Haskell Programming from First Principles

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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
very loose sawdust, so as not to rub off the marks, and after one or
two days take it out and compare it with your original drawing.
You will find that the whole plant is bigger than when you first drew
it. Look carefully at the marks on root and stem, and you will find
that they are not all the same distance apart, as they should be if
the plant had grown equally all over. The marks which are widest
apart are those just behind the tip of the root and below the top of
the stem, thus showing that there has been much more growth in
these two regions than in the rest of the stem or root (see fig. 28).
If you repeat this often with many plants you will find that these are
the actively growing parts of the stems and roots; the individual
leaves, of course, are also growing. Thus we see that growth is not a
simple stretching of the whole, but that there are two definite
regions where it is specially active. That of the stem and first root
carry on the growth in opposite directions, as we noticed before (see
p. 11), the normal stem growing up into the air and the root down
into the soil.
 Fig. 29. A, Bean seedling planted upside down. The root
has bent right over and is growing vertically down. B,
later stage of the same. The shoot has bent up.

You can see how very determined the directions of growth are by
planting upside down a bean which is just beginning to sprout, so
that its root points up into the air. As it grows you will see the root
bending over till it points vertically downwards, while the stem bends
up and grows straight into the air (see fig. 29). The same thing
happens if you plant a seedling on its side, and even if you take
quite a big seedling, which has grown in the usual way, and then
place it upside down in moist air, you will see the root and shoot
bending in order to get into their right positions. This very
determined growth on the part of roots and stems seems to show us
that they must have some means of “perceiving” and regulating their
position. It is not an accident that they always grow in these very
definite directions. Let us find out what we can about this question.
Take a seedling and mark its root as you marked the roots for the
experiment on the region of growth (see fig. 28), lay this seedling on
its side on soft, damp sawdust, so that the root can easily bend into
it. Next day you should find that the end of the root has bent, and
that the bend is in just about the same region as that which showed
the most active growth.
Is this actively growing and bending region therefore the part of the
root which “realizes” that the whole is in a wrong position, and
which therefore bends to put it right?
To answer this question quite fully would require a great deal of
work, but there are three simple experiments which you can do, and
which will tell you the most important facts about it.
(1)[5] Take a seedling with a fairly long root which has been growing
straight down, then very quickly and with a sharp knife or razor, cut
off the last 2 mm. of the tip of the root. Lay the seedling on its side
on damp sawdust and examine it next day. It will not have bent,
even though it has grown in length (see fig. 30, A).
 Fig. 30. Experiments on the bending of the root tips in Beans. (See
description in text.)

(2) Take another like it and leave it lying on its side for an hour, and
then cut off the tip in the same way as in number one, placing it on
its side once more. Next day you will find that it has bent in the
same way as one which had not been cut (see fig. 30, B).
(3) Take a third, as like the other two as possible, and lay it on its
side all night; do not cut it till next day, when it has definitely begun
to bend (see fig. 30, C), then quickly cut off the tip, and place it in
the upright position (C1). You will find that it continues to grow in
the bent form, the root tip going on to one side. It does not seem to
know that it is growing along instead of down. If you keep it in this
position for a few days it will then get a new tip and begin to grow
downwards in the usual way (see fig. 30, D).
Think over the results of these three experiments, and you will see
that it is only when the tip of the root is not cut off that the plant
seems to “realize” that it is not in the right position. When the tip is
removed it does not bend down even when the whole plant is lying
horizontally, and in the other case (fig. 30, C1, D) it will keep on
bending even after it has been put in its right position.
We noticed that it is not the very tip itself which bends, so that we
see that the very tip is the part which “feels” what is happening,
while the part just behind it grows and bends according to the need
of the plant.
This is a somewhat similar case to what happens when you realize
with your brain that you are in danger on the road, and your feet
hurry you across.
When we come to consider why the root should grow downwards in
this persistent way, we find that there is an outside influence at work
on the plant. You know when a stone is left without any support that
it always falls to the ground, and we say that it is attracted toward
the centre of the earth by the force of gravitation. It has been
proved that the strong tendency of roots to grow down into the soil
is largely the result of the same attraction, while the stem is not
attracted by it but driven away, and therefore grows away from the
centre of the earth. To prove this, however, requires more
complicated apparatus than you are likely to be able to use at
present.
From the experiments which we have done already we see that
plants, as well as animals, are affected by their circumstances, and
can in some measure realize them, and move to alter themselves in
accordance with them. Later on we shall find that plants have a
similar power in relation to light, supply of water, and other things.
Have we not already observed in plants nearly all the signs of life we
set out to look for? (see p. 4).
There is one very important point about the growth of plants which
is strikingly different from the growth of animals. A young kitten has
four legs, a head, and a tail, and as it grows to be a cat these only
alter a little in shape and get larger and stronger; the number of its
legs remains the same. A baby plant, on the other hand, has its little
root and shoot with a few tiny leaves, but as it gets older these
increase very much in number, till it may have many branches and
thousands of leaves. In fact, the number of its parts is much more
indefinite than those of an animal; its body is built on quite a
different plan. Yet both plants and animals show the same important
thing in their growth, that is the increase of their living body, which
they build up out of their non-living food.
 CHAPTER X.
MOVEMENT
While we have been examining plants to find out some of the facts
about their other life properties, we have at the same time seen
many cases of movement in their different parts.
For example, we found (Chapter IX.) how the tips of roots move
round to get back their vertical position if they are placed
horizontally, and how the shoots of young plants bend over towards
the light when they are grown in a dark box where it can enter only
from one side (Chapter VIII.). Then, too, as the root tip grows into
the soil or between the crevices of rocks it bends round the stones
or other things in its way, and it is also attracted towards water, thus
showing a continual, slow movement in its growth. The shoot shows
a parallel kind of movement in following the light and placing itself
as advantageously as possible with regard to it.
 Fig. 31. Tendrils of the Pea; A young tendrils which have not yet
been touched; B beginning to curl fifteen minutes after being
rubbed with a twig.

You may see a still faster movement if you carefully examine a

twining tendril. Notice how the young tendrils of a sweet-pea are at
first almost straight, growing out into the air (see fig. 31). Now
choose such a one for the experiment, and another like it which you
do not touch, but keep to compare with the one on which you have
experimented.
Gently rub one side of the tendril with a small rough twig, and then
leave it alone. You will see that in about five or ten minutes it has
begun to curve, and in a quarter of an hour may have bent round
completely. Such movement is more rapid than that in the ordinary
growth, and this power of bending so quickly is one of the special
characters of tendrils, and one that is very important in helping them
to do their work for the plant and to seize on any support within
reach as quickly as possible.
 Fig. 32. Leaves of Wood-sorrel; A in the day position, B “asleep” at
night.

Then there are other movements, one of which you must have often
observed in the “sleep” of plants. Many flowers and leaves close up
and bend down at night, taking up their usual position again next
day. This is not the same thing as the opening of buds, for it may
occur again and again in the fully grown parts of plants. For
example, you may mark certain leaves of wood-sorrel or common
clover, and watch them close up at night and re-open in the morning
many times. These movements are not very fast, and you cannot
see the plant moving as you can see a kitten waving its tail, but the
difference is only one of degree.
 Fig. 33. Leaf of Sensitive Plant in its usual position.

Fig. 34. Leaf of Sensitive Plant, leaflets at a beginning to close after

being gently touched.
There are plants, however, which move so quickly that you can see
them close up their leaves at once at the slightest touch. This is the
case in the Sensitive Plant (fig. 33), and if you only tap one of its
tiny leaflets with a straw, that pair of leaflets will immediately fold
up, then the next pair, and the next, till the whole leaf has closed,
when it drops quickly down (see fig. 35), this movement only taking
a moment. If the shock is great, all the leaves on the plant will close
up instantly, and they move so quickly that you can hardly see them
doing it.
 Fig. 35. Leaf of Sensitive Plant quite closed, and the leaf-stalk
fallen, after being touched.
Some foreign plants swing their leaflets round slowly like the arms of
a windmill, but we have not yet found out why they do this. Also in
many flowers we find movement, and in flowers it is generally in
relation to the insects which visit them. For example, some orchids
shut up their big front petal with a sudden snap when an insect
alights on it and shoot the astonished fly towards the middle of the
flower.
Parts such as these, which have more power of movement than the
rest of the plant, are called sensitive parts, but though in them we
see it more clearly than in most plants, they only illustrate what is
common to all, and that is some power of movement.
The movements which you have seen so far in plants are different
from those of most animals in one way, and that is in the fact that
the whole plant remains rooted in one place, and only parts of it can
move as the circumstances require, while, though an animal moves
its parts separately, the result of some of those movements is to
carry its whole body about. This may appear to you a great
difference between plants and animals, but it is not quite so great as
it seems; nor must we forget that there are some simple slimy-
looking plants which slowly crawl along the ground, as well as many
minute, green plants, which you could only see with a microscope,
which move their whole bodies and swim about just in the way that
tiny animals swim.
 SUMMARY OF PART I.
We have now done a number of experiments with plants, and found
out many facts about their way of life, and I think you will agree that
we have collected enough evidence to prove the statement made at
the beginning of Chapter II.—that on the whole plants show the same
“signs of life” as do animals.
We have seen that like animals they breathe in a part of the air, and
that they breathe out with the air the added carbonic acid gas, which
is the characteristic “waste product” of the out-breathing of animals.
They practically “eat” when they take in substances as food into their
bodies, even though they have no gaping mouths which can open and
close. We noticed, too, the interesting parallel between young plants
and young animals, where both (the plants in the food in the seed, the
animals in their mothers’ milk) are supplied with ready-made food at
first, and as they get older have to find what food they require for
themselves. As regards their feeding, the plants do more work than
the animals, for they manufacture the starchy food for themselves out
of simpler elements, while the animals require their starch to be ready
made.
Then the fact that plants grow, increasing in size and forming new
structures, has been known to you ever since you were a baby
yourself. Although we noticed here an important difference between
the kind of growth in plants and animals, yet the growth itself is alike
in the two cases, for both plants and animals build up their living
bodies out of simpler substances which they take in as food and
change till the not-living food becomes part of themselves and is
living.
Movement is not nearly so great in plants as it is in animals, and most
plants are firmly fastened in the ground. Yet there are some plants in
which we can see very rapid movements of some of the parts, while
many simple little plants living in water can swim actively about like
animals. All plants show some form of movement, though it is
generally slow.
As a result, we find that all the signs of life we noted in animals, viz.
breathing, eating, growing, and moving, are to be found in plants, and
we must look on them as being just as much alive as animals. We can
see that their mode of life and the work they do are distinctly different
from those of the animals, but they are no less vital, and important for
the world as a whole.
 PLATE II.
A WHOLE PLANT, TO SHOW ALL THE PARTS
A POPPY
 PART II.
THE PARTS OF A PLANT’S BODY AND THEIR
USES

CHAPTER XI.
ROOTS
If you have a garden of your own, or have even watched another
person gardening, you must have found out that it is not always an
easy thing to get rid of the weeds, and that when one tries to “pull
them up by the roots,” they often resist it very strongly indeed. If you
have never done this, try to pull up a large grass tuft or a hedge
mustard, or any fairly big common plant, and you will find that often
when it does not look very strong it may be extremely difficult to get it
completely out of the soil, and even when it comes out you may find
that you have not got it quite whole, for the finer branches of the root
will generally break off. Now this shows us one of the uses of its roots
to a plant; they keep it firmly in the soil, and prevent the wind from
blowing it away, and people or animals from overturning it too easily.
To see the form of a complete root it is wise to choose a fairly small
plant, let us say a daisy, wallflower, candy-tuft, or young holly; then
loosen the earth all round it and pull it very gently from the soil. Shake
off the mud and then wash it clean and spread it out on a sheet of
white paper so that you can examine it properly. Notice that there is a
central chief root, with many side branches which have again finer and
finer branchlets (see fig. 36). At the tip of the very finest you should
see a number of delicate hairs, the root hairs, but it is very possible
that you will have torn these off with the soil. To see them best, look
at some of your seedlings which have grown in moist air, where they
are very well developed (see fig. 8). In any of these plants you will
notice that the main root seems to be a downward continuation of the
main stem, and that the side roots come off all round it, just as was
the case in your bean seedlings (see figs. 36 and 7). Such a root is
called a tap root.

Fig. 36. Root of a young Holly: l, level

of soil; s, stem; c, chief root with
many side branches and finely
divided rootlets.

Now dig up a small grass plant and compare its root with these, and
you will see that there is no main root, but very many roots coming off
in a tuft from the base of the stem, just as was the case in your corn
seedlings (see fig. 37). The difference between these roots and tap
roots is not of much importance as regards the actual work they do
but is one of difference in form; the finer branches in both are very
similar and have the same work to do.

Fig. 37. Grass plant, showing the many finely divided roots.

If you leave the plants you have pulled up lying in the air for an hour
or two, you will find that they will wither, the leaves becoming quite
limp and the whole plant drooping. Now place them with their roots
only in water, and you will soon find that they are beginning to revive.
They will revive fully and live a long time if their roots are kept in
water. This reminds us of the second very important use of its roots to
a plant, which we have already found out (see Chapter IV.), and shows
us again that the roots absorb water and keep the whole plant
supplied with it. Of course you know that cut flowers can drink up
water with their stems, but that is only for a short time, and is not
quite natural. The special part of the rootlet, which does the actual
absorption, is the part near the tip which is covered with root hairs.
You have already seen these root hairs in the course of your work (see
pp. 13 and 15).
There are then two chief duties of roots, to absorb water from the
soil for the whole plant, and to hold it firmly in the ground. The fine
fibres of the root, which are so much divided and run in the soil, serve
both these purposes, as they expose a large area to contact with the
soil, and so can absorb much from it, as well as getting a good hold of
it.
As well as these two chief functions, there are many other pieces
of work which roots may do, and according to the special work
they take up, so they become modified and look different from usual
roots.
One thing they often do is to act as storehouses of food. For example,
examine the root of a carrot. The part we commonly call the carrot
and which we eat, you will see is really the main axis of the tap root,
and has the little side roots attached in the usual way. The unusual
thickness of the main root is due to the large quantities of food which
it stores. Just in the same way radishes and many other plants have
their main roots very thick and packed with food, while dahlias have
their side roots thickened in a similar way (see fig. 39). Such modified
roots, which look quite different from ordinary ones, are called Storage
roots, and if you examine many of them you will find them packed
with starch (see p. 11 for iodine test).