Encryption Standard (DES)


The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher that encrypts data in
blocks of 64 bits using a 56-bit key. It performs a series of transformations on the plaintext to
produce the ciphertext.

Encryption Process
1. Initial Permutation (IP):

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The 64-bit plaintext is permuted based on a fixed permutation table.

2. Divide the Plaintext:

Split the permuted plaintext into two halves: Left (L) and Right (R), each of 32 bits.

3. 16 Rounds of Feistel Operations:

Each round involves:

Expansion (E): Expands the 32-bit Right half to 48 bits.

Key Mixing: XOR the expanded Right half with a 48-bit subkey.

Substitution (S-boxes): The 48-bit result is passed through 8 S-boxes to reduce


it to 32 bits.

Permutation (P): The 32-bit output is permuted again.

Swap: The output of the permutation is XORed with the Left half. The Right half
becomes the new Left half for the next round.

4. Final Permutation (FP):

After 16 rounds, the Left and Right halves are combined and permuted using the
inverse of the initial permutation.

Example:

Plaintext: 0123456789ABCDEF

Key: 133457799BBCDFF1

Decryption Process
Decryption in DES uses the same steps as encryption, but the subkeys are applied in reverse
order (i.e., from round 16 to round 1).

Drawbacks of DES
1. Short Key Length:

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DES uses a 56-bit key, which is now considered insecure due to the advancement of
computational power (brute-force attacks can break it).

2. Block Size:

The 64-bit block size is small for modern encryption needs and can lead to patterns
in ciphertext when encrypting large datasets.

3. Vulnerability to Cryptanalysis:

DES is vulnerable to linear and differential cryptanalysis.

4. Lack of Scalability:

DES does not support variable key lengths, making it inflexible compared to modern
ciphers.

Double DES and Meet-in-the-Middle Attack


To improve security, Double DES was introduced, which applies DES encryption twice with
two different keys.

Double DES Process:

1. Encryption:

Ciphertext C = EK2 (EK1 (P )), where P is the plaintext, and K1, K2 are two
​ ​

different keys.

2. Decryption:

Plaintext P = DK1 (DK2 (C)).


​ ​

Meet-in-the-Middle Attack:

Concept: Even with two keys, Double DES is susceptible to this attack, which reduces the
effective key space from 2112 to 257 .

How it works:

1. For known plaintext P and ciphertext C , calculate intermediate values for all
possible K1: EK1 (P ).

2. Similarly, calculate DK2 (C) for all possible K2.


3. Look for a match between these two sets of intermediate values.

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Triple DES (3DES)
Triple DES addresses the shortcomings of Double DES by encrypting the data three times
using two or three keys.

Modes:

1. 2-Key Triple DES:

Encryption: C = EK1 (DK2 (EK1 (P )))


​ ​ ​

Decryption: P = DK1 (EK2 (DK1 (C)))


​ ​ ​

Effective key size: 112 bits.

2. 3-Key Triple DES:

Encryption: C = EK1 (DK2 (EK3 (P )))


​ ​ ​

Decryption: P = DK3 (EK2 (DK1 (C)))


​ ​ ​

Effective key size: 168 bits.

Advantages:

Provides stronger security than DES or Double DES.

Backward compatible with DES by setting K1 = K2 = K3.

Drawbacks:

1. Slower due to triple encryption.

2. Vulnerable to known-plaintext attacks like chosen-ciphertext attacks when used without


care.

Comparison
Feature DES Double DES Triple DES

Key Length 56 bits 112 bits 112/168 bits

Effective Security Weak Vulnerable to MITM Stronger

Performance Fast Moderate Slower

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Feature DES Double DES Triple DES

Vulnerabilities Brute force, cryptanalysis Meet-in-the-middle Slower, complex

Conclusion
While DES played a significant role in the history of cryptography, its vulnerabilities have
rendered it obsolete for modern applications. Triple DES offers improved security but is now
being replaced by Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) due to its efficiency and stronger
resistance to cryptanalysis.

Explain encryption and decryption using AES Algorithm and


explain AES in detail

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)


The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric-key block cipher adopted by the
U.S. government as the encryption standard. It is widely used because of its efficiency,
flexibility, and strong security.

Key Features of AES


Key Sizes: AES supports key sizes of 128 bits, 192 bits, or 256 bits.

Block Size: 128 bits (fixed).

Number of Rounds:

10 rounds for 128-bit keys.

12 rounds for 192-bit keys.

14 rounds for 256-bit keys.

Structure: Substitution-Permutation Network (SPN).

Mode of Operation: Encrypts data in blocks (e.g., CBC, ECB, GCM, etc.).

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Steps in AES Encryption
AES operates on a 4x4 matrix of bytes called the state. Each step manipulates this state to
produce ciphertext.

1. Key Expansion

The initial key is expanded into multiple round keys using the AES key schedule algorithm.
Each round uses a unique key derived from this expansion.

2. Initial Round

AddRoundKey: The plaintext matrix (state) is XORed with the first round key.

3. Main Rounds (Repeated Rounds)

Each round consists of four operations:

1. SubBytes:

Each byte in the state is replaced with a corresponding byte from the S-box
(substitution box).

The S-box is non-linear and designed to provide strong resistance against


cryptanalysis.

2. ShiftRows:

Rows of the state are shifted left by a specific number of bytes.

1st row: No shift.

2nd row: Shift left by 1 byte.

3rd row: Shift left by 2 bytes.

4th row: Shift left by 3 bytes.

3. MixColumns:

Each column of the state is transformed using a fixed matrix multiplication over a
Galois Field (GF(2⁸)).

Provides diffusion of bits across columns.

4. AddRoundKey:

The state is XORed with the round key for the current round.

4. Final Round

The final round excludes the MixColumns step and only performs:

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SubBytes

ShiftRows

AddRoundKey

The result after the final round is the ciphertext.

Steps in AES Decryption


Decryption is the reverse of encryption, performed using the same key but applying the
operations in reverse order:

1. Inverse AddRoundKey.

2. Inverse ShiftRows (shift right instead of left).

3. Inverse SubBytes (using the inverse S-box).

4. Inverse MixColumns.

Decryption applies the round keys in reverse order, starting with the last round key.

Example of AES Encryption


1. Plaintext: 00112233445566778899aabbccddeeff (128 bits).

2. Key: 000102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f (128 bits).

3. Process:

Initial AddRoundKey.

Perform 10 rounds (SubBytes, ShiftRows, MixColumns, AddRoundKey).

Final AddRoundKey produces the ciphertext.

4. Ciphertext: 69c4e0d86a7b0430d8cdb78070b4c55a .

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Detailed Explanation of AES Components
1. SubBytes:

Uses a substitution box (S-box) to replace each byte in the state with a
corresponding byte.

Provides non-linearity to the encryption process.

2. ShiftRows:

Introduces inter-byte diffusion by cyclically shifting rows of the state.

3. MixColumns:

Each column of the state is mixed using a matrix multiplication. This step diffuses
the bits across the entire column.

4. AddRoundKey:

XORs the state with the round key, ensuring the ciphertext is dependent on the
encryption key.

Advantages of AES
1. Security:

Resistant to known cryptanalytic attacks such as linear and differential cryptanalysis.

Larger key sizes (192, 256 bits) provide additional security.

2. Flexibility:

AES supports variable key sizes and is efficient for both hardware and software
implementations.

3. Speed:

AES is faster than older algorithms like DES, especially with modern CPUs
supporting hardware acceleration (e.g., Intel AES-NI).

4. Standardization:

Widely adopted as a global encryption standard (e.g., by banks, governments, and


industry).

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Drawbacks of AES
1. Key Management:

Proper key management is crucial; losing the key renders encrypted data
inaccessible.

2. Block Size:

Fixed block size (128 bits) might be insufficient for certain applications, requiring
additional modes of operation like GCM or CBC.

AES vs DES
Feature AES DES

Key Size 128, 192, or 256 bits 56 bits

Block Size 128 bits 64 bits

Rounds 10, 12, or 14 16 rounds

Security Strong (resistant to attacks) Weak (vulnerable to brute force)

Speed Faster (optimized for modern hardware) Slower

Conclusion
AES is a robust and efficient encryption standard designed to meet modern security
requirements. Its flexibility, speed, and resistance to cryptanalysis have made it the default
choice for encrypting sensitive data in various applications, from securing government
communications to protecting online banking transactions.

Explain RSA algorithm in detail along with encryption and


decryption using RSA

RSA Algorithm: A Detailed Explanation

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The RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) algorithm is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm. It
uses a pair of keys: a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption. RSA is
based on the mathematical difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime numbers,
making it highly secure.

Steps of RSA Algorithm

1. Key Generation

1. Choose Two Large Prime Numbers:

Let p and q be two large prime numbers.

2. Compute n:

n=p⋅q

n is used as the modulus for both public and private keys.


3. Calculate Euler’s Totient Function ϕ(n):

ϕ(n) = (p − 1) ⋅ (q − 1)

ϕ(n) is the number of integers less than n that are relatively prime to n.
4. Choose Public Key e:

e must satisfy 1 < e < ϕ(n) and gcd(e, ϕ(n)) = 1.


Common values for e: 3, 5, 17, 65537.

5. Calculate Private Key d:

d is the modular multiplicative inverse of e mod ϕ(n):

d⋅e≡1 mod ϕ(n)

This can be calculated using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.

6. Public and Private Keys:

Public Key: (e, n).

Private Key: (d, n).

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2. Encryption

1. Represent the plaintext as an integer M , where 0 ≤ M < n.


2. Compute the ciphertext C :

C = Me mod n
3. The ciphertext C is sent to the receiver.

3. Decryption

1. Compute the plaintext M from the ciphertext C :

M = Cd mod n
2. The original message M is recovered.

Example of RSA Encryption and Decryption

Step 1: Key Generation

1. Choose p = 17, q = 11:

n = p ⋅ q = 17 ⋅ 11 = 187

ϕ(n) = (p − 1) ⋅ (q − 1) = 16 ⋅ 10 = 160
2. Choose e = 7 (common value):

gcd(7, 160) = 1
3. Compute d (modular inverse of e mod ϕ(n)):

d⋅e≡1 mod ϕ(n)

Using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm:

d = 23
4. Public Key: (e, n) = (7, 187).
Private Key: (d, n) = (23, 187).

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Step 2: Encryption

Plaintext: M = 88.
Compute ciphertext C :

C = Me mod n = 887 mod 187

Simplifying:

887 mod 187 = 11

Ciphertext: C = 11.

Step 3: Decryption

Ciphertext: C = 11.
Compute plaintext M :

M = Cd mod n = 1123 mod 187

Simplifying:

1123 mod 187 = 88

Plaintext: M = 88.

Advantages of RSA
1. Asymmetric: No need to share private keys, improving security.

2. Scalable: Security increases with larger key sizes.

3. Versatility: Used for encryption, digital signatures, and key exchange.

22/43
Disadvantages of RSA
1. Slow: Computationally intensive compared to symmetric algorithms.

2. Large Key Size: Requires large keys (1024 bits or more) for adequate security.

3. Vulnerability to Padding Attacks: Without proper padding (e.g., OAEP), RSA is


susceptible to certain attacks.

Security of RSA
RSA's security relies on:

1. The difficulty of factoring large numbers (n = p ⋅ q ).


2. Proper key generation (ensuring e and d are chosen securely).

3. Use of padding schemes (to prevent attacks like chosen ciphertext).

Applications of RSA
1. Secure Communications:

Encrypting data with the recipient's public key.

2. Digital Signatures:

Signing a message with the sender's private key to verify authenticity.

3. Key Exchange:

Securely exchanging symmetric encryption keys.

RSA remains a cornerstone of modern cryptography, but with the advent of quantum
computing, its security may face challenges, making post-quantum algorithms a research
priority.

Explain Euclid algorithm for GCD and Extended Euclid


Algorithm

23/43
Euclid's Algorithm for GCD
Euclid's Algorithm is a simple and efficient method for finding the greatest common divisor
(GCD) of two integers. The GCD of two integers is the largest integer that divides both
numbers without leaving a remainder.

Steps of Euclid's Algorithm


1. Given two integers a and b, where a > b, compute the remainder r when a is divided by
b:

r=a mod b
2. Replace a with b and b with r .

3. Repeat step 1 until r = 0. At this point, b is the GCD of a and b.

Example

Find the GCD of 56 and 98.

1. 98 mod 56 = 42
Replace a = 56, b = 42.

2. 56 mod 42 = 14
Replace a = 42, b = 14.

3. 42 mod 14 = 0.
GCD is 14.

Extended Euclid's Algorithm


The Extended Euclid Algorithm not only finds the GCD of two integers but also expresses it
in the form:

GCD(a, b) = ax + by

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where x and y are integers (called the coefficients).

This property is particularly useful in cryptography for finding the modular multiplicative
inverse of a number.

Steps of Extended Euclid's Algorithm


1. Start with two integers a and b.

2. Apply Euclid's algorithm to compute the GCD:


ri = ai−1
​ ​ mod ai ​ where ai+1 = ri
​ ​

3. Backtrack to express the GCD as a linear combination of a and b:

GCD = ax + by

Recursive Implementation

1. Base Case:

If b = 0, then GCD(a, b) = a, x = 1, y = 0.
2. Recursive Step:

GCD(a, b) = GCD(b, a mod b)

Backtrack using:
a
x = y1 , ​ y = x1 − ⌊ ⌋ ⋅ y 1
​ ​ ​

Example

Find the GCD of a = 56 and b = 98, and the coefficients x and y .


1. Euclid's Algorithm:

98 mod 56 = 42
56 mod 42 = 14

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42 mod 14 = 0
GCD = 14.

2. Backtrack to Find x and y :

14 = 56 − 1 ⋅ 42
42 = 98 − 1 ⋅ 56

Substitute:

14 = 56 − 1 ⋅ (98 − 1 ⋅ 56)

Simplify:

14 = 2 ⋅ 56 − 1 ⋅ 98

Coefficients: x = 2, y = −1.

Applications
1. Cryptography:

Used in the RSA algorithm to compute the modular inverse of a number.

2. Diophantine Equations:

Solving linear equations of the form ax + by = c.


3. Computer Algorithms:

Efficient calculation of GCD in programming.

Key Properties
1. Efficiency:

Euclid's algorithm is logarithmic in time complexity: O(log(min(a, b))).

2. Extended Algorithm:

Provides x and y , which are crucial for modular arithmetic.

26/43
This algorithm is a foundational tool in number theory and is indispensable in cryptographic
systems like RSA.

⁠Explain Diffie-Helman Algorithm in detail using an example


and also explain the Man-In-The-Middle Attack

Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange Algorithm


The Diffie-Hellman (DH) algorithm is a method for securely exchanging cryptographic keys
over a public channel. It allows two parties to establish a shared secret without needing to
transmit the secret directly.

Key Features
1. Asymmetric Process: Uses mathematical properties of modular arithmetic and discrete
logarithms.

2. Secure: The shared secret is computed independently by both parties and never
transmitted.

3. Vulnerability: Susceptible to a Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack if not paired with


authentication mechanisms.

Steps of Diffie-Hellman Algorithm


1. Public Parameters:

Choose a large prime number p.

Choose a primitive root g modulo p (a number whose powers generate all integers
modulo p).

2. Private Keys:

Each party selects a private key:

Alice chooses a, a secret integer.

Bob chooses b, a secret integer.

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3. Compute Public Keys:

Alice computes A = g a mod p.


Bob computes B = g b mod p.
4. Exchange Public Keys:

Alice sends A to Bob.

Bob sends B to Alice.

5. Compute Shared Secret:

Alice computes the shared secret: S = B a mod p.


Bob computes the shared secret: S = Ab mod p.
Both S values are identical because:

Ba mod p = (g b mod p)a mod p = g ab mod p

Ab mod p = (g a mod p)b mod p = g ab mod p

This shared secret S can now be used as a symmetric key for encrypting communication.

Example of Diffie-Hellman
1. Public Parameters:

p = 23, a prime number.


g = 5, a primitive root modulo 23.
2. Private Keys:

Alice chooses a = 6.
Bob chooses b = 15.
3. Compute Public Keys:

Alice computes:
A = ga mod p = 56 mod 23 = 15625 mod 23 = 8
Bob computes:
B = gb mod p = 515 mod 23 = 30517578125 mod 23 = 19
4. Exchange Public Keys:

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Alice sends A = 8 to Bob.
Bob sends B = 19 to Alice.
5. Compute Shared Secret:

Alice computes:
S = Ba mod p = 196 mod 23 = 47045881 mod 23 = 2
Bob computes:
S = Ab mod p = 815 mod 23 = 35184372088832 mod 23 = 2

The shared secret is S = 2.

Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack


The Diffie-Hellman algorithm does not inherently authenticate the parties involved in the key
exchange. This makes it vulnerable to a Man-in-the-Middle Attack, where an attacker
intercepts and manipulates the communication.

How MITM Attack Works

1. Setup:

Attacker (Mallory) intercepts the communication between Alice and Bob.

2. Intercept and Replace:

Mallory establishes separate Diffie-Hellman exchanges with Alice and Bob:

Mallory exchanges keys with Alice pretending to be Bob.

Mallory exchanges keys with Bob pretending to be Alice.

3. Fake Key Exchange:

Alice computes a shared secret with Mallory (SAlice−M allory ).​

Bob computes a shared secret with Mallory (SBob−M allory ).​

Mallory knows both shared secrets and can decrypt, alter, and re-encrypt messages.

4. Result:

Mallory can read and manipulate the messages between Alice and Bob without their
knowledge.

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Preventing MITM Attack

1. Authentication Mechanisms:

Use digital signatures or certificates to authenticate the parties.

For example, combine Diffie-Hellman with protocols like TLS (Transport Layer
Security).

2. Pre-Shared Secrets:

Exchange a password or secret key offline to verify the authenticity of public keys.

3. Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH):

Adds stronger security while maintaining efficient key exchange.

Advantages of Diffie-Hellman
1. Secure key exchange without transmitting the shared secret.

2. Foundation for many modern cryptographic protocols (e.g., TLS, VPNs).

3. Scalable for large networks.

Disadvantages
1. Vulnerable to MITM attacks without authentication.

2. Computationally expensive for very large primes.

3. Susceptible to quantum computing attacks in the future.

Conclusion
The Diffie-Hellman algorithm is a cornerstone of modern cryptography for secure key
exchange. While powerful, it must be combined with authentication mechanisms to ensure

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security against MITM attacks.

Explain SHA algorithm and its limitations, explain SHA-1


and SHA-512 in detail along with their steps

Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)


The Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) family is a collection of cryptographic hash functions
designed to produce a fixed-size hash value from input data of arbitrary length. It is widely
used in digital signatures, message authentication, and data integrity verification.

General Features of SHA


1. Deterministic: Produces the same hash for the same input.

2. Fixed Output Size: Hash length is fixed regardless of input size (e.g., 160 bits for SHA-1,
512 bits for SHA-512).

3. Efficient: Can hash large amounts of data quickly.

4. Collision Resistance: Difficult to find two different inputs with the same hash.

5. Preimage Resistance: Given a hash, it is computationally infeasible to find the original


input.

SHA Variants
SHA-1: Produces a 160-bit hash.

SHA-2:

Includes SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512.

SHA-512 produces a 512-bit hash.

SHA-3: Based on the Keccak algorithm; supports customizable hash lengths.

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Limitations of SHA
1. Collision Susceptibility:

SHA-1 has been deprecated due to vulnerabilities in collision resistance.

SHA-2 improves this but may face risks from quantum computing.

2. Speed:

Faster hash functions like BLAKE and Keccak are more efficient for certain
applications.

3. Quantum Vulnerability:

Quantum computers may reduce the complexity of brute-force attacks on SHA


functions.

SHA-1 in Detail

Key Features

Produces a 160-bit hash value.

Processes input in 512-bit blocks.

Includes 80 rounds of operations.

Vulnerable to collision attacks, making it unsuitable for secure applications.

Steps in SHA-1

1. Padding:

Append a '1' bit followed by enough '0' bits to make the message length congruent
to 448 modulo 512.

Append a 64-bit representation of the original message length.

2. Divide Message into Blocks:

Divide the padded message into 512-bit blocks.

3. Initialize Variables:

Five 32-bit variables h0 , h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 are initialized to fixed constants.


​ ​ ​ ​ ​

4. Process Each Block:

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Expand the block into 80 words (32 bits each) using a specific formula.

Use the variables and words in 80 rounds of operations, involving bitwise logical
functions, additions modulo 232 , and left rotations.

5. Update Hash Values:

After processing each block, update the hash values h0 , h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 .


​ ​

6. Output:

Concatenate h0 , h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 to produce the final 160-bit hash.


​ ​ ​ ​ ​

SHA-512 in Detail

Key Features

Produces a 512-bit hash value.

Processes input in 1024-bit blocks.

Includes 80 rounds of operations.

More secure than SHA-1 and SHA-256.

Steps in SHA-512

1. Padding:

Append a '1' bit followed by enough '0' bits to make the message length congruent
to 896 modulo 1024.

Append a 128-bit representation of the original message length.

2. Divide Message into Blocks:

Divide the padded message into 1024-bit blocks.

3. Initialize Variables:

Eight 64-bit variables h0 , h1 , … , h7 are initialized to fixed constants.


​ ​ ​

4. Process Each Block:

Expand the block into 80 words (64 bits each) using a specific formula.

Use these words in 80 rounds of operations involving:

Logical functions: Ch, M aj, Σ0 , Σ1 . ​ ​

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Additions modulo 264 .

Constants specific to each round.

5. Update Hash Values:

After processing each block, update the hash values h0 , h1 , … , h7 .


​ ​

6. Output:

Concatenate h0 , h1 , … , h7 to produce the final 512-bit hash.


​ ​ ​

Comparison of SHA-1 and SHA-512


Feature SHA-1 SHA-512

Hash Length 160 bits 512 bits

Block Size 512 bits 1024 bits

Rounds 80 80

Security Vulnerable to collision attacks Highly secure

Performance Faster, less secure Slower, more secure

Application Deprecated, used in legacy Modern cryptography and secure


systems applications

Example

SHA-1 Example

Input: "Hello"

Padded message: [Binary representation of "Hello" with padding]

Hash: f7c3bc1d808e04732adf679965ccc34ca7ae3441

SHA-512 Example

Input: "Hello"

Padded message: [Binary representation of "Hello" with padding]

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Hash:
3615f80c9d293ed7402687c15deed1c1873d3451e2308c49d58c599d47c5fa12cb42ed7a584f3e

5d5177fe064b1e9c36e76fb33163dc7f97e9631a9b280685b7

Conclusion
SHA-1: Obsolete and insecure; avoid using for sensitive data.

SHA-512: A robust and secure hashing algorithm suitable for modern cryptographic
applications, including digital certificates and secure communication protocols. However,
for future-proofing against quantum threats, SHA-3 and other post-quantum algorithms
are under consideration.

Write a program that creates a shortcut of a file using


python (Virus program) (I want this code for the viva
preparation, so just provide me explanation of code) Code:
import winshell
import os
def create_shortcut(target_file, shortcut_path,
shortcut_name):
# Full path for the shortcut (with .lnk extension)
shortcut = os.path.join(shortcut_path, f"
{shortcut_name}.lnk")
# Create the shortcut
with winshell.shortcut(shortcut) as link:
link.path = target_file # Path of the file to which the
shortcut is
linked
link.working_directory = os.path.dirname(target_file) #
Working
directory
link.description = f"Shortcut to
{os.path.basename(target_file)}" #
Shortcut description
print(f"Shortcut created at: {shortcut}")
if _name_ == "_main_":
# Take user input for the target file (the file to create a
shortcut for)
target_file = input("Enter the full path of the file for which

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you want to
create a shortcut: ")
# Take user input for the directory where the shortcut will
be created
shortcut_path = input("Enter the directory where you want
the shortcut to
be created: ")
# Take user input for the shortcut name
shortcut_name = input("Enter the name of the shortcut: ")
create_shortcut(target_file, shortcut_path, shortcut_name)

The provided Python program creates a shortcut to a specified file in a user-defined


directory. Here’s a detailed explanation of the code:

Explanation

1. Import Required Modules

python

import winshell
import os

winshell : A Python module used to create and manipulate Windows shortcuts.

os : Provides functionality to interact with the file system, such as joining paths or
retrieving directory names.

2. Function Definition

python

def create_shortcut(target_file, shortcut_path, shortcut_name):

Parameters:

target_file : The full path of the file for which the shortcut will be created.

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shortcut_path : The directory where the shortcut will be placed.

shortcut_name : The name of the shortcut file.

3. Determine Shortcut Path

python

shortcut = os.path.join(shortcut_path, f"{shortcut_name}.lnk")

Combines the shortcut_path and shortcut_name with the .lnk extension to create
the full path for the shortcut.

4. Create the Shortcut

python

with winshell.shortcut(shortcut) as link:


link.path = target_file # Path of the target file
link.working_directory = os.path.dirname(target_file) # Directory of the target
file
link.description = f"Shortcut to {os.path.basename(target_file)}" # Description
of the shortcut

winshell.shortcut : Opens the shortcut file for writing.

link.path : Specifies the file that the shortcut points to.

link.working_directory : Sets the working directory for the shortcut to the directory
containing the target file.

link.description : Adds a description for the shortcut.

5. Print Success Message

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python

print(f"Shortcut created at: {shortcut}")

Displays the location of the created shortcut.

6. Main Function

python

if __name__ == "__main__":

Ensures that the following code runs only when the script is executed directly, not when
imported as a module.

7. Take User Input

python

target_file = input("Enter the full path of the file for which you want to create a
shortcut: ")
shortcut_path = input("Enter the directory where you want the shortcut to be
created: ")
shortcut_name = input("Enter the name of the shortcut: ")
create_shortcut(target_file, shortcut_path, shortcut_name)

input() : Prompts the user for:

The file to be linked ( target_file ).

The directory where the shortcut will be created ( shortcut_path ).

The name of the shortcut ( shortcut_name ).

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Execution Flow
1. The user provides the path of the target file, directory for the shortcut, and the shortcut
name.

2. The program combines the directory and shortcut name to form the .lnk path.

3. Using winshell , the shortcut is created, linking it to the target file.

4. A success message is printed with the shortcut location.

Example Use Case


Input:

Target File: C:\Users\User\Documents\file.txt

Shortcut Path: C:\Users\User\Desktop

Shortcut Name: MyShortcut

Output:

Creates a shortcut named MyShortcut.lnk on the desktop, pointing to file.txt .

Notes
This program is safe for educational purposes but can be misused as part of a "virus" by
linking to malicious files.

Always ensure ethical usage of such scripts.

⁠Explain digital signature algorithms NIST, Elgammal and


Schnor digital signature

Digital Signature Algorithms


Digital signature algorithms are cryptographic techniques used to authenticate the integrity
and origin of a message or document. They provide non-repudiation, meaning the sender
cannot deny signing the message.

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1. NIST Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)
The NIST Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) is a U.S. federal standard for digital signatures,
specified in the Digital Signature Standard (DSS) by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST).

Key Features

Based on the mathematical principles of modular arithmetic and discrete logarithms.

Relies on parameters: a prime p, a prime divisor q , and a generator g of a subgroup of


order q .

Steps

1. Key Generation:

Choose a private key x (0 < x < q ).


Compute the public key y = g x mod p.
2. Signing:

Select a random k (0 < k < q ).


Compute r = (g k mod p) mod q .
Compute s = (k −1 (H(m) + xr)) mod q , where H(m) is the hash of the
message.

3. Verification:

Compute w = s−1 mod q .


Calculate u1 ​ = (H(m) ⋅ w) mod q and u2 = (r ⋅ w) mod q .

Compute v = ((g u1 ⋅ y u2 ) mod p) mod q .


​ ​

If v = r, the signature is valid.

Use Cases

Government standards, financial transactions, and secure communications.

2. ElGamal Digital Signature Algorithm

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The ElGamal Signature Scheme is based on the Diffie-Hellman key exchange and relies on
the discrete logarithm problem for security.

Key Features

Involves parameters: a large prime p, a generator g , and a private key x.

Public key: y = g x mod p.

Steps

1. Key Generation:

Choose a private key x (0 < x < p − 1).


Compute the public key y = g x mod p.
2. Signing:

Select a random k (0 < k < p − 1 and gcd(k, p − 1) = 1).


Compute r = g k mod p.
Compute s = k −1 (H(m) − xr) mod (p − 1), where H(m) is the hash of the
message.

3. Verification:

Compute v1 ​ = y r ⋅ rs mod p.
Compute v2 ​ = g H(m) mod p.
If v1 ​ = v2 , the signature is valid.

Use Cases

Secure email communication, encryption, and digital signatures.

3. Schnorr Digital Signature Algorithm


The Schnorr Signature Scheme is a lightweight and efficient digital signature algorithm
based on modular arithmetic and discrete logarithms.

Key Features

Simpler and faster than DSA or ElGamal.

Relies on a group of prime order q with generator g .

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Steps

1. Key Generation:

Choose a private key x (0 < x < q ).


Compute the public key y = g x mod p.
2. Signing:

Choose a random k (0 < k < q ).


Compute r = g k mod p.
Compute e = H(m∣∣r) mod q , where ∣∣ denotes concatenation and H is a hash
function.

Compute s = (k − e ⋅ x) mod q .
3. Verification:

Compute r ′ = (g s ⋅ y e ) mod p.
Compute e′ = H(m∣∣r′ ) mod q .
If e′ = e, the signature is valid.

Use Cases

Blockchain technology, cryptocurrencies, and lightweight applications requiring efficient


signatures.

Comparison of NIST DSA, ElGamal, and Schnorr


Feature NIST DSA ElGamal Schnorr

Security Discrete logarithm Discrete logarithm Discrete logarithm


Basis

Efficiency Moderate Moderate High

Signature Large Large Small


Size

Complexity High High Low

Use Cases Government, financial Secure communication, Blockchain, lightweight


systems emails apps

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Conclusion
Each algorithm has its strengths and weaknesses. The choice depends on the application:

NIST DSA is widely adopted but complex.

ElGamal is versatile but computationally heavy.

Schnorr is lightweight and efficient, making it suitable for modern applications like
blockchain.

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