1.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To determine the characteristics curves of a zener diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Battery, zener diode, milliammeter, micrometer, rheostat, voltmeter

PROCEDURE:

Forward bias:

The connections are made as shown in the image. Here the Zener diode which is the
anode connected to the positive of the battery is said to be forward biased. The
forward bias voltage is increased from 0-1V in steps of 0±V and in each case the
milliammeter readings are noted.

S.No. Voltage Vf (volts) Curren If (mA)

Reverse bias: The connections are made as shown in the figure. There the Zener diode
is said to be reverse-biased. The reverse bias voltage is increased from 0V to 6V in
steps of 0.4V and in each case the microammeter readings are noted.

S.No. Voltage Vr (volts) Curren Ir (µA)

Graph:

A graph is drawn taking the voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I) along the
y-axis. The model graph is shown in the figure. The position of the graph in the first
quadrant represents the forward bias characteristics and the portions in the third
quadrant represent the Zener diode at which an enormous amount of current flows
through the diode.
Result:

The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a Zener diode were studied and the
graph is drawn.

The Zener breakdown voltage is

2. YOUNGS MODULUS BY NON-UNIFORM (PIN AND MICROSCOPE)

AIM:

To determine the young’s modulus of the material of a beam by non-uniform bending

method using pin and microscope

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A uniform rectangular team two equivalent knife edge, a weight hanger with shoted
weights, vernier microscope pin and screw gauge.
FORMULA:
3
Mg L
q= 3 (N/m2)
4 bd y
q-Young’s modulus of the material of a given beam [N/m2]

M-Mass for which the shift is calculated [kg]

g-Acceleration due to gravity [9.8m/s2]
d-Thickness of the beam[m]
b-Breadth of the beam[m]
y-Shift produced for given mass[m]
PROCEDURE:

The rectangular beam of about a meter in length is supported horizontally on the two
knife edges at points equidistant from the edges. A pin is fixed vertically at the
midpoint of the bar with its pointed end directed upwards. A weigh hanger is
supported at the midpoint. A microscope is placed horizontally in front of the pin to
focus the tip.
The bar is brought into an elastic mod by loading and unloading it with a suitable
weight a number.

A dead load say a kg is added to the weight anger and the microscope is so that the
horizontal line coincides with the tip of that pin the vertical scale reading is taken the
load is increased in steps of 50 g and every time the microscope is repeated taken.

The experiment is repeated and unloaded readings are tabulated. The depression in
the scale readings for that load of mKg is formed.

LEAST COUNT FOR SCREW GAUGE:

To determine the thickness:

LEAST COUNT FOR Vernier:

To determine the breadth:

Least Count For Travelling Microscope:

To find the Shift:

Result:

The Young’s modulus of the material of the beam by non-uniform bending by using
pin and microscope was found to be

3. AIRWEDGE – THICKNESS OF THIN

AIM:

To determine the thickness of a thin wire by observing interference fringes due to an

air wedge
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Two optically plane glass plates, given wire and sodium light microscope

FORMULA:

l
t= (m)
2
t – Thickness of a given wire (m)
 - Wavelength of light used (m)
l = Distance between the wire and the tighted end of the system
 - Width of one fringe
Two optically plane glass plates are placed over each other and tied at one end. The
given wire is introduced at the other end so that the air wedge is formed between the
plates. The plate's distance “t” between the wire and the tied end is measured using a
microscope.

Light from a sodium vapour lamp is rendered parallel by condensing line L. The
parallel beam incident on a glass plate is inclined at an angle 48 to the horizontal at
an angle 45 to the horizontal and gets rejected. The rejected light is viewed through
an eyepiece of a microscope. The microscope is moved up and down and adjusted for
inference fringes an alternate brightness and darkness. The microscope is fixed so that
the vertical cross wire coincides with the fixed edge of the dark bands (say that the
edge of the dark bands are taken). The microscope is moved across and the readings
are taken. When fixed vertical cross wire coincides with the fixed edges (n+2) (n+4)
dark bands the readings are tabulated from observation the width  for a band is
calculated.

The  is the wavelength of light illuminating the system then the angle of the wedge
❑
is given by σ = 2 .
Result:
The thickness of the given wire air wedge was found to be

4. RIGIDITY MODULUS – STATIC TORSION

AIM:

To determine the verification of the rigidity modulus of the material of the rod using
searl’s apparatus

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Searl’s static tension apparatus, weight hanger with slotted weights, screw gauge, a
plane mirror, stip scale and telescope

4 MgRLD
G= 4 (N/m2)
a S

G-Rigidity modulus of the material of a rod (N/m2)

M-Mass added in kg for which shift S is produced im metre (m)
g-Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
L-Length of the rod from the clamped end to the plane mirror strip (m)
R-Radius of the wheel (m)
D-Distance between mirror and scale (m)
a-Radius of rod (m)
S-Shift in scale reading for a load M (kg)
A plane mirror strip is fixed to the rod of a distance L from the fixed to the rod. A
vertical scale and telescope T are arranged in front of the mirror and adjusted so that
the reflected image of the scale in the mirror is seen a reflected image of the scale in
the mirror is seen through the telescope with some dead load W on the hanger the
reading of the scale division coincides with horizontal cross wire taken. The weights
are added are taken in steps of m Kg readings are taken again. The torque is reversed
by passing the tops anticlockwise on the wheel the torque readings are taken through
the shift in scale. The shift through for a load m Kg is found.

The length l of the rod from the fixed end to the mirror is measured the mean radius
of the rod is accurately measured with the screw gauge. The radius of the wheel is
found by measuring the circumference with a thread the distance D between the scale
and the mirror is measured with the metre scale. G is calculated by using the formula.

Least count for Screw gauge:

 Pitch
Least count= =0.01 mm
No . of MSD
Distance moved on Pitch Scale 2
Pitch= = =1
No . of Head Scale Division 2
Result:

The rigidity modulus of the material of the rod using the static torsion was found to
be

5. VERIFICATION OF DE MORGAN’S THEOREM

AIM:

To verify the two de morgan’s theorem using IC’s.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

IC 7404 NOT, IC 7408 AND , IC 7432 OR, power supply voltmeter

THEOREM I:

The complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complement (i.e)

(A+B)’=A’.B’

THEOREM II:
The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complement (i.e)
(A.B)’=A’+B’

Verification of first theorem:

The IC 7404, 7408 and 7438 are connected as shown in the figure. Output is
simultaneously measured by two DC voltmeter for various combinations of inputs,
outputs are measured and tabulated as shown.

Verification of second theorem:

The IC 7404, 7408 and 7438 are connected as shown in the figure. The outputs are
measured for various possible combinations of inputs.

IC 7404
IC 7408

IC 7432
Result:
De Morgan’s theorem was verified using the IC 7432, IC 7408 and IC 7404.

6. SONOMETER – FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS

AIM:

To determine the frequency of the ac mains using a sonometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sonometer, a low voltage ac source, steel wire, electromagnet, slotted weight, a metre
scale, screw gauge

PROCEDURE:

A steel wire is mounted on a sonometer under suitable tension. An electromagnet is

excited by the low voltage alternating current whose frequency is to be determined.
The electromagnet is placed just above the sonometer wire. The wire is attracted
twice in each well.

A small paper rider is placed on the wire. The length of the wire is adjusted until the
paper rider placed at the centre of the vibrating segment l is measured. The
experiment is repeated for different tensions.
The mass per unit length of the wire is determined by finding the mass of a given
length of wire.

n=
( 2 √1m )( √lT ) (Hz)
T =Mg (N)
2
m=r d (kg/m)

f- Frequency of A.C main (Hz)

l -length of vibrating segment (m)
m-mass per unit length of the sonometer wire (kg/m)
T-Tension applied
M-Mass added
g-Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
r-Radius of sonometer wire (m)
d-Density of material wire (kg/m3)
for steel d=7800 kg/m3
Result:
The frequency of the od AC mains supply using steel wire and electromagnet was
found to be

7. CALIBRATION OF LOW RANGE VOLTMETER – POTENTIOMETER

AIM:

To calibrate the given low range voltmeter using potentiometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

The given low range voltmeter, 0-10 meter, potentiometer, an accumulator, a

plugkey, a Daniel cell, a table galvanometer of high resistance

PROCEDURE:

a) To find the potential fall across metre length of the potentiometer:

 A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive of a battery to the end A of
the potentiometer and its negative to the end B through a key.
 A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive pole of the daniel cell to
‘A’ and its negative to the jockey through a table galvanometer and high
resistance.  The balancing length l is noted.
 The potential across the meter length of the potentiometer is 1.08/ 𝑙0 (V/m).
b) To calibrate the given low range ammeter:
 The primary of the potentiometer is left undisturbed.
 A secondary circuit is made by connecting resistance box ‘B’ in series with the
given ammeter, plug key, rheostat and body of accumulator.
 Connect the positive terminal of ‘B’ to end ‘A’ and its negative terminal to the
jockey through a galvanometer and high resistance.
Include a resistance in ‘R’ adjust the rheostat to have a reading ‘S’ in the
ammeter. Find the balancing length ‘l’ in metre. The current in ‘R’ and hence
through the ammeter is given by ,
Vʹ = 1.08/lo x l (V)
Vʹ = E/lo x l (V)
OBSERVED BALANCING
READING IN LENGTH CALCULATED CORRECTION
THE AMMETER READING
l
I vʹ vʹ- v
(Ampere) (cm) (Ampere) (Ampere)
RESULT :
The given low range voltmeter is calibrated for different readings on it and the
calibration graph is drawn.

8. SPECTROMETER – GRATING – DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH

OF THE MERCURY LINES

AIM:

To determine the number of lines per meter of the grating and the prominent lens of
the mercury spectrum

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Spectrometer, grating, mercury lamp

sinθ
λ= (m)
mN
Least count of spectrometer:
 MSD 30
Least count= = =1
n 30

Lest count for Vernier calliper:

1 0.1
Least count= XMSR= =0.01 cm
n(VSD) 10

PROCEDURE:

Initial adjustments of the spectrometer focus the telescope to distant objects and
adjust till you get a clear picture.

Level the prism/grating table using a spirit level.

Move aside the telescope and view directly through the collimeter and adjust the
screw to get clear and narrow slit.

Bring the telescope in line with collimeter and adjust collimeter screw till a clear slit
is seen.

Make the slit coincide with the vernier table to get -0 and -180.
Adjustments of grating for normal incidence:

After the initial adjustments of spectrometer are made the plane transmission grating
is maintained on grating table.

The telescope is released and placed in front of the collimeter the direct reading is
made to need -180 after making the vertical cross to coincide with fixed edge of the
slit which is illuminated by mercury light by rotating the circular scale.

The telescope is rotated through an angle of 90 and fixed.

The grating table is rotated until on seeing through the telescope the image of slit
coincides with the vertical cross wire this is possible only when light emerging from
the collimeter is incident at an angle of 45 in the approximate direction, now light
coming out from the telescope.

To calculate the number of lines per unit length of grating:

Telescope is now released and brought to the position of direct image.

Rotate the telescope and make the cross wire to coincide with the wire to coincide
refracted ray. The difference between two readings gives r.
Hence  is determined.

sin ❑
N=
m

Determine of wavelength of the prominent lines on the mercury spectrum:

Continue the above procedure and the vernier readings for each of the coloured lines
grating readings for each of the coloured lines grating from read to violet on one side
of the direct ray and there go on with violet to red lines on the other side of the
circuit.

The wavelength  of each line is calculated using the relation.

sin❑
¿ (m)
mN
 Order of Diffracted image

RIGHT LEFT

𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩
Colours 2θ θ
 MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR VA VB Mean

RED-II

RED-I

YELLOW-
II

YELLOW
-I

GREEN

BLUISH
GREEN

BLUE

TABULATION II:
 Standardisation of grating.

Order of Diffracted image

RIGHT LEFT 2θ
Colour 𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR 𝑽 𝑽 M
𝑨 𝑩

GREE
N
TABULATION III:

𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎) (𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎)
Colours Standard wavelength ( Experimental Wavelength

Red-II 6234
Red-I 6234
Yellow-II 5769
Yellow-I 5769
Green 5461
Bluish Green 4916
Blue 4528
Violet 4078

RESULT:

The wavelength of different colours of mercury spectrum was determined.

9. SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID BY DROP WEIGHT METHOD

AIM:

To determine the surface tension of liquid (water).

Apparatus required:

A glas funnel, a glass tube of suitable diameter, a small rubber tube, pinch dips, water kerosene, balance
with weight box, hare’s apparatus and screw gauge

PROCEDURE:

A clean and dry test tube of suitable diameter is titled to a glass funnel through a rubber tube
provided with a pinch clip. The water is poured is poured in the funnel and the pinch clip is
adjusted so the water drops are formed at the rate of above fine drops per minute. A small
empty beaker is weighed and 30 drops of water are collected in it. The weight of the
determined again. The difference between the two weights gives the mass of the drops. Let it
to be m Kg and the external radius and diameter of the tube by screw gauge (for its cross-
section) is focussed on to vernier microscope and the inner facial diameter is measured from
this into internal radius is calculated.

The surface tension of water by water drops experiment is given by

mg
T= N/m.
3.8 r
T – surface tension of the given liquid N/m

m- mass of the single drop kg

g – acceleration due to gravity 9.8m/s^2

Least count for Screw gauge:

Pitch
Least count= =0.01 mm
No . of MSD
Distance moved on Pitch Scale 2
Pitch= = =1
No . of Head Scale Division 2
liquid Mass of Mass of beaker 30 and 60 Mass of 1 drop mean
Empty Drops of water M=W2-W1 / no of drops
beaker X 10^-3 kg

30 60

Result:

The surface tension of liquid was found to be

10. FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL - DEFLECTION MAGNETOMETER

AIM :

To determine the value of the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic induction at the
place using the field’s along the axis of coil apparatus with a deflection magnetometer.

FORMULA :

2
BH =
❑0∋r
2 2 3/ 2
2(r + x ) ( tanθ
1
) Tesla
where,

BH → Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field (T)

µo → Permeability of the free space (4π x 10-7 H m-1)

n → Number of turns included in the circuit (No unit)

I → Current flowing through the coil (A)

r → Radius of the circular coil (m)

x → Distance between center of compass box and centre of the coil (m)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE:
 Remove magnetic materials, if any, from vicinity of the apparatus. The initial
adjustments are made by setting the plane of the coil in the magnetic meridian and the
wooden bench along the magnetic east-west.
 A compass box placed with its centre coinciding with the axis of the coil is adjusted to
read zero-zero.
 A circuit is made connecting the circular coil in series with an ammeter, a six-volt
battery, a key, a rheostat and a commutator.
 The rheostat and ammeter should be kept sufficiently away from the circular coil.
 The compass box is placed along the axis, with its centre at a distance ‘x’ metre from
the centre of the coil on one side, say, east.
 The rheostat is adjusted to pass a suitable current I amps through the coil such that the
deflection is between 30° and 60°.
 The deflections as read by the ends of the pointer are noted.
 The given bar magnet is kept on the eastern side of the compass box on the bench
with its axis along the axis of the coil. The position of the magnet is adjusted until the
deflection in the magnetometer compass box becomes zero.
 Measure the distance d between the centre of the magnet and centre of the
magnetometer compass box.
 The current in the coil is reversed and the deflections without the magnet in vicinity
are noted.
  The magnet is reversed end to end and its distance corresponding to zero deflection is
again found.
 The experiment is repeated by keeping the magnetometer compassion box on the
other side of the coil.
 The mean deflection θ and the mean distance d are obtained.
 Likewise keeping the magnetometer at various at various other distances from the
centre of the coil, the experiment is repeated.
 The Radius ‘a’ of the coil is found by measuring the external and internal diameter of
the coil and calculating the mean diameter.
 If n is the is the number of turns of the coil used in the experiment, field produced
along the axis at a distance x from the centre of the coil is given by

 If θ is the mean deflection in the galvanometer,

Where, BH is the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field in Tesla.
 If this field is nullified by a bar magnet of magnetic moment M amp. Metre² of length
‘2l’ metres kept with its centre at a distance ‘d’ metre from the centre of the

magnetometer with its axis along the axis of the coil.

Where µ0 = 4π × 10−7 is the Permeability of free space in henry/metre.

TABLE :

To find horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic induction:

RESULT:

Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic induction at the given place was found to be