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 Advanced
Linear Algebra
With an Introduction to
Module Theory
This page intentionally left blank
 Advanced
Linear Algebra
With an Introduction to
Module Theory

Shou-Te Chang
National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan

NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Chang, Shou-Te, author.
Title: Advanced linear algebra : with an introduction to module theory /
Shou-Te Chang, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., [2024] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2024000487 | ISBN 9789811276354 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9789811277245 (paperback) | ISBN 9789811276361 (ebook for institutions) |
ISBN 9789811276378 (ebook for individuals)
Subjects: LCSH: Algebras, Linear--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QA184.2 .C453 2024 | DDC 512/.5--dc23/eng/20240201
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024000487

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2024 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
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For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance
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For any available supplementary material, please visit

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Printed in Singapore
 Preface

This book is suitable for students who want to go further into any
algebraic disciplines. Previously, the author had published two textbooks
(both published by World Scientific) with Professor Minking Eie, National
Chung Cheng University, Taiwan. In the first book, A First Course in
Linear Algebra,1 the reader will familiarize oneself with concepts such as
bases, dimension, matrices, and what not. There is a detailed discussion on
the spectral theorem and a brief introduction to Cayley-Hamilton theorem
and Jordan forms without proof. The topics of the second book, A Course
on Abstract Algebra, 2e,2 include introductions to group theory, ring theory
and some field theory. For a solid foundation of abstract algebra, the author
strongly feels that, in addition to familiarity with contents of the previously
mentioned two books (or of other similar textbooks), a third textbook is
necessary. The author believes that, equipped with knowledge covered by
these three books, a student of mathematics can delve into any algebraic
disciplines with complete confidence.
Linear algebra is considered one of the most basic mathematical tools,
even for non-mathematicians. However, a student who aspires to a career
in mathematics often finds a gaping gap between a first course on linear
algebra and the linear algebra needed in graduate schools. For example, an
elementary textbook on linear algebra will not provide proofs to results on
topics about or related to canonical forms of a square matrix. The proofs
would be hard to follow even if they are provided. Another example is
1 ISBN 9789813143111
2 ISBN 9789813229624

v
vi Preface

that such a textbook can only focus on finite dimensional vector spaces,
while graduate students often have to deal with infinite dimensional vector
spaces. These materials are considered too advanced for undergraduates
while the same materials are simply assumed in the graduate school. This
book fills the need for students who want to fill the gap themselves. It will
provide a gentle guidance to motivated students for self-study. It is also a
suitable textbook for an advanced undergraduate course on linear algebra
or on module theory. Its introduction to sets and modules would be of
particular interest to students who aspire to becoming algebraists.
One of the main purposes in this book is the introduction of module
theory. The concept of modules is a generalization of the concept of vector
spaces. For modules, the scalars only need to form a commutative ring
with unity instead of a field. We will find most concepts regarding vector
spaces have their counterparts in module theory. Why can’t we consider a
matrix with entries only in Z? How do we determine whether a matrix over
Z is invertible? And if the inverse matrix exists, how do we find it? We
see that many questions answered in linear algebra remain to be explored
in module theory. The study of modules opens up a whole new world and
new adventures. The results and insights gained in module theory actually
also help us further understand linear algebra.
What preparation do we need for using this book? A basic understand-
ing of set theory, group theory and ring theory is preferred. Here is a
checklist.

• A mentality for an axiomatic approach.

• Some basic set theory, including the equivalence relation, the well-
ordering principle, the pigeonhole principle and the induction princi-
ple.

• Definitions of groups, rings, fields and vector spaces. The basic prop-
erties of these algebraic structures. Morphisms of each structure and
their basic properties.

• Chinese remainder theorem for Z.

• The fundamental theorem of homomorphisms. The three isomor-

phism theorems.
Preface vii

• The Euclidean domain, the PID (principal ideal domain) and the
UFD (factorial domain or unique factorization domain).

A first course on finite dimensional vector spaces is preferable, although

not necessary. The treatment of vector spaces in this book will be over any
field, instead of just over R or over C, and so we will start from scratch.
However, some mathematical maturity will be very helpful. Besides, inner
product spaces and the spectral theorem will not be discussed in this book,
and these topics are worth studying.
Basically, there are three parts in this book. The first part is to complete
the discussion of vector spaces, bases and dimension. We will discuss the
general case of vector spaces of arbitrary dimension over an arbitrary scalar
field. To do so, we will need an introduction to cardinality and Zorn’s lemma
in set theory. We will also introduce the concept of modules during the
process. The second part is to complete the discussion of canonical forms
for linear endomorphisms and square matrices. For this we will discuss
the structure theorem of finitely generated modules over a PID, which also
serves as a good entry into module theory. The last part was an introduction
to the concept of the tensor product. The tensor product is a useful tool
in linear algebra, and an even more useful tool in module theory. These
materials will be presented in the categorical spirit without actually spelling
out the categorical language in mathematics.
I wish the reader a pleasant and fruitful journey in reading this book.
Your input will be greatly appreciated. The author can be reached at
[email protected].
At last, I would like to thank my editor at World Scientific, Ms Kwong
Lai Fun for her kindness and assistance. I would also like to thank my
students who gave me suggestions and feedback when this book was still
just class notes.

Shou-Te Chang
March 31, 2023
 About the Author

Shou-Te Chang is currently an Associate Professor at the Department

of Mathematics, National Chung Cheng University in Chiayi, Taiwan. She
received her Ph.D. in Mathematics in 1993 from University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor. Her research interest is in commutative algebra and homolog-
ical algebra. She has published papers on Horrocks’ question, generalized
Hilbert-Kunz functions and local cohomology. She also published several
undergraduate textbooks on linear algebra and modern algebra with World
Scientific.

viii
 Contents

Preface v

About the Author viii

Special Notes xi

1 Modules and Vector Spaces 1

1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces . . . 2
1.2 Linear combinations and linear independence . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Dimension for finite dimensional vector spaces . . . . . . . . 31
1.5 Dimension for infinite dimensional vector spaces . . . . . . 40
1.6 More on cardinal arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2 Linear Maps 59
2.1 Linear maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.2 Quotient modules and quotient spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

3 Determinant 89
3.1 Basics of the determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

ix
x Contents

3.2 Matrix operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

3.3 Reduced row echelon form and applications . . . . . . . . . 113
3.4 Determinant and invertible matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.5 Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4 Canonical Forms 145

4.1 Equivalent matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.2 The normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3 Structure theorem of finitely generated modules over a PID 169
4.4 Invariance theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.5 Rational canonical form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.6 Jordan canonical form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

5 A Brief Introduction to the Tensor Product 227

5.1 Bilinear maps and multilinear maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.2 Tensor products of vector spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.3 Tensor products of modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Index 255
 Special Notes

Unless otherwise specified, all rings are assumed to be commutative with

unity (the multiplicative identity). A subring shares the same unity with
its super ring. By a domain we mean an integral domain, a commutative
ring which contains no nontrivial zero divisors.
Let S be any set, we use 1S to denote the identity map on S.
We will also use the following conventions:

C = the set of complex numbers.

R = the set of real numbers.
Q = the set of rational numbers.
Z = the set of integers.
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }, the set of positive integers.
N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }, the set of nonnegative integers, or the
set of natural numbers.3

3 There are two schools of mathematicians in the world, one who views 0 as a natural

number and one who doesn’t.

xi
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 1

Modules and Vector Spaces

In this chapter we will introduce the concept of modules, which is a gen-

eralization of the concept of vector spaces. A vector space comes equipped
with a field of scalars. For modules, the scalars are only required to be
elements from a ring. Certain properties of vectors are still enjoyed by
module elements, while some others need modification or are simply lack-
ing for module elements. Surprisingly, to further understand vector spaces
and matrices over a field, it is actually better to tackle them as modules or
as matrices over a ring.
In this chapter, we will start with defining modules. For modules we may
similarly define the concepts of linear combination and linear independence.
The main difference between vector spaces and modules is that not every
module possesses a basis while a vector space always contains a basis. In
a first course on linear algebra, one expects to see why any two bases of a
finite dimensional vector space contain the same number of elements. In
this chapter, we will review an argument for this fact. We will also give the
reason why this fact holds for infinite dimensional vector spaces. For this,
we will discuss some set theory, especially the part regarding cardinality of
sets.

1
2 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and

vector spaces
Linear algebra is the study of vector spaces and matrices. In this chapter
we will introduce the more general concept of modules. When we delve into
some of the more advanced topics in linear algebra, it is easier to study them
from the module angle.

A few words on rings and fields

We say (R, +, ·, 0, 1) is a ring with unity if it is a set with two binary
operations, the addition “+” and the multiplication “·”, such that it satisfies
the following conditions.

(i) The structure (R, +, 0) is an abelian group:

• The binary operation “+” (addition) is associative;

• The element 0 is the additive identity;
• Every element in R has an additive inverse;
• The binary operation “+” is commutative.

(ii) The structure (R, ·, 1) is a monoid:

• The binary operation “ · ” (multiplication) is associative;

• The element 1 is the multiplicative identity.

(iii) The multiplication “ · ” is distributive with respect to the addition

“+”:

• (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c for all a, b, c ∈ R;
• a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c for all a, b, c ∈ R.

The product “a · b” is usually abbreviated as “ab”. The multiplicative

identity “1” is also called the unity of R. In some books a ring is not
assumed to contain the unity. In this book our rings always contain the
unity. If in addition the binary operation · is commutative, we say that R
is a commutative ring.
1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces 3

In this book, the only rings of interest are the commutative rings with
unity. Unless otherwise noted, when we say that R is a ring we mean that
R is a commutative ring with unity.
If F is a commutative ring with unity which further satisfies the as-
sumption that every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse, we say
that F is a field.
In short, a ring is where you can add, subtract and multiply. A field is
where you can add, subtract, multiply and divide (by a nonzero element).
Common examples of rings include Z, Zn and R[ x ], the polynomial ring
of one variable over the ring R. Common examples of fields include Q, R,
C and Zp where p is a positive prime integer.

Modules and vector spaces

Let’s introduce the modules.

Definition 1.1.1. Let R be a ring. We say that M , or more specifically

(M, +, 0), is an R-module or a module over R1 if M is an additive group
and there is a mapping

R×M −→ M
(a, m) 7−→ a·m

such that

(i) 1 · m = m,

(ii) a · (m + n) = a · m + a · n,

(iii) (a + b) · m = a · m + b · m, and

(iv) a · (b · m) = (ab) · m

for all a, b ∈ R and m, n ∈ M .

In the case where R = F is a field, M is also called an F -vector space
or a vector space over F . The elements of F are called scalars and the
1 The theory of modules can be established even when R is a non-commutative ring.
In that case, we have to differentiate between left and right modules. Presented here is
in fact the definition of the left modules.
4 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

elements of M are called vectors. The addition in M is called the vector

addition. The element a · m is called the scalar multiplication of a
and m.

However, for lack of a better term, we will also call a · m the scalar
multiplication of a and m even when R is not a field. When there leaves
no confusion, the element a · m is often abbreviated as am. In fact, we will
do just that for the rest of the book.
Always remember that a vector space is also a module. All properties
of modules apply to vector spaces.
Next are some examples of modules and vector spaces.

Example 1.1.2. The trivial group {0} has a natural module structure.
We call it the trivial module.

Example 1.1.3. Let R be a ring and n be a positive integer. Let Rn be

the direct product ring of n copies of R. Then (Rn , +) is an additive group
with a natural scalar multiplication of R on Rn by letting

a(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) = (ar1 , ar2 , . . . , arn )

for a, r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ∈ R. Observe that

1(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) = (1r1 , 1r2 , . . . , 1rn ) = (r1 , r2 , . . . , rn );

a[(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) + (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn )] = a(r1 + s1 , . . . , rn + sn )


= a(r1 + s1 ), . . . , a(rn + sn ) = (ar1 + as1 , . . . , arn + asn )
= (ar1 , ar2 , . . . , arn ) + (as1 , as2 , . . . , asn )
= a(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) + a(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn );


(a + b)(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) = (a + b)r1 , (a + b)r2 , . . . , (a + b)rn
= (ar1 + br1 , . . . , arn + brn ) = (ar1 , ar2 , . . . , arn ) + (br1 , br2 , . . . , brn )
= a(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) + b(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn );


a b(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ) = a(br1 , br2 , . . . , brn ) = (abr1 , abr2 , . . . , abrn )
= (ab)(r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ).

Hence Rn is an R-module. If F is a field, F n is an F -vector space. Note

that R = R1 may be viewed as an R-module and F an F -vector space.
1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces 5

Example 1.1.4. Let G be an abelian group. Without loss of generality,

we might as well assume that G is an additive group. There is a natural
way to view G as a Z-module by letting

0Z · a = 0G ,
k · a = a + · · · + a, and
| {z }
k copies

(−k) · a = −(k · a) = (−a) + · · · + (−a)

| {z }
k copies

for any a ∈ G and any positive integer k. The verification that G is thus a
Z-module is tedious but straightforward. A question regarding an abelian
group may often be translated as a question on a Z-module. Conversely, a
Z-module is an additive (abelian) group by definition. Hence, the concepts
of Z-modules and abelian groups are basically the same.
Example 1.1.5. Let V be the set of all continuous real-valued functions
defined on an interval I of R. There is a natural addition in V defined by

(1.1.1) (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

for f and g ∈ V . For a ∈ R, there is also a natural scalar multiplication

defined by

(1.1.2) (af )(x) = af (x).

This follows from the fact (in a course of Advanced Calculus) that f + g
and af remain continuous on I. We leave it to the reader to verify that V
is an R-vector space.
Similarly, the set of differentiable real-valued functions on an open in-
terval I, or the integrable real-valued functions on a finite closed interval I
can both be regarded as R-vector spaces.
Let D be an open region in Rm . Consider the set W of vector fields
(vector-valued functions) with D as the domain and Rn as the codomain.
With the vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as in (1.1.1) and
(1.1.2), W is an R-vector space.
Example 1.1.6. The space Cn is a C-vector space. It is also an R-vector
space, since the scalar multiplication may be induced by restricting the
mapping C × Cn → Cn to R × Cn → Cn .
6 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

In general, if F is a subfield of E, then any E-vector space can also be

regarded as an F -vector space. If R is a subring of S, then any S-module
can be regarded as an R-module.

Example 1.1.7. Let R be a ring and let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be indeterminates

over R. The ring R may be considered as a subring of R[ x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ].
Note that R[ x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] may also regarded as an R-module.
More generally, if R is a subring of S, then S is an R-module. The
scalar multiplication is induced by the product inside S since elements of
R are also elements of S. In particular, E is an F -vector space when F is
a subfield of E.

Definition 1.1.8. We will use (aij )m×n to denote an array of m rows and
n columns  
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
 
.
 . .. .. 
 . ..
 . . . . 
am1 am2 ··· amn
The aij ’s are called the entries of this array. If all the entries are elements
in a ring R, we call it an m × n matrix over R. We will use Mm×n (R) to
denote the set of all m × n matrices over R. An n × n matrix is called a
square matrix of size n. We will use Mn (R) to denote the set of square
matrices of size n.
We use In , or simply I when n is understood, to denote the identity
matrix of size n. To be precise, In = (aij )n×n where

0, if i ̸= j;
aij = the Kronecker deltaδij =
1, if i = j.

We use 0m×n , or simply 0 if m and n are understood, to denote the m × n

matrix whose entries are all 0. This is called the zero matrix or the trivial
matrix of size m × n.

Example 1.1.9. Inside Mm×n (R) there is the usual matrix addition and
scalar multiplication:

(aij ) + (bij ) = (aij + bij )

1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces 7

r(aij ) = (raij )

where aij , bij and r ∈ R. These operations make Mm×n into an R-module.
The reasoning is similar to that of Example 1.1.3.

Let S and T be sets. We often use T S to denote the set of all functions
from S to T . In general, if S and T are both finite sets, we know that

(1.1.3) |T S | = |T ||S| .

Example 1.1.10. Let R be a ring and let S be an arbitrary set. Let f

and g be functions in RS . The function f + g is defined by letting

(1.1.4) (f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s) for any s ∈ S.

Let a ∈ R. The function af is defined by letting

(1.1.5) (af )(s) = af (s) for any s ∈ S.

To verify that RS is thus an R-module, we need to check the four require-

ments in Definition 1.1.1. We will demonstrate (iii) and leave the rest of
the verifications to the reader. To check that the function (a + b)f equals
the function af + bf for any a and b ∈ R and f ∈ RS , we compare the
values of both functions at every element in the domain S. We have


(a + b)f (s)
= (a + b)f (s), by (1.1.5),
= af (s) + bf (s), by the distributivity in R,
= (af )(s) + (bf )(s), by (1.1.5),
= (af + bf )(s), by (1.1.4)

for all s ∈ S. We conclude that (a + b)f = af + bf . Note that the additive

identity in RS the zero function, the function sending any element of S
to the additive identity 0R in R.
For example, let S = {a, b} be a doubleton set. The following table lists
all the elements in ZS3 :
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9
a 7→ 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2
b 7→ 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
8 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

This set is a Z3 -vector space of 9 elements. (Cf. (1.1.3).) The function f1

is the trivial vector in ZS3 . Observe that

(f5 + f6 )(a) = 2 and (f5 + f6 )(b) = 3 = 0.

We have that f5 + f6 = f7 . Similarly,

(2f8 )(a) = 4 = 1 and (2f8 )(b) = 2.

We have that 2f8 = f6 .

Example 1.1.11. Let R be a ring and let I be an ideal of R. Remember

that I is an additive subgroup of R by definition. Moreover, ra ∈ I for all
r ∈ R and a ∈ I. The product in R induces a scalar multiplication of R
on I. Hence I is an R-module. On the other hand, the quotient ring R/I
is also an R-module. Remember that R/I remains an additive group, and
the scalar multiplication of R on R/I is given by r · a = ra for r ∈ R and
a ∈ R/I.
Remember that R/I is also a ring. Hence R/I is an (R/I)-module as
well. For example, Z2 = Z/2Z is both a Z-module and a Z2 -vector space
since Z2 is a field.

Example 1.1.12. Let R be a ring, I be an ideal of R and M be a module

over R/I. Let r ∈ R and m ∈ M . Define the scalar multiplication r · m to
be the scalar multiplication r · m over R/I. It is routine to verify that this
makes M into an R-module in a most natural way.

Submodules and subspaces

Definition 1.1.13. Let R be a ring and M be an R-module. We say a
subset N of M is an R-submodule if N is an R-module with the inherited
addition and scalar multiplication.
Let F be a field and V an F -vector space. We say a subset W of V is
an F -subspace if W is an F -vector space with the inherited addition and
scalar multiplication.

Remark. We would like to remind the reader that a module or a vector

space is by default nonempty! Moreover, for a subset N of M to inherit
addition and scalar multiplication from M , one should have
1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces 9

• the addition on N is closed, and

• the scalar multiplication of R on N is closed.

We have the following easy result for checking whether N (or W ) is a

submodule (or a subspace) of M (or V , respectively). Remember that in a
vector space, a subspace is a submodule and a submodule is a subspace.

Lemma 1.1.14 (Test for submodules and subspaces). Let R be a ring and
M be an R-module. A subset N of M is a submodule of M if and only if
the following three conditions are satisfied:

(i) 0 ∈ N ;

(ii) n + n′ ∈ N whenever n and n′ ∈ N ;

(iii) an ∈ N whenever a ∈ R and n ∈ N .

This test applies to subspaces as well.

Proof. The “only if” part: We already have (ii) and (iii) from the Remark
to Definition 1.1.13. To show (i), we may find the additive identity n in N
since N is a module. We should have n + n = n. Hence 0 + n = n = n + n
in M . We have that 0 = n ∈ N by the cancelation law in M .
The “if” part: Condition (i) guarantees that N is nonempty. Condi-
tion (ii) guarantees that there is an inherited addition in N . Condition (iii)
further assures that −n = (−1)n ∈ N for each n ∈ N . (See Exercise 1(c).)
Hence N is an additive subgroup of M . Condition (iii) also guarantees
that there is an inherited scalar multiplication in N . Conditions (i)–(iv) in
Definition 1.1.1 hold in N since they hold true in M . We have shown that
N is an R-module.

Definition 1.1.15. Let M be an R-module. Then {0} is clearly a sub-

module of M , called the trivial submodule. The module M itself is also a
submodule of M , called the improper submodule of M . A submodule N
which is properly contained in M is called a proper submodule of M .

Example 1.1.16. Note that the three conditions in Lemma 1.1.14 are
also used for testing ideals. This is because ideals of a ring R are also
submodules of R (see Exercise 3).
10 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Example 1.1.17. Let R be a ring. Then {(a, 0) ∈ R2 : a ∈ R} is an

R-submodule of R2 . The diagonal {(a, a) ∈ R2 : a ∈ R} is also an R-
submodule of R2 .

Example 1.1.18. The set of real-valued continuous functions defined on

an open interval I is an R-subspace of RI (see Examples 1.1.5 and 1.1.10).
The set of real-valued differentiable functions defined on I is an R-subspace
of the vector space of real-valued continuous functions defined on I.

Example 1.1.19. Remember that G is an abelian group if and only if it

is a Z-module.
Subgroups of an abelian group G are Z-submodules of G since the sub-
groups are also abelian. Conversely, let H be a Z-submodule of an abelian
group G. From Lemma 1.1.14 and Exercise 1(c), we can see that the ad-
dition is closed in H and that taking additive inverse is also closed in H
since −h = (−1)h ∈ H for all h ∈ H. Thus H is a subgroup of G. We
conclude that a subset of the abelian group G is a subgroup if and only if
it is a Z-submodule.

Exercises 1.1

In this set of exercises, F always denotes a field and R a ring.

1. Let M be an R-module. Show that the following assertions are true

for all m ∈ M and for all a ∈ R.

(a) a0M = 0M .
(b) 0R m = 0M . (Normally we will just use the symbol 0 for either
0R or 0M when no confusion arises.)
(c) (−1)m = −m. (Here −1 stands for the additive inverse of 1 in
R and −m is the additive inverse of m in M .)
(d) If R is a field and am = 0, then a = 0 or m = 0.

Give an example to show that the assertion (d) is not necessarily true
if R is not a field.
1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces 11

2. Lemma 1.1.14 gives a test for submodules. In this exercise we give an

alternative test for submodules.
Show that a subset N of M is a submodule of M if and only if the
following two conditions are satisfied:

(i) N is nonempty;
(ii) an + n′ ∈ N whenever a ∈ R and n, n′ ∈ N .

3. Show that the submodules of R are exactly the ideals of R.

4. Show that the set of diagonal square matrices

  


 a1 0 ··· 0 


 
 0 a2 ··· 0

  

D=  ..
 ∈ M n (R) : ai ∈ R for all i
.
 


 0 0 0 


 
 0 0 ··· an n×n
 


is an R-submodule of Mn (R).

5. Let R[ x ] be the polynomial ring of one variable over R and let

Pn = {0} ∪ {f ∈ R[ x ] : deg f ≤ n}.

Show that Pn is an R-submodule of R[ x ].

6. Let S be a set and s0 ∈ S. Show that {f ∈ RS : f (s0 ) = 0} is an

R-submodule of RS .

7. Let Mi , i = 1, . . . , n, be R-modules. Remember that the direct prod-

uct M1 × · · · × Mn is an additive group. There is also a natural scalar
multiplication given by

a(m1 , m2 , . . . , mn ) = (am1 , am2 , . . . , amn )

for a ∈ R and mi ∈ Mi for each i. Show that this makes M1 ×· · ·×Mn

an R-module. This module is often denoted as M1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mn and is
also called the direct sum of the Mi ’s.
12 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

8. Suppose given an index set I and a family of sets {Xi }i∈I . Define
Y
Xi = {(xi )i∈I : xi ∈ Xi for each i ∈ I}
i∈I

and we call it the direct product of the Xi ’s.

Let {Mi }i∈I be a family of R-modules. Show that the direct product
Q
of R-modules i∈I Mi is an R-module with respect to the natural
addition and the scalar multiplication

(mi )i∈I + (m′i )i∈I = (mi + m′i )i∈I ;

a(mi )i∈I = (ami )i∈I

where a ∈ R and (mi )i∈I , (m′i )i∈I ∈ i∈I Mi .

Q

L
9. Let Mi be an R-module for each i ∈ I. Define i∈I Mi to be the set

{(mi )i∈I : mi ∈ Mi and mi = 0 except for finitely many i in I}.

We call it the direct sum of the Mi ’s. This is a subset of the direct
Q L Q
product i∈I Mi . Show that i∈I Mi is an R-submodule of i∈I Mi
under the inherited addition and scalar multiplication.
Note that the direct sum and the direct product are the same when I
is finite, while the direct product and the direct sum are not the same
Q∞
when I is infinite. For example, (1, 1, 1, . . . ) is an element in i=1 Z
L∞
but not in i Z.

10. Let M be an R-module and let Mi be a submodule of M for each

T
i ∈ I. Show that i∈I Mi is a submodule of M . Give an example to
S
show that i∈I Mi is not necessarily a submodule of M .

11. Let M be an R-module and let M1 and M2 be two submodules of M .

S
Show that M1 M2 is a submodule of M if and only if M1 ⊆ M2 or
M2 ⊆ M1 .

12. Let M be an R-module and let M1 , M2 and N be submodules of M .

Show that N ⊆ M1 or N ⊆ M2 if N ⊆ M1 ∪ M2 .

13. Let (M, +) be an additive (abelian) group. Show that the scalar
multiplication given in Example 1.1.4 is the only mapping that makes
M into a Z-module.
1.1 Definitions and examples of modules and vector spaces 13

14. Let V be a Q-vector space. Show that the given scalar multiplication
is the only mapping that makes (V, +) into a Q-vector space.

15. Let M be a non-trivial finite abelian group. Is it possible to make M

into a Q-vector space?

16. Let M be an R-module and let S be a set. Construct a natural

addition in M S and a natural scalar multiplication by elements of R,
so that M S becomes an R-module.

17. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism and let M be an S-module.

Show that M is also an R-module if we define the scalar multiplication
by letting a · m = φ(a) · m for a ∈ R and m ∈ M . (Example 1.1.12 is
a special case of this result.)

18. Let M be an R-module.

(a) Let I be an ideal of R such that am = 0 for all a ∈ I and

m ∈ M . Show that M may be made into an R/I-module in a
natural way.
(b) Define

AnnR M = {a ∈ R : am = 0 for all m ∈ M }.

This is called the annihilator of M in R. Show that AnnR M is

an ideal of R. Hence M is also an (R/ AnnR M )-module. When
R is understood, we may simply write Ann M for AnnR M .

19. For this problem, we will assume that the ring R is not necessarily
commutative. In this case Definition 1.1.1 defines what is called a
left R-module or a left module over R.
We say that an additive group M is a right R-module or a right
module over R if there is a mapping

M ×R −→ M
(m, a) 7−→ m·a

such that

(i) m · 1 = m,
14 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

(ii) (m + n) · a = m · a + n · a,
(iii) m · (a + b) = m · a + m · b, and
(iv) (m · b) · a = m · (ab)

for all a, b ∈ R and m, n ∈ M .

Now let R be a non-commutative ring and let M be a left R-module.
Define the right scalar multiplication as the mapping

M ×R −→ M
(m, a) 7−→ m ·r a = a−1 ·l m.

Show that ·r makes M a right R-module.

1.2 Linear combinations and linear

independence
In this section, we discuss two important concepts for vector spaces.
These two concepts also apply to modules.

Linear combinations
Definition 1.2.1. Let M be an R-module and let m1 , m2 , . . . , mn be
elements in M . We say an element of the form
n
X
ai mi , ai ∈ R,
i=1

is a linear combination of m1 , m2 , . . . , mn over R. By convention, we

define the empty sum to be the zero vector. By the empty sum we mean
the sum of adding “nothing” together.

Example 1.2.2. Consider u = (1, −1, 3), v = (1, −3, 4) and w = (1, 1, 2)
in Z3 . Is u a linear combination of v and w over Z? How about over Q?

Solution. For this example we need to find a, b ∈ Z such that

(1, −1, 3) = a(1, −3, 4) + b(1, 1, 2).

1.2 Linear combinations and linear independence 15

If we solve the equation over Q, we will see that a = b = 1/2 is the only
solution. Hence (1, −1, 3) is not a linear combination of v and w over Z.
However, it is a linear combination of v and w over Q. ⋄

Example 1.2.3. Is 1 a Z-linear combination of 6 and 8 in Z39 ?

Solution. Since (−1)6 + 8 = 2, we have (−20)6 + (20)8 = 40. Thus

(−20)6 + (20)8 = 40 = 1

in Z39 . Yes! The element 1 is a Z-linear combination of 6 and 8 over Z. ⋄

Generating sets and linear spans

Let S be a subset of M . Exercise 10 in §1.1 tells us that the intersection
of all submodules containing S inside M is a submodule of M . Clearly it
is the smallest submodule containing S in M .

Definition 1.2.4. Let M be an R-module and let S be a subset of M .

We use ⟨S⟩ to denote the smallest submodule containing S inside M . If
S = {m1 , m2 , . . . , mn }, we will simply write ⟨m1 , m2 , . . . , mn ⟩ for ⟨S⟩.
If M = ⟨S⟩, we say that S generates or spans M over R. We can also
say that S is a generating set for M over R. If M can be generated by a
finite set over R, we say that M is a finitely generated R-module.
If M is a vector space over the field F , it is also customary to use SpF S
(or Sp S if F is understood) instead of ⟨S⟩ to denote the subspace generated
by S. We call SpF S the F -linear span of S.

Remark. It is easy to see that ⟨∅⟩ = ⟨0⟩ = {0} is the trivial module.

Lemma 1.2.5. Let M be an R-module. Let N be a submodule of M . Let

S and T be subsets of M . The following statements are true.

(a) Let N be a submodule of M . Then S ⊆ N if and only if ⟨S⟩ ⊆ N .

(b) If S ⊆ T , then ⟨S⟩ ⊆ ⟨T ⟩.

(c) Let m ∈ M . Then m ∈ ⟨S⟩ if and only if ⟨S⟩ = ⟨S ∪ {m}⟩.

16 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Proof. (a) This follows from Definition 1.2.4 that ⟨S⟩ is the smallest sub-
module of M which contains S.
(b) Since S ⊆ T ⊆ ⟨T ⟩, the result follows form (a).
(c) The “if” part: This is true since m ∈ S ∪ {m} ⊆ ⟨S ∪ {m}⟩ = ⟨S⟩.
The “only if” part: It remains to verify ⟨S⟩ ⊇ ⟨S ∪ {m}⟩ from (b). Since
m ∈ ⟨S⟩, we have that ⟨S⟩ ⊇ S ∪ {m}. The result follows from (a).

The characterization in Definition 1.2.4 does not describe which ele-

ments are in ⟨S⟩. We need the following result to better understand ⟨S⟩.

Proposition 1.2.6. Let S be a subset of an R-module M . Then ⟨S⟩ con-

sists of all R-linear combinations of elements in S. Specifically, an element
is in ⟨S⟩ if and only if it is of the form a1 m1 + · · · + an mn where ai ∈ R
and mi ∈ S.

Proof. Let N be the set of R-linear combinations of elements of S. We will

show that N = ⟨S⟩.
“⊆”: Clearly any linear combination of elements in S are in ⟨S⟩ from
Lemma 1.1.14.
“⊇”: Let m ∈ S. The element m = 1m is an R-linear combination of
elements of S. Hence m ∈ N . This shows that S ⊆ N . The empty sum
is defined to be 0, and so 0 ∈ N by default. It is also easy to see that the
sum of two R-linear combinations of elements in S is an R-linear combi-
nation of elements in S. So is a scalar multiplication of an R-linear com-
bination of elements in S. Lemma 1.1.14 tells us that N is a submodule
containing S in M . It follows from Lemma 1.2.5(a) that ⟨S⟩ ⊆ N .

Thanks to Proposition 1.2.6, it is customary to denote ⟨m1 , m2 , . . . , mn ⟩

by Rm1 +Rm2 +· · ·+Rmn or even m1 R+m2 R+· · ·+mn R.2 In particular,
when M = ⟨m⟩ = Rm, we say M is a cyclic module.

Example 1.2.7. Let R be a ring. As an R-module, R itself is cyclic since

R = R1. Let I be an ideal of R. The ideal I is a cyclic R-module if and
only if it is a principal ideal. The module R/I is a cyclic module generated
by 1 over R as well as over R/I.

Example 1.2.8. (a) Is Z57 × Z8 a cyclic Z-module?

2 This is rather the notation for right modules.
1.2 Linear combinations and linear independence 17

(b) Is Z57 × Z81 a cyclic Z-module?

Solution. At this point we have no adequate tools for this problem yet, and
so we will use brutal force for now. However, since we have mentioned in
Example 1.1.4 that Z-modules may be viewed as abelian groups, we may
use Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) for Z to give us a hint.
(a) From CRT we have that Z57 × Z8 ≃ Z57·8 is cyclic as a group. By
reviewing the proof of CRT, we can see that (1, 1) is a generator. To view
this as a Z-module, observe that 57 − 7 · 8 = 1. We have

(1, 0) = − 56(1, 1)
(0, 1) = 57(1, 1)

in Z57 × Z8 , and

(m, n) = m(1, 0) + n(0, 1) = (−56m + 57n)(1, 1)

for m, n ∈ Z. Thus, Z57 × Z8 is a cyclic module generated by (1, 1) over Z.

(b) From CRT, we conjecture that Z57 × Z81 is not a cyclic group, since
57 and 81 are not relatively prime.
Suppose M = Z57 × Z81 is a cyclic Z-module. Find a generator (k, ℓ)
for M over Z. Let m = 34 · 19, which is the l. c. m. of 57 and 81. Clearly,
m < |M | = 57 · 81 = 35 · 19. Observe that m(k, ℓ) = (0, 0). This implies
that (k, ℓ) cannot generate more than m elements in M , a contradiction.
To conclude, M is not cyclic over Z. ⋄

Example 1.2.9. Let R be a ring and R[ x ] be the polynomial ring of one

variable over R. The set S = { 1, x, x2 , x3 , . . . } generates R[ x ] over R,
since all polynomials are R-linear combinations of the monomials in S. It
is also clear that Pn (see Exercise 5, §1.1) is generated by { 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn }
over R.

Example 1.2.10. Let R be a ring. We define the element ei in Rn to be

the row whose i-th entry is 1 and whose other entries are all 0:

ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
↑

the i-th position

18 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Then Rn is generated by { e1 , e2 , . . . , en } over R. In fact,

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = a1 e1 + · · · + an en .

Example 1.2.11. Let R be a ring and m, n be positive integers. Define

eij to be the matrix in Mm×n (R) whose (i, j)-entry is 1 and whose other
entries are all 0. Then Mm×n (R) is generated by

{ eij ∈ Mm×n (R) : i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n }

over R. Indeed, an arbitrary matrix

  X
aij = aij eij
m×n
i,j

is a linear combination of the eij ’s over R.

Linear independence
Definition 1.2.12. Let R be a ring and let M be an R-module. We say
that m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are linearly independent over R if for a1 , . . . , an
in R we have

a1 m1 + · · · + an mn = 0 =⇒ a1 = · · · = an = 0.

Otherwise, we say that m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are linearly dependent over R.

The empty set is by default linearly independent over R. A finite sub-
set {m1 , m2 , . . . , mn } of M is said to be linearly independent over R if
m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are linearly independent over R. An infinite set is said to
be linearly independent over R if all of its finite subsets are linearly inde-
pendent over R. An arbitrary set is linearly dependent over R if it is not
linearly independent over R.

A relation of the form

0m1 + 0m2 + · · · + 0mn = 0

is, not surprisingly, called a trivial relation among m1 , m2 , . . . , mn . On

the contrary, if we can find a1 , a2 , . . . , an in R which are not all zero such
that
a1 m1 + a2 m2 + · · · + an mn = 0,
1.2 Linear combinations and linear independence 19

it is called a non-trivial relation among m1 , m2 , . . . , mn . Definition 1.2.12

basically says that a set is linearly dependent if and only if we can find one
non-trivial relation among finitely many elements in the given set.
We have the following immediate results.

Lemma 1.2.13. Let M be a module over the ring R. Let S and T be

subsets of M such that S ⊆ T . The following statements are true.

(a) If T is linearly independent over R, then so is S.

(b) If S is linearly dependent over R, then so is T .

Proof. (b) This follows from the fact that any non-trivial relation (among
finitely many elements) in S is also a non-trivial relation in T .
The statement (a) is equivalent to (b).

Example 1.2.14. In Z2 , the elements (2, 3) and (3, −5) are linearly inde-
pendent over Z. This is true since

m(2, 3) + n(3, −5) = (0, 0)

does not have any non-trivial solution in Q, let alone in Z.

Example 1.2.15. Let R be a ring. In Rn , e1 , e2 , . . . , en form a linearly

independent set over R. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ R be such that
n
X
(0, . . . , 0) = ai ei = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ).
i=1

Then a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.

Example 1.2.16. The set

{eij ∈ Mm×n (R) : i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n}

is R-linearly independent in Mm×n (R). Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ R be such

that  
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
 
X
0 = 0m×n = aij eij = 
 .. .. .. .
.. 
i=1,...,m  . . . . 
j=1,...,n
am1 am2 ··· amn
Then aij = 0 for all i and j.
20 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Example 1.2.17. Let n be an integer ≥ 2. Consider Zn as a Zn -module.

We claim that k is linearly independent over Zn if and only if (n, k) ∼ 1.
Suppose (n, k) ∼ 1. Let m ∈ Z be such that m k = 0. This implies that
n | mk in Z. Since n and k are relatively prime with each other, we have
n | m and m = 0. We conclude that k is linearly independent over Zn .
Conversely, suppose d ∼ (n, k) ̸∼ 1. Then (n/d) k = 0. Since n/d ̸= 0
in Zn , this shows that k is linearly dependent over Zn .
On the other hand, consider Zn as a Z-module. No element in Zn is
linearly independent over Z. Note that nk = 0 is a nontrivial relation for
any k ∈ Z.

From the examples above we can see that the concept of linear indepen-
dence is more complicated for modules. For vector spaces, the situation is
more straightforward.

Proposition 1.2.18. Let F be a field and let V be an F -vector space.

(a) Any nonzero vector is linearly independent over F .

(b) The set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is linearly independent over F if and only if

• v1 ̸= 0, and
• vi ̸∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vi−1 } for i = 2, . . . , n.

(c) The set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is linearly independent over F if and only if

• {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 } is linearly independent over F , and

• vn ̸∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 }.

Proof. (a) See Exercise 1(d), §1.1.

(b) Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }.
The “only if” part: If v1 = 0, then 1v1 = 0, and this says that S is
linearly dependent over F . If vi ∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vi−1 } for some i ≥ 2,
then
vi = a1 v1 + · · · + ai−1 vi−1 , a1 , . . . , ai−1 ∈ R.

This gives a non-trivial relation

a1 v1 + · · · + ai−1 vi−1 − 1vi = 0

1.2 Linear combinations and linear independence 21

in S. Hence S is linearly dependent over F .

The “if” part: Suppose S is linearly dependent over F . There is a
non-trivial relation among the elements in S. If v1 = 0, we are done. If
v1 ̸= 0, this relation must involve vectors other than v1 by part (a). Let
this nontrivial relation be

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ai vi = 0

where ai ̸= 0 for some i such that 2 ≤ i ≤ n. This implies that

vi = −a−1
i (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ai−1 vi−1 ) ∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vi−1 }.

(c) From (b), the set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 } is linearly independent over F
and vn ̸∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 } if and only if

• v1 ̸= 0,

• vi ̸∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vi−1 } for i = 2, . . . , n − 1, and

• vn ̸∈ Sp{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 }.

From (b) again, these conditions hold if and only if {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is

linearly independent over F .

Hence, to build a linearly independent set in a vector space, we start

with a nontrivial vector, then we pick consecutive elements which are not
in the span of the previously chosen elements. Note that this is not true
for R-modules in general as we can see in the next example.

Example 1.2.19. The set {2, 3} is clearly linearly dependent over Z since

3 · 2 + (−2) · 3 = 0.

However, 3 ̸∈ Z2, which is the module of even integers. This example shows
that Proposition 1.2.18 does not apply to modules.

Example 1.2.20. Let x be an indeterminate over R. If we construct an

R-linear combination of finitely many monomials, we have a polynomial.
The polynomial is 0 if and only if all the coefficients are 0. Hence, the
set {1, x, x2 , x3 , . . . } is linearly independent over R in R[ x ]. In particular,
{1, x, x2 , . . . , xn } is linearly independent over R for all n.
22 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Exercises 1.2

Throughout these exercises R denotes a ring.

1. Consider the R-vector space RR . Are the two functions cos x and sin x
linearly independent over R?

2. Let S be a set and let s ∈ S. Define χs ∈ RS to be the function

(
1, if t = s;
χs (t) =
0, otherwise.

This is called the characteristic function at s.

Show that { χs }s∈S is a linearly independent subset in RS . Show
that RS = Sp{ χs }s∈S if S is a finite set. Is this assertion still true if
S is infinite?

3. Let I be an index set and let M and N be submodules of the R-module

L. Define

M + N = { m + n ∈ L : m ∈ M, n ∈ N }

and we call it the sum of M and N .

(a) Show that M + N is a submodule of L.

(b) Show that M + N is the smallest submodule in L containing
both M and N , that is, M + N = ⟨ M ∪ N ⟩.

4. Let Mi be a submodule of the R-module L for each i ∈ I. Define

X
Mi = { mi1 + · · · + min ∈ L : n ∈ N, mij ∈ Mij for all j }.
i∈I
P
We call it the sum of the Mi ’s. Show that i∈I Mi is a submodule
of L.
P
With this terminology, Proposition 1.2.6 tells us that ⟨S⟩ = Rm.
m∈S

5. Let L, M and N be submodules of an R-module.

1.3 Bases 23

(a) Is the relation

L ∩ (M + N ) = (L ∩ M ) + (L ∩ N )

true? If not, give a counterexample.

(b) Show that


L ∩ M + (L ∩ N ) = (L ∩ M ) + (L ∩ N ).

6. Let M1 , M2 , . . . , Mn be submodules of the R-module M such that

M = M1 +· · ·+Mn . We say that M1 , M2 , . . . , Mn are independent
over R if whenever m1 + · · · + mn = 0 where mi ∈ Mi for each i, we
have that m1 = · · · = mn = 0. We will use

M = M1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mn

to denote the fact that M = M1 + · · · + Mn and M1 , . . . , Mn are

independent over R. We will call M the (internal) direct sum of
M1 , M2 , . . . , Mn .
Let m1 , m2 , . . . , mn be elements in an R-module.

(a) Suppose m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are linearly independent over R. Show

that Rm1 , Rm2 , . . . , Rmn are independent over R.
(b) Suppose that Rm1 , Rm2 , . . . , Rmn are independent over R. Is
it true that m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are linearly independent over R?
L∞
7. Can you find a countable generating set for i=1 R?

8. Let V be a vector space over the field F and let S be a (not neces-
sarily finite) subset of V . Let v ∈ V . Show that S ∪ {v} is linearly
independent over F if and only if S is linearly independent over F
and v ̸∈ Sp S. This is a generalization of Proposition 1.2.18(c).

1.3 Bases
The concept of basis plays an essential role in the study of vector spaces.
In this section we will examine whether this concept also makes sense for
modules.
24 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Bases
Definition 1.3.1. In an R-module, we say a set B is a base, basis or free
basis for M over R if

• B generates M , and

• B is linearly independent over R.

Proposition 1.3.2. Every element in a module can be expressed uniquely

as a linear combination of the base elements.

Proof. Let B be a basis for M over R and let m ∈ M . Since B generates

M , m is a R-linear combination of finitely many elements in B. In other
P
words, we can write m = f ∈B af f such that af ∈ R for all f ∈ B and
af = 0 except for finitely many f . Suppose we can find another expression
P
m = f ∈B bf f where bf ∈ R for all f ∈ B and bf = 0 except for finitely
many f ’s. Then
X
(af − bf )f = 0.
f ∈B

By the linear independence of the elements in B, af − bf = 0 for all f ∈ B.

This implies that af = bf for f ∈ B.

Definition 1.3.3. If an R-module M has an R-basis, we say that M is a

free R-module or a free module over R.

Not every module is free. Not every module has a basis.

Example 1.3.4. In Z5 , no element is linearly independent over Z since

5k = 0 for all k ∈ Z5 . Hence, no nonempty subset of Z5 is linearly inde-
pendent over Z. We conclude that there are no bases for Z5 over Z.

Example 1.3.5. Let R be a ring.

(1) The set {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is an R-basis for Rn . See Examples 1.2.10

and 1.2.15. This is called the standard basis of Rn over R.

(2) The set { eij : i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n } is an R-basis for

Mm×n (R). See Examples 1.2.11 and 1.2.16. This is the standard
basis of Mm×n (R) over R.
1.3 Bases 25

(3) Let x be an indeterminate over R. The set { 1, x, x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . } is an

R-basis for R[ x ]. See Examples 1.2.9 and 1.2.20. This is the standard
basis of R[ x ] over R. Similarly, the set { 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn } is called
the standard basis of Pn over R.

(4) Let S be a finite set. The set { χs : s ∈ S } is an R-basis for RS . This

is the standard basis of RS over R. Note that
X
f= f (s)χs , for f ∈ RS .
s∈S

See Exercises 2, §1.2.

Posets
Before we give a characterization to the concept of bases, we need to
introduce the concept of “order” or “partial order”.

Definition 1.3.6. Let (S, ≤) be a set with a relation ≤. We say (S, ≤) is a

partially ordered set or a poset if the following conditions are satisfied
for all a, b, c ∈ S:

(i) (Reflexivity) a ≤ a;

(ii) (Transitivity) if a ≤ b and b ≤ c then a ≤ c;

(iii) (Antisymmetry) if a ≤ b and b ≤ a then a = b.

The relation ≤ is called a partial order.

We use the descriptive adjective “partial” because two elements need

not be comparable.

Example 1.3.7. Let S be an arbitrary set and let P(S) be the power set
of S (the set of all the subsets of S). Then (P(S), ⊆) is a poset.

Example 1.3.8. Let S be a set. We may also define a relation ⪯ on P(S)

by letting A ⪯ B if and only if B ⊆ A. Then (P(S), ⪯) is a poset. A
partial order is not only about size.
26 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Example 1.3.9. Let ≤ be the relation “less than or equal to” in the usual
sense. Let | denote the relation of divisibility, that is, a|b if and only if
b = ac for some c. Then (Z+ , ≤) and (Z+ , | ) are both posets. However,
note that (Z, ≤) is a poset while (Z, | ) is not! The relation | does not satisfy
antisymmetry in Z. For example, we have 1| − 1 and −1|1 but 1 ̸= −1 in Z.

Definition 1.3.10. Let (S, ≤) be a poset and let T be a subset of S.

Let u ∈ S. We say u is an upper bound for T if a ≤ u for all a ∈ T .
Similarly, we say l is a lower bound for T if l ≤ a for all a ∈ T .
Let M and m be in T . We say M is a maximal element of T if no
element of T is greater than M . In other words, if a ∈ T and M ≤ a then
M = a. We say m is a minimal element of T if no element of T is less
than m. In other words, if a ∈ T and a ≤ m then m = a.
Let g and l be in T . We say that g is the greatest element in T if a ≤ g
for all a ∈ T . We say that l is the least element in T if l ≤ a for all a ∈ T .

Remark. One may notice the word “the” in the phrases “the greatest” and
“the least”. The word “the” in mathematics means “the unique” or “one
and only”. Suppose g and h are both greatest elements in a subset T within
a poset S. Then g ≤ h and h ≤ g by definition. This implies that g = h by
antisymmetry.

Example 1.3.11. Consider the poset (Z, ≤) in Example 1.3.9. There are
neither maximal nor minimal elements in it.
In this example, we can see that maximal or minimal elements may not
exist in a poset.

Example 1.3.12. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}. In the poset (P(S), ⊆), the empty
set ∅ is the only minimal element; it is also the least element in P(S).
Similarly, the set S is the greatest element and the only minimal element
in P(S).
Consider the poset (A , ⊆) where

A = {{1}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {2, 3, 4}} ⊆ P(S).

The elements {1}, {3} and {2, 4} are minimal and the elements {1, 2} and
{2, 3, 4} are maximal. There are neither least nor greatest elements in A .
1.3 Bases 27

In this example, we can see that in a poset: (i) maximal elements (or
minimal elements respectively) may not be unique even when they exist,
and (ii) a minimal (or maximal) element may not be the least (or greatest,
respectively) element.

We are now ready to give an important characterization for bases of a

vector space.

Proposition 1.3.13. Let F be a field and V be an F -vector space. The

following conditions for a subset B of V are equivalent.

(i) The subset B is a basis for V over F .

(ii) The subset B is a maximal F -linearly independent subset in V .

(iii) The subset B is a minimal generating set for V over F .

Proof. “(i) ⇒ (ii)”: Let B be a basis and let C be a linearly independent

subset containing B. Suppose C properly contains B. Find v ∈ V such that
v ∈ C \ B. Since B is a basis, we have v ∈ Sp B. Find v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ B
such that v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn where a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F . This gives a
non-trivial relation 1v − a1 v1 − · · · − an vn = 0 in C, a contradiction. Hence
B is a maximal linearly independent subset in V .
“(ii) ⇒ (iii)”: Let B be a maximal linearly independent subset in V .
First we show that B is a generating set. Suppose not. Find v ∈ V such that
v ̸∈ Sp B. Then B ∪ {v} is linearly dependent according to the maximality
of B. We may find v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ B and a, a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F such
that av + a1 v1 + · · · + an vn = 0 is a nontrivial relation. Note that a ̸= 0.
Otherwise we would have a nontrivial relation in B, a contradiction to B
being linearly independent. Thus we have

v = a−1 (−a1 v1 − · · · − an vn ) ∈ Sp B,

a contradiction again. We conclude that V = Sp B.

If B is not a minimal generating set, B contains a proper subset C such
that C is a generating set for V . Find v ∈ B \ C. Since v ∈ V = Sp C, we
may find v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ C such that

v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn , for a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F.
28 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

This gives a nontrivial relation 1v − a1 v1 − · · · − an vn = 0 in B, a contradic-

tion to the linear independency of B. We have shown that B is a minimal
generating set.
“(iii) ⇒ (i)”: Let B be a minimal generating set. To show that B is
a basis, it remains to show that B is linearly independent. Suppose not.
Find a nontrivial relation a1 v1 + · · · + an vn = 0 for v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ B and
without loss of generality we may assume that a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F are all
nonzero. This implies that

v1 = a−1
1 (−a2 v2 − · · · − an vn ) ∈ Sp{v2 , . . . , vn } ⊆ Sp(B \ {v1 }).

We have that Sp(B\{v1 }) = Sp B = V by Lemma 1.2.5(c). This contradicts

to the fact that B is a minimal generating set. Hence B is a linearly
independent subset and a basis.

Definition 1.3.14. Let V be an F -vector space where F is a field. We say

that V is a finite dimensional vector space over F if it has a finite gen-
erating set for V over F . Otherwise, we say it is an infinite dimensional
vector space over F .

Every vector space has a basis

One of the most important and fundamental results regarding vector
spaces is that every vector space has a basis. In other words, every vector
space is free! This result is what separates vector spaces from modules.

Proposition 1.3.15. Any finite dimensional vector space contains a finite

basis. In fact, any finite generating set may be reduced to a basis.

Proof. Find a finite generating set for the given finite dimensional vector
space. If this generating set is not minimal, we may find a proper generating
subset within this generating set. Continue with the procedure and we may
eventually reach a minimal generating subset since we started with a finite
set. From Proposition 1.3.13 this minimal generating subset is a basis for
the given vector space.

Suppose given an infinite dimensional vector space. Any generating set

is infinite. There is no guarantee that we may reduce an infinite generat-
ing set to a minimal generating subset. To determine whether an infinite
1.3 Bases 29

dimensional vector space contains a basis, there still remains much to be

done.

Definition 1.3.16. We say a poset (S, ≤) is a totally ordered set or a

chain if for all a, b ∈ S we have either a ≤ b or b ≤ a.

In a totally ordered set any two elements are comparable.

Example 1.3.17. Let ≤ be the relation “less than or equal to” in the usual
sense. The posets (Z+ , ≤) and (Z, ≤) are totally ordered.

Zorn’s Lemma. If every chain in a nonempty poset (S, ≤) has an upper

bound in S, S has a maximal element.
Remark. Any element in S is automatically an upper bound for the empty
chain. There is no need to check the empty chain when we verify Zorn’s
lemma.
This is a well-known axiom in set theory. An axiom is a rule we assume
in a logical system. It is a statement or a proposition which cannot be
proven right or wrong using only logics (and other axioms). In a different
logical universe, an axiom may well be assumed to be false. Mathematicians
prefer to prove theorems using as few axioms as possible. Nonetheless,
Zorn’s lemma is one of the most commonly used axioms. Without it, much
of what we know in mathematics would be un-established. It would be
extremely inconvenient indeed. Zorn’s lemma is how human beings imagine
infinity, or beyond infinity, is like. When dealing with infinitely countable
sets we might be able to use induction. When we have to deal with an
uncountable set, Zorn’s Lemma is often the only tool we have.
We will now use Zorn’s lemma to prove the main result of this section
for infinite dimensional vector spaces.

Theorem 1.3.18. Let F be a field and let V be an F -vector space.

(a) Any linearly independent subset of V can be extended to a maximal

linearly independent subset.

(b) Any generating set of V can be reduced to a minimal generating set.

Hence, any vector space contains a basis.

30 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Proof. (a) Consider F which is the family of linearly independent subsets

within V . This is a nonempty family since it contains at least the empty
set. Clearly (F , ⊆) is a poset.
There is nothing to check for the empty chain. We will assume that C
is a nonempty chain in F . We want to find an upper bound for C in F .
S
Claim. The set T = S is a linearly independent subset. Hence T ∈ F.
S∈C

Proof of claim. Suppose T is not linearly independent. This says that we

may find v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ T and nonzero elements a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F such
that

(1.3.1) a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0.

For each i, find Si ∈ C such that vi ∈ Si . However, since C is a chain, this

says that one of the Si ’s, say Si0 , must contain all the Si ’s. The nontrivial
relation in (1.3.1) is also a nontrivial relation in Si0 . This says that Si0 is
linearly dependent, a contradiction. ■
The claim shows that the union of C is an upper bound for C . By
Zorn’s lemma, F contains a maximal element, which is a maximal linearly
independent subset B in V . By Proposition 1.3.13, the set B is a basis for
V over F .
We leave the proof of (b) as an exercise. See Exercise 1.

Even though we are sure of the existence of bases, it does not mean that
Q∞
we can actually find them. Good luck finding a specific basis for i=1 R
over R. Good luck finding a specific basis for R over Q.

Exercises 1.3

In the following exercises R denotes a ring and F denotes a field.

1. Prove Theorem 1.3.18(b). (Hint: Let X be a generating set for the

vector space V over F and let F be the family of linearly independent
subsets within X. Use Zorn’s lemma on the poset (F , ⊆) to show that
there is a maximal linearly independent subset within X and it is a
minimal generating set and a basis for V .)
1.4 Dimension for finite dimensional vector spaces 31

L∞
2. Is i=1 R a free module over R? If yes, find an R-basis for it. Is
L
i∈R R a free module over R? If yes, find an R-basis for it.

3. Let V be the subset

{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) ∈ C5 : 3x1 +2x2 −x5 = 0, x1 −3x3 +x4 −2x5 = 0}

in V . Show that V is a subspace of C5 either over R or over C. Find

a basis for V over C. Find a basis for V over R.

4. Let R[ x, y ] be the polynomial ring of two variables over R. Is it a

free module over R? If yes, find a free R-basis for it.

5. Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Show that (R2 )S is free over R by finding an R-basis
for it.

6. Let S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } be a set of m elements and let M be a free

R-module with a basis B = {f1 , f2 , . . . , fn }. Show that M S is free
over R by finding an R-basis for it.

7. Let I be a proper ideal of R. Use Zorn’s lemma to show that in R

there is a maximal ideal which contains I. In particular, any ring has
a maximal ideal.

1.4 Dimension for finite dimensional vector

spaces
In this and the next section, we aim to show that any two bases of a
vector space are of the same size. The approaches to the finite dimensional
case and to the infinite dimensional case are totally different. In this section
we will focus on the finite dimensional case.
Throughout this section F denotes a field.

Replacement theorem
Theorem 1.4.1. All bases of a finite dimensional vector space are finite
and have the same number of elements in them.

Theorem 1.4.1 can be proved by using the following result.

32 1. Modules and Vector Spaces

Proposition 1.4.2 (Replacement theorem). Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be

a linearly independent set of n elements in the F -vector space V and let B
be an F -basis for V . There exist n distinct elements w1 , w2 , . . . , wn in B
such that


Bi = B \ {w1 , w2 , . . . , wi } ∪ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vi }

remains an F -basis for V for each 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

In particular, we have |S| ≤ |B|.

Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume

B ∩ S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vs }

where s may be 0. We may replace vi by itself for i = 1, . . . , s. That is, we

would choose wi = vi for i = 1, . . . , s. In this case B = B1 = B2 = · · · = Bs .
If s < n, we will attempt to find

ws+1 ∈ B \ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vs } = B \ {w1 , w2 , . . . , ws }

such that


Bs+1 = Bs \ {ws+1 } ∪ {vs+1 }


= B \ {w1 , w2 , . . . , ws+1 } ∪ {v1 , v2 , . . . , vs+1 }

remains a basis for V over F .

Remember that B is a maximal linearly independent set in V by Propo-
sition 1.3.13. We have that B ∪{vs+1 } is linearly dependent since vs+1 ̸∈ B.
In B ∪ {vs+1 } we may find a nontrivial relation

(1.4.1) avs+1 + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + as vs + b1 u1 + b2 u2 + · · · + bd ud = 0

where a, a1 , a2 , . . . , as , b1 , b2 , . . . , bd are scalars in F and u1 , u2 , . . . , ud

are vectors in B \ {w1 , w2 , . . . , ws }. First note that if a = 0, this will
become a nontrivial relation in Bs , a contradiction to the linear indepen-
dency of Bs . Hence a ̸= 0. Next, note that d > 0, for otherwise we have
a nontrivial relation in {v1 , v2 , . . . , vs+1 } ⊆ S, a contradiction to the lin-
ear independency of S. We may also assume that b1 , b2 , . . . , bd are all
nonzero scalars. Choose ws+1 = u1 . The choice of ws+1 guarantees that
w1 , w2 , . . . , ws+1 are distinct elements in B.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 He stood over her, looking at her, changed she could not tell how. His
face clouded over before her eyes. At first this seemed only the effect of the
tears that blinded her, but when these latter fell she became aware that the
countenance which had been so good-humoured and friendly was full now
of a very different sentiment. The man seemed to have expanded even in
outline as he stood between her and the light.
“Forbid it, forbid it altogether!” he repeated, with a smile that seemed to
freeze her. “Why?” She felt herself tremble before him as he fixed his eyes
upon her. “My lady,” he said, “you forget where you are, and you forget
your politeness for once. How do you know my girl is not like the women
he has been used to? By God! she’s better than most he’ll meet with among
your depraved and worn-out race. My girl! if it is true, and she likes him, do
you think I would forbid it, to save your fine blood from pollution, and keep
your Paul for some fine lady of the kind he’s been used to? No, not for a
million of mothers—not for all the soft-spoken insults in the world.”
Lady Markharn made no reply; she could not, her agitation was so great;
but indignation began to steady her nerves, and give back her forces. What
had she said to call for this? How dared he speak of insult, the man whom
she felt she had honoured by coming to him, by appealing to him? She was
not an angel, though she was a good woman, and instinctively she began to
call together her faculties, to range herself, as it were, on her own side.
Apparently, however, after this outburst, Spears felt ashamed of himself.
A fine sense of courtesy was in the man, almost finer than her own. He
began to be ashamed of having thus violated hospitality, of having so
addressed her in his own house. He turned away from her to recover
himself, turning his back upon her, then came back with again a changed
aspect. “I beg your pardon,” he said; “I ought to have more control of
myself in my own place. I don’t believe it’s true what you think. No, my
lady, I don’t mean you’re saying what you don’t believe—I think you’re
deceived. I won’t ask who’s told you, or how it’s come into your head; I’ll
put it to a better test. I’ll ask the girl herself.”
“Mr. Spears,” said Lady Markham, “you have been very rude to me; I
have not insulted you, nor did I mean to do so. It never occurred to me,” she
added, with a fine sting in her words which penetrated through all his
armour, “that I need fear anything from you which I should not have
encountered in—another rank of life. But I do not wish to make reprisals,”
she said, with a faint smile, rising from her seat. “If you question your
daughter on such a subject it ought not to be before me.”
“My lady,” cried Spears, his face full of passion, “unless it is to be open
war between us it shall be before you. If there’s love between them there
should be no shame in it. My girl is one that can hold up her head before
any on the face of the earth. It is not my beginning, but it shall be settled
and cleared up on the spot. Janet! come down here, I want you,” he called at
the foot of the stairs.
Even in the midst of her agitation, Lady Markham had been conscious of
sounds above, footsteps and young voices, one of which indeed had been
persistently singing all the time, some trivial song of the moment in a clear
little sweet voice, like the trill of a bird. The insignificant tune had run
through all this exciting interview, and worked itself into Lady Markham’s
head, and in spite of herself she stood still, not resisting any longer, turning
towards the stairs involuntarily, watching for the appearance of the girl who
(perhaps) was dearer to her boy than anything else, who, perhaps, was his
motive for relinquishing everything else, including his mother’s happiness
and the comfort of his family. What woman could remain unmoved under
such circumstances? Once more her heart began to beat as she turned her
face towards the dingy stairs. Was it some beautiful apparition which was to
appear from it, some creature such as exists in poetry, some woman for
whom it would be comprehensible that a man should give up all? Lady
Markham had romance enough in her to feel that this was possible, almost
to wish it, while she feared it. If it were so, it would be more easy to forgive
Paul. Ah, forgive him!—that was never hard; that was not the question. Our
forgiveness, like a weeping angel, is it not always hovering, forestalling
even the evil to be forgiven, over our children’s wayward ways? But to get
it out of her mind, out of her memory, that he had deceived her, that was not
so easy. She, who had come in search of evidence to exonerate Paul, can
any one wonder that she stood trembling, scarcely seeing, scarcely hearing,
yet all eyes and ears, to receive the testimony of this indisputable witness,
against whom there could be no appeal? But when the girl’s foot sounded
on the stair it seemed to Lady Markham that she had already given up all
hope that Paul was true—provided only that this woman for whom he had
compromised the honour of his word, might at least afford some
justification for the sacrifice.
 CHAPTER XIV.
“What is it, father? do you want me?”
The girl spoke to her father, but her eyes were caught instantly by the
unusual apparition of the lady in the shop. Who was she? not an ordinary
customer, not anybody with an order for picture frames. A flutter awoke in
Janet’s breast. Was it perhaps somebody sent from the shop to offer that
situation which was the dream of her fancy? a situation, she did not quite
know what, varying as her hopes and sense of self-importance varied from
that of a companion (which, the forewoman of the shop had told her, her
manners and look were equal to—not to speak of her education) to that of a
lady’s maid. Emigration was not an idea which pleased Janet. She was
afraid of the sea, afraid of the unknown, and not at all desirous of being
always at home, shut up within the circle of family duties and
companionship. She wanted to see the world, as all young people had, she
thought, a right to do. To go into the wilds had no charm for her. She had
grown up in the close presence of all her father’s theories without being
affected by one of them. She had heard him speak by the hour and had paid
no attention. All his moral independence, the haughtiness of his
determination to be his own master, and stand under subjection to no man,
affected his child no more than to make her wish the more fervently for that
“situation,” which would deliver her from the monotony of these “holdings
forth.” Janet’s ideal of a happy existence was that of a large “establishment”
where there would be a crowd of servants, elegant valets and splendid
butlers at the feet of the pretty maid whom nobody would be able to tell
from a lady—or perhaps a chance of catching the eye of the master of one
of these fine gentlemen, who would make her a lady in earnest, with
servants of her own. Nobody knew of these secret dreams which occupied
her fancy, and grew and flourished in the atmosphere of the shop; but when
her father called her suddenly, and she came down to see Lady Markham
standing so exactly like (she thought) a lady whom the forewoman might
have sent with the offer of a situation, her heart began to beat, and her head
to turn round with excitement—excitement only not so great as that of the
woman who stood gazing at her with wistful eyes, asking herself if this was
the woman whom Paul preferred to all the world.
Janet was tall, and possessed what the people at the shop called “a lovely
figure;” the mantles and jackets never looked so well as upon her. The habit
of putting these garments on, and making a little parade in front of the glass
to show them, which was her daily duty, had given a certain ease of carriage
not usual in her class. When you are accustomed to be gazed at, whether for
yourself, or what you carry on your shoulders, it takes away the native
embarrassment of the self-conscious creature. She was dressed in that gown
of black alpaca which is the uniform of the shops, and which did full justice
to the fine lines of her form. These were not the mere slim outlines of a
girlish figure which might turn to anything, but really beautiful, finely
proportioned, and imposing. She came down into her father’s shop, into the
line of sunshine that crossed it, with the air of a young queen. Her face,
however, was not so fine. She was pale, her nose not quite so delicate, her
mouth not so small as beauty demanded. Her hair was fair, with little colour
in it, and affording but little relief to the forehead upon which it clustered in
a wild but careful disorder, according to the fashion of the time. Lady
Markham took in every line and every feature as the girl advanced: far more
critically than if she had been, as Janet thought, an intending employer did
she examine this new unknown being who (was it possible?) had Paul’s
future in her hands. They gazed at each other, forgetting the man who stood
by watching their mutual interest with what would have been amusement
had he been less indignant and curious. Men and women are always so
strange to each other. He looked at these two with a half-despairing, half-
comic (notwithstanding his seriousness) consciousness that the ideas that
were going through their minds were to him a sealed book. He did not
know, poor man, that the lady, who was a stranger, was the one of the two
that was comprehensible to him, and that stranger than all Greek or Latin,
more mysterious than philosophy, would have been to him, had he been
able to see them, the thoughts in the mind of his own child.
“I want to ask you a question, Janet. Don’t be alarmed, it is not anything
to frighten you,” he said. “In the first place this is Lady Markham, the
mother of Mr. Markham whom you have so often seen here.”
Janet made a curtsey to the lady, uttering a little confused “Oh!” of
wonder, and opening her eyes, and even her mouth, in surprise. Could Mr.
Markham have recommended her? Mr. Markham! She did not know what to
think. Why should he wish her to be under his mother’s care? Thought goes
quick at all times, quickest of all in such a crisis, when the next word may
change all your prospects in life. Her mind plunged forward in a moment
into a world of possibilities, while her eyelids quivered with that
expression, and her mouth kept the form of the “Oh!” tremulous and
astonished. The quiver communicated itself to her whole frame—what
might come next?
“You must understand,” said Lady Markham quickly, “that I have
nothing to do with the question your father is going to ask you. It is not put
in consequence of anything I have told him—nor is it put at my desire.”
Spears gave a little laugh, elevating his eyebrows. Yes, this was the sort
of thing to be expected. She had led him on to it, and now she protested that
she had nothing to do with it—was not this the kind of tactics pursued by
her class in all ages? To push the frank and honest man of the people into a
corner and then to disown him. He laughed, though he had not much
inclination to laugh.
“Quite right, quite true,” he said; “it is for my own satisfaction entirely.
Janet, nobody has ever come between you and me,” the man added with a
certain pathos. He looked at his daughter with a mist of honest affection and
trust in his eyes, and without an idea, without a suspicion, that between him
and her lay a whole world of difference, indescribable by ordinary words. “I
have been father and mother both to you. Answer me, my girl, without any
fear. Mr. Markham has told his family that he is going with us to
Queensland. Janet, answer me plainly, is it out of love for you?”
“Father!” Janet, whose face was turned towards him, gave a sudden cry.
In a moment a flame of colour went over her. She opened her eyes still
wider, and her mouth, with dismay. “Oh, father! father!” she cried, in a tone
of warning and alarm.
It seemed to Lady Markham that nothing more was necessary. Her limbs
refused to support her any longer. She sank upon the seat which she had
abandoned. The girl was afraid to speak the truth before her; but yet what
doubt could there be of the meaning in her voice.
“I ask you to tell me plainly—to speak out as between you and me,” said
Spears. He was not slow to perceive what her tone implied, and the warning
in it made him angry. “There is no reason why you should hesitate to say it.
If so it is, there is nothing wrong in it as far as I can see. Blush you must, I
suppose—girls cannot help it; but tell me, like an innocent creature as you
are, tell me the truth. I tell you there is nothing to be ashamed of. Is it out of
love for you?”
Her thoughts rushed, tumbling over each other in a wild dance, a
feverish Bacchic procession, through Janet’s head. She did not mean to say,
or even to imply what was not true. But such questioning could only mean
one thing, that Mr. Markham had confessed to his mother that he was “in
love” for her—that unthought-of, bewildering promotion was within her
reach. She did not mean to tell a lie. She blushed more hotly than ever.
“Oh, father, how can you ask me such a thing—before a lady?” she said.
“Then it is true?”
Janet did not make any reply; she dropped her head with a modest grace,
twisting her fingers together nervously, her whole frame quivering. It was
not she that had told them anything: they had told her. Ah! she remembered
now a score of little nothings. Had not he picked up her thimble for her
when she let it fall? Had not he opened the door for her when she came and
went? How often she had wondered how he could come night after night
and day after day—for what?—to talk to father, to listen to father! Many
and many a time she had wondered at, and in her heart despised, her
father’s disciples. It was “bosh” that he was saying, and yet these others
would sit round him and take it all in. But here was something altogether
different. That a young man should only have pretended to listen to father,
should have come for herself all the time, was quite comprehensible to
Janet. There was nothing strange even—nothing out of the way in it. It was
what lovers had done from the beginning of time.
“Is that all you have got to say?” said her father. “Can’t you give us any
more satisfaction? Speak out when I tell you, Janet. All this time that he has
been coming here, not saying a word to you, pretending to be my disciple
—” A little sting of wounded vanity was in Spears too. He did not quite like
to feel that he had been deceived, that his most fervent follower was
nothing but the lover of his daughter. “All this time,” he repeated, “has it
been for you he has been coming? That is what we want to know.”
Still Janet said nothing. She stood with her eyes cast down, interlacing
her fingers in and out, out and in—her mind in such a sudden heat of active
operation that she had not leisure to speak. It was not the first time that the
idea had presented itself to her. She had thought of it as a very desirable
thing that Mr. Markham (or one of the others) should fall in love with her.
But up to this moment she had not been able to see any likelihood of her
desire realising itself. However, her mind leaped into instant action,
supporting with a whole array of proof the suggestion so suddenly placed
before her, of the truth of which she did not entertain a moment’s doubt.
How could she doubt it? If he had told his mother, certainly it must be true;
and the other facts adapted themselves as by magic to this great central fact.
As soon as she had got possession of that as a foundation, the details
seemed to come at a wish, and a whole superstructure of blessedness sprang
upwards towards the skies.
“I don’t know what you wish me to say, father,” she answered, at last,
after another peremptory call. She spoke with all the modesty of conviction,
for she felt now that every word was true. “There are things as a girl cannot
speak about. There are a deal of things as are nothing in themselves; but
still a girl knows what they mean.”
These modest words gave an indescribable pang to both her hearers. As
for Spears, it was all he could do not to cry out with anger and pain. To
think that at this great crisis, at a moment when so much depended upon it,
she should speak with such disregard of grammar, notwithstanding all the
care he had taken of her education.
“There are things as a girl cannot speak about.”
He knew that this would catch Lady Markham’s ears, and he felt himself
humbled before her—not because of the fact, which there was no harm in,
which was indeed natural enough; but that his girl should tell it in such
grammar occupied Spears to the exclusion of deeper sentiment. He turned
to his visitor with a conciliatory tone, and a look of deprecation as if asking
her pardon.
“Well!” he said, “my lady! there does not seem to be much doubt on that
point. We will have to make up our minds to it, though it is not what I could
have wished, any more than you.”
The very light seemed darkened in Lady Markham’s eyes, the room went
round with her, and she saw nothing clearly. Oh, why had she come here to
make sure! Why had she not let it alone, all vague as it was! An hour ago
she had thought anything better than uncertainty—but now uncertainty
itself would have been a boon. She looked at Spears, catching the tone of
deprecation in his voice, which seemed so natural, and made a sudden
appeal to him.
“Make up, our minds to it,” she cried. “How is that possible? Oh, Mr.
Spears, I have always thought you so superior to anything of the kind. You
would not take advantage of the confidence placed in you; you would not
allow my boy, because of his admiration for your talents, to ruin himself, to
compromise his position, to disappoint all our hopes!”
She rose up and put out her hands, appealing—in the forgetfulness of
personal despair—to his generosity, though it was against himself and his
own child. The most courteous, the most considerate person will forget
when it is their own dearest interests which are concerned.
His fantastic distress about the grammar went out of the man’s mind. His
forehead contracted, a gleam of anger came from his eyes. But he had no
doubt as to having right on his side, and he answered with dignity.
“Madam,” he said, “we had better understand each other. I don’t want your
son any more than you want my daughter; but they have their rights, and if
they like each other I will not interfere.”
She was driven almost wild by this reply. “Sir William will never
consent—he will never consent to it,” she cried.
“That’s none of my business—nor my child’s,” said Spears. He forgot
the respect with which she had inspired him. “Here’s the difference between
your class and mine, my lady,” he said with some scorn. “I consider the one
thing needful in a marriage is love—on both sides. In our rank of life we
don’t consider much more. We don’t ask questions about a girl’s ancestors
or her fortune. Most likely there’s none of either sort, as in this case—but
where there is love, what more is wanting? You will never persuade me to
interfere.”
“Marriage!” she repeated, in a voice of dismay. Of course that was what
it must come to. She cast a look of dismay and almost horror at the girl who
would, if this were so, take her own place, and hold her position in the
world. She rose up suddenly from her rude seat, feeling that her limbs still
failed her, but that in any case she could stay no longer here. “Oh, there is a
great deal more wanting—a great deal more,” she cried. “Life is not so
simple for us. A woman should know what she undertakes—what weight
she will have on her shoulders. There are other things to be taken into
consideration in such a life as ours.”
 “You think so,” said Spears. What he intended to be a superior smile
dwindled into something like a sneer. He did not like this assertion, which
he could not contradict. After all, it was true enough that his own existence
was far more elementary and primitive than the other, and he did not like
the thought.
“You do not know,” said Lady Markham, “you cannot understand the
difficulties of people who are looked up to by a whole district, who have the
comfort of others, the very life of many in their hands. But why should I
speak of this?” she said. “I thought you understood, but you do not
understand. Now it is war between us, as you said. I want to harm no one,
but I must do what I can for my boy.”
She made them a curtsey which (for she could not be uncivil) included
both father and daughter, then drew down her veil with a trembling hand
and hurried away.
Spears went after her to the door. He was furious at this calm assertion of
something higher, larger, and more elevated in her different rank; yet he
could not help a certain reverence, an unwilling worship of the lady, of
whom he had once said regretfully that nothing like her was ever produced
in his own. He went to the door, and gazed after her as she went along, her
steps still hurried and agitated, but her natural grace coming back to her.
“Looked up to by a whole district—the comfort of others, their very life in
her hands.” Ah! there might be something in that after all. He felt in his own
veins a fulness, a swell of rising blood as of a man able to bear others upon
his shoulders, and fearing no responsibility. That should come in the new
world to which he was bound. There he too would cease to be a single unit
among other isolated individuals, and would become a head also, a leader,
the first of a community. He felt as if she had dared him to it, and he would
achieve it. But as he stood there half-angry, half-stimulated, he was aware
of his daughter behind him, straining on tiptoe to look over his shoulder—
and turned round, looking at her with a new principle of judgment and
discrimination in his eyes.
“Was it really Lady Markham? Is she Mr. Markham’s mother?” said
Janet, breathless with excitement. “Oh, how pretty she must have been,
father! She’s not a bit nicely dressed, not what I would call equal to her
situation. But she looks a real lady. Don’t you think you would know she
was a real lady, whatever she had on?”
 “I don’t know what you mean by a real lady. You are quite as silly as the
rest, you little fool.”
“Oh, but you do know,” cried Janet. “Miss Stichel puts on lovely things,
but she never has that look. Was that the lady that was so kind to you in the
country?—in that beautiful grand house?”
“Did I say she was kind to me?” said Spears, melting a little. “Well, yes,
I suppose she was.”
“And was it really,” said Janet, drooping her head, after she had cast one
keen glance at her father’s face, “really—about nothing but Mr. Markham’s
nonsense that she came here?”
“Janet,” said her father, taking her by the hand—his mind had wandered
from the great question of the moment, but her words brought it suddenly
back. He looked tenderly and anxiously into the girl’s face, which sank
before his gaze, but only with an easy blush and pleasant embarrassment. “I
don’t want to be inquisitorial. I don’t want to pry into what is perhaps too
delicate for a man’s ear. But tell me if you can what you mean by Mr.
Markham’s nonsense? He has always seemed very serious to me. Try and
tell me if you can—try and speak to me as you would have spoken if your
mother had been here.”
This touched her heart, for she was not a bad girl. She began to cry a
little. “She would not have asked me—she would have understood,” she
said. “Oh, father, what can I tell you beyond what I have told you? Besides,
what does it matter what I say? He must have spoke himself, or what
brought the lady here?”
This seemed conclusive to Spears too. It did not occur to him that “Mr.
Markham’s nonsense” must mean something more than what Paul had said
to his mother. He put his arm round his child, and drew her close to him.
“You should not say ‘he must have spoke,’ Janet—though it would seem
indeed as if he had said something. She wanted me to order him off. Tell
me, my girl, are you really—fond of this young fellow?” he said, with
persuasive tenderness. “Don’t turn your face away, there is nothing to be
ashamed of. I thought you were but a child, and lo! you are a woman with
lovers after you,” he went on, with a smile that was pathetic. “I can’t say I
like it, but it’s nature, and I won’t complain.”
“Oh don’t, father,” said Janet, drawing herself away. “Don’t! How can I
tell you—or any one?” There was just enough of feeling to give a natural air
of pretty reserve and delicacy to the girlish shrinking, the quick movement
she made to conceal her face from his eyes. Her voice was tremulous, her
cheeks suffused with the blush of excitement and pleasant confusion. After
a pause she turned half round and asked, as if avoiding a more difficult
question, “Is it a very grand house? Will it come to him after? Will he be a
Sir too?”
“If it lasts till his time,” said the revolutionary, “which let us hope it will
not. The chances are, that all these detestable distinctions will be swept
away long before, and the wrongs of the poor be made an end of. The
country will not bear it much longer.”
“Oh!” cried Janet, forgetting her bashfulness, and turning upon him a
face full of eager vehemence and indignation. “I am sick of hearing of the
country! What harm does it do the country? Will they have a penny the
more for taking away his money? Why shouldn’t I be a lady as well as any
one else? To have a grand house, and a man in livery to walk behind me is
what I should like above everything! I hope it will last till our time. I don’t
believe there will be any difference. Oh, father, won’t you just give up
making speeches and holding meetings, and let things be?”
“Janet!” he cried, with a flash of anger; but it seemed ludicrous, after all,
to attach any importance to what such a child said. He laughed a confused
and disconcerted laugh. “That doesn’t come well from my daughter! And
what do you know about such things? You are a little goose, and that is all
about it. Besides, what does it matter? We are all going to Queensland—he,
too. There will not be many grand houses, or men in livery, you baby! to be
found there.”
“Oh!” cried Janet, growing pale with disappointment and dismay; “but
you don’t think he will have to go there now?”
“Why not now? There is more reason than ever now, it appears to me.”
“Oh!” cried Janet again—that stock English monosyllable expressing a
whole gamut of dissatisfaction and surprise. “I thought that would only be
because he thought his people would object, and didn’t know what we—I—
would say. He would rather go than be separated—rather than lose—us; it is
easy to understand. But when he’s been and told, and when his mother has
come here, and when it’s all in the way of being settled—Oh!” cried Janet
again, with natural vehemence, “what in all the world should he go for
now? Would any one go that could help it? and him that has everything he
can set his face to, and sure to come into a fortune, and all made easy for
him. What in all the world should he go for now?”
Spears stood and looked at her with a confusion that was almost
stupidity. He was indeed stupefied by this extraordinary speech. Was it
really what it seemed to be, a revelation of an unknown character, a new
creation altogether—or was it merely the silly babble of a child?
“My girl,” he said, with a tone of severity, yet still keeping the half of his
smile, so confused and uncertain was he, not knowing what to think; “what
is this you are saying? It is not like a child of mine. What if I were to say—
as I have a good right—he shall come to Queensland or he shall not have
you?”
“You would not have any right to say such a thing,” said Janet, with
decision. “Don’t you tell us we’ve all got the right, both men and girls, to
do what is best for ourselves and to judge for ourselves? and would you be
the tyrant to take that from us? Oh, no, father, no! I never would have said a
word but for this. Many a one has said to me, ‘What are you going for? I
wouldn’t go a step in your place. I’d take a situation, and stay where all my
friends are.’ That’s been said to me—times and times; and I’ve always said
‘No. Where father goes I must go.’ But, all the same, I always hated going.
For one thing, I know I should be ill all the way. I hate a ship; and I hate
living in the country, where you would never see so much as a street-lamp,
nor hear anything but cows mooing, and sheep baaing; but I would have
gone and never said a word. Only now,” cried Janet, with rising vehemence,
“what would be the good of me going, or of him going? If I was married I
shouldn’t be of no use to you; and what in all the world should take him
there, if it wasn’t following after me?”
Her father stood and gazed at her stupefied. His very jaw dropped with
wonder. She had never made so long a speech in her life; but now that she
had spoken, it was all as clear, as definitely settled and arranged, as pitiless
in its reasonableness, as if, instead of a girl of twenty, she had been a
philosopher laying down the law. All her timidity was gone. She looked him
full in the face while she ended her lengthened argument. As for Spears, the
very power of speech seemed to be taken from him. A sound like a laugh,
harsh and jarring, came from him when she ended.
“So that’s how it is?” he said, and turned and went back to his bench like
a man who did not know what he was doing. Janet was glad enough to be
thus released. She who had known her own sentiments all along was not
startled by them as he was; but she felt that it was best now she had uttered
them to let them have time and quiet to work their necessary effect. She
turned to the eight-day clock, which had been ticking solemnly all this time
in the corner, with a half shriek.
“Good gracious!” she cried, “it’s past nine, and me still here. Whatever
will Miss Stichel say?”
 CHAPTER XV.
Lady Markham walked away quickly, tingling in every nerve. She
felt herself insulted and betrayed. She had gone to this poor man as if he
had been a gentleman, with full confidence in him, and he had not justified
her faith. A poor gentleman would have felt the impossibility, would have
seen that a girl of no importance, without money, or rank, or connections,
could not expect to marry Paul Markham, the heir of all the family honours.
A person of any cultivation would have felt this, had there been the best
blood in England in his veins. But this clown did not feel it; this common
workman, wood-carver, tradesman, he did not see it. He ventured to look
her in the face and tell her that they must make up their minds to it.
Lady Markham was angry; she could not help it. And there was an
additional sting in the situation from the fact that she felt she had brought it
upon herself. She had taken an injudicious step. In her desire to relieve her
own mind, she had compromised Paul. Her own alarms, her suspicion and
doubt, had realised themselves. She blamed Spears all the more bitterly that
in her heart she wanted not to be obliged to blame herself. But by and by
the needle veered round to that point of the moral compass which in a
candid mind it is so ready to stop at, self-accusation. Why did she give this
man the occasion of insulting her, and the girl the occasion of defying her?
It was her own fault. She ought not, above all, to have compromised her
son. This became the most terrible thought of all as she dwelt upon it.
Instead of doing good she had done harm; instead of relieving Paul from the
influence of the demagogue, she had riveted and strengthened his
connection with the demagogue’s family who were worse, much worse than
himself. Was it possible that Paul, her son, the brother of Alice, could have
chosen from all the world such a girl as Janet Spears? Her heart thrilled
with the wonder of it, the disappointment of it. Was that all he could find in
woman? and she herself had helped to cement the tie between them. How
could she ever forgive herself? She walked along quickly, recovering her
outward composure, but more and more troubled in mind as she thought
upon what she had done. Why did she go? how, she asked herself, being,
like most women, ready to distrust herself and give in to the common
opinion on the subject whenever anything went wrong with her—how could
she forget that it was always dangerous for a woman to interfere? She was
in the very deepest of these painful thoughts, angry with herself, and deeply
distressed by the apparent consequences of her ill-advised mission, when,
turning the corner of the little street which brought her into one of the larger
thoroughfares, she suddenly, without any warning, found herself face to
face with Paul. The surprise was so great that she had no time to put on any
defences, to prepare for questions and astonishment on his side. They met
without a moment’s warning, the two people who might have been
supposed least likely to encounter each other at such a time and place.
“Paul!” she cried, with a sensation of fright. And he stopped, looked at
her sternly, and cast a jealous inquiring look along the street by which she
had so evidently come.
“Mother! what are you doing here?” he said.
“I came out—to take a walk, as it was so fine a morning,” she said,
forcing a smile. Then Lady Markham came to herself and perceived the
folly of false pretences. “No—I will not try to deceive you, Paul. I have
been visiting Mr. Spears,” she said.
“Visiting Spears!”
“Yes; what is there wonderful in that?—you brought him to visit me.
Other people may blame me for it, but I don’t see how you can. I had a kind
of faith in him.”
“You had; has it been disappointed then, mother, your faith?”
“Yes,” she said with a sigh. “No doubt it was foolish. A man of his class
—must feel like his class no doubt. It was foolish on my part.”
“What was there,” said Paul, with a sort of contempt which he hid under
exaggerated politeness, “that Lady Markham could want with a man of his
class—with a demagogue and Radical?”
“Paul,” she said, her voice faltering a little, “it does not become you,
however wise and superior you may feel yourself, to assume this tone to
your mother. This is to change our positions altogether. I have done a thing
which has proved ill-advised and may turn out badly, but I did it for the
best. I will not hide it from you who are the chief person concerned. I went
to ask him to use his influence with you, my own having failed, to induce
you to think a little of your actual duties to your family. He did not take the
same view of it as I do, which perhaps was natural; and I saw, though
without wishing it,” she added, in a still more tremulous tone, “the—young
woman——”
“What young woman?” His voice was angry, almost threatening. He
came a step nearer, and stood over her with a cloud upon his face. “What
young woman is it? whom do you mean?”
“It is a poor thing to make a mystery of it when it has gone so far. I
confess my mistake, and why should you conceal your intentions on your
side? This can only have the effect of making everything worse. I was made
to see her against my will, and to hear from her own lips——”
“Mother!” cried Paul, violently, stopping her. Then he said,
endeavouring again to calm himself, “I have heard often that it is only
women who can be thoroughly cruel to other women.”
“Then you have heard what is false, Paul, what is entirely and cruelly
false; though you boys toss about such accusations at your pleasure,
insulting the women who bear with you, and suffer for you. I tell you
because I feel it would have been wiser had I taken no part in the matter;
had I kept away; said nothing, and done nothing.”
“And I tell you—” cried Paul, in vehement indignation; then he stopped
short and cried out with an anxious voice, “Mother, what is it you have
done?”
“Everything that is unwise,” she said. “I have been rebuffed by your
friend. I will tell you the truth, Paul. When he said that he had no wish to
have you as a fellow emigrant, I, in my folly, asked, Was it his daughter?
And she was not so reticent as you are. She owned that it was so. She was
more frank than you are; and to do him justice I will allow that her father
looked as much surprised as I.”
“She owned it was so!” Paul’s face became ghastly in the morning light.
Then after a minute’s blank silence, he said, with a harsh laugh, “Surprised?
Yes, her father might be surprised; but why you? You seem to have been the
only person who knew all about it, who had got it all cut and dry to be
produced at a moment’s notice. Oh, mother!” he cried, bitterly, “your
morning’s work will cost me dear—it will cost me dear!”
Lady Markham stood with bowed head to receive her son’s reproaches.
“I was wrong,” she said; “I was wrong. Oh, Paul, my dearest boy, come
home with me; let us talk it all over; let us think of everything! If you knew
how hard it is for me to oppose you! and all the more when your heart is
engaged. Am I one to set myself against love?” She blushed as she looked
at him with a woman’s reverence for the centre of all affections, and a
mother’s shamefacedness in opening such a subject with her son. “But,
Paul, there are so many things—oh, so many things to think of! and you are
so young—and——”
“Mother, stop!” he said, “your arguments have nothing to do with me;
they are wrong altogether. If my life is spoiled, it will be your doing; not
mine, but yours—not mine, but yours.”
Lady Markham lifted her head with the surprise and something of the
indignation of a person unjustly accused. “This is going too far,” she said.
“I have been wrong, but to throw the total blame upon me is unreasonable.
In this, as in other things, nobody could harm you; nobody could make your
position worse, if you had not risked and lost it yourself.”
There were few passengers in the streets, silent and semi-deserted as
always in summer, and yet more because it was still so early. The two
figures which stood there together breaking the sunshine were almost the
only people visible, and the closeness of the discussion between them had
hitherto been witnessed by nobody; just at this point, however, some one
issued suddenly from the gate of one of the colleges near, and came down
the steps into the street. They were scared by the appearance of any one in
this dreary city, and it was not expedient that the warmth of their
conversation should be apparent to others.
“Walk along with me,” she said. “Do not let us stand here.”
Paul looked round him for a moment on either hand. On one side was the
narrow street in which Spears lived, the line of colleges and better houses
on the other. Lady Markham’s face was turned towards the better side. This
was enough to decide him, foolish as he was. He turned the other way.
“What is the good of discussing—of talking over? All the harm is done
that can be done,” he said, with a wave of his hand. Then he crossed the
road quite suddenly, leaving his mother standing looking after him. Very
miserable was the young man as he went away. He went down Spears’
street, but he had no intention of going to see Spears. Everything seemed,
against him. The best thing for him to do, he thought, would be to get out of
sight of everybody—to fly from the evils of fate that were gathering round
his feet. What had he done to be caught like this in a tangle which he had
not himself sought, from which indeed he had always done his best to keep
free? It was no doing of his: chance and his parents had done it, and the
detestable conventionalities of society, which made it impossible for a man
to be civil to a girl out of his own class without laying himself open to
remark. If he had not met her here, yesterday, so innocently, without
premeditation! Already, by the folly of everybody concerned, this girl had
got to be her to the young man; no name needed to distinguish the creature
in whose hands some blind hazard seemed to have placed his life. Blind
hazard—aided by his father and mother. How bitter were his thoughts as he
went on. What was he to do? She had owned to it. Half he hated her for
being so foolishly deceived, half his heart melted to her for the deception
which only some latent tenderness could have produced. Must he wring the
girl’s heart by making it all plain to her, and humble her in her own eyes? or
must he accept a position he had not sought, which he no more desired than
they desired it, and of which he saw all the inappropriateness, all the
disadvantages? As he went on with that cruel question in his mind, there
rose out of the morning air, appearing not much less suddenly than his
mother had done, running towards him, the figure of the girl of whom he
was thinking. To Paul it was as if his thoughts had taken shape. She came
towards him, not seeing him, with all the ease of motion which
unconsciousness gives—tall and graceful in her plain black gown. The
girl’s head was full of a subdued triumph, but for the moment all she was
consciously thinking of was how to get to her shop as quickly as possible.
She ran like another Atalanta, skimming along the unlovely street, her feet
scarcely seeming to touch the ground. This sudden apparition filled Paul
with excitement. She had changed to him altogether since yesterday, when
she was nothing but Spears’ daughter. Now she was suddenly identified,
separated from all the world, and become herself. How could he help but be
interested in her? She had owned to it. To what had she owned? It seemed
for the moment almost a relief, bitterly as he resented her introduction into
his life, to turn to her, who knew none of the complications involved, who
was unaware of his fury and indignation against everybody round him—to
turn to her, whose mind must be entirely single and simple, torn by no
conflict. He did not know why he wanted to speak to her, what he wanted to
say to her; but he stepped into her way with a certain imperiousness,
making her stop short in her rapid career. Janet, thus arrested, gave a sudden
cry. She stopped, the breath coming quick on her lips, and put her hand to
her breast; her heart gave a sudden leap, the colour flew over her face in a
sudden wave of crimson.
“Oh, Mr. Markham!” she said.
“Where are you going so fast?” Somehow it seemed to him, with a half-
consolatory sense of proprietorship, that here was a creature who belonged
to him, who would find no fault with him as the others did, who was his. He
put himself in her way, stopping her—not as if by accident, but of set
purpose—assuming the right which she for her part never resisted. There
were troubles and difficulties with every one else; but with her no
difficulties, no troubles. She acknowledged his sway at once, stopped
herself, blushed, and drooped her head. There was no question of approving
or disapproving here. She answered his voice instantly, like a slave. There
are many people who only see a thing in its best aspect when it becomes
their own. For the moment Paul Markham became one of those. He had
never thought her so handsome before; perhaps indeed in all her life she had
never been so handsome as when she stopped all blushing and glowing at
his call, acknowledging in her every look the proprietorship which it gave
him a sort of pleasure to claim. “Where are you going so fast?” he said.
“Oh, Mr. Markham, I am in a great hurry! I don’t know what Miss
Stichel will say: I never was so late before in my life!”
“What has kept you so late?”
He was far more imperious in his tone than he had ever been when she
was nothing to him. Then he had been courtly and polite, frightening the
girl with a courtesy which she did not understand. She liked this roughness
much better. It meant—it would be impossible to tell all it meant.
“I was kept by—visitors. Oh, Mr. Markham! don’t keep me any longer
now. I don’t know what Miss Stichel will say to me. She will be so angry.”
“She must not be angry. How does she dare to show her anger to you?
You had visitors. I know: my mother.”
“Oh, Mr. Markham!” Janet said again, faintly, drooping her head; and
then there was a momentary pause.
“I know,” he said.
He did not know, and could not tell afterwards by what impulse he did it.
Some infatuation took possession of him. He took her hand in the middle of
the street, in sight of any one that might be looking. There was nobody
looking, which vexed Janet, but he did it without thought of that. It would
have made no difference if all the world had been there.
“That is how it is, I suppose,” he said, holding her hand. And then he
added, somewhat drearily, “If there is anything wrong in it, it is their own
doing, there is always that to be said.”
This somewhat chilled Janet, who expected a warmer address; but she
reflected that the street was scarcely a place for love-making; and Miss
Stichel, though not so important as usual, had still to be considered.
“Let me go, please, Mr. Markham,” she said; “I mustn’t be late: for
whatever may happen afterwards I am still their servant at the shop.”
He dropped her hand as if it burnt him, and grew red with anger and
uneasy shame.
“This must not be,” he said. “I will go and speak to Spears.”
Though he was so firm in his democratic principles, the idea that any
one connected with himself should be under the orders of a mistress galled
him beyond bearing. It was a thing that could not be.
“It will not be for long,” Janet said, cheerfully.
She, for her part, rather liked the shop. It was more cheerful than the
other shop which was home.
“I cannot suffer it,” he said, “for another day. I will speak to Spears.”
This was all he said, but he kept standing there looking at her with eyes
which were more investigating than admiring. If he had nothing more to say
than this, why should he keep her standing there and expose her to Miss
Stichel’s scolding? But she did not like to burst away as she would have
done from a less stately wooer. She was much intimidated by a lover like
Paul, though very proud of him. She stood with her eyes cast down, waiting
till he should let her go free. The thing that would have made Janet most
happy would have been that he should walk to the shop with her, showing
that he was not ashamed of her, and give her the pride and glory of being
seen by the other young ladies in company with the gentleman she was
going to marry, the gentleman who had vowed that she should not remain
there—not another day. This would have been the natural thing to do, Janet
thought. But it did not seem to occur to Paul in the same light. He looked at
her, examining her appearance with anxious and critical, yet with very sober
and calm inspection. They were neither of them so happily fluttered, so
excited as they might have been. She was not exacting, did not ask too
much; and he was critical with the discrimination of a superior, a judge
whose powers of judgment were biassed by no glamour of partiality.
“We shall see each other later in the evening. I will not detain you
longer,” he said, in a tone of gentle politeness.
He even gave a little sigh of relief as he turned away. Janet, not knowing
whether she was more sorry or glad to be liberated, cast more than one
furtive glance behind her at his departing figure. But it did not seem to have
occurred to Paul to look after her. He walked on stately and straight, turning
neither to one side nor the other, towards Spears’s shop. He had not meant
to go, but neither had he intended any of the other things that had come to
pass. Fate seemed to have got possession of him. He walked into the shop
with the same straightforward steady tread, not as usual, that was
impossible. Most likely there would have to be something said—but for
that, too, he felt himself ready, if need were.
Spears was no longer working at the simple work of his picture-frames.
He had thrown them into a heap—all the little bits of carved work which he
had been glueing and fitting into each other—and with a large sheet of
paper on the table before him was drawing with much intentness and
preoccupation. He had set the plume of the foxglove upright before him,
and was bending his brows and contorting both limbs and features over his
drawing as he had done over the lily he had designed for Alice. The handful
of coloured gladiolus which had been lying on the table he had pushed
impatiently aside, and they lay at his feet, here and there, scattered under
the table and about the floor like things rejected, while he drew in the
foxglove boldly with a blue pencil. All his soul seemed to be in his drawing.
He scarcely took any notice of Paul—a half glance up, a hurried nod, and
that was all. Presently, however, he took up one of the gladiolus stalks and
laid it tentatively across the foxglove; then with a pshaw! of angry
impatience tossed it away again.
“That won’t do,” he said, half to himself, “none o’ that. Nature will not
stand it. The free-growing, wild thing is grand, but that poor stiff,
conventional rubbish, manufactured out of some gardener’s brains, out of
his bad dreams, is good for nothing; and it’s everywhere the same, so far as
I can see. Things must be wedded after their kind.”
“Do you mean that for me, Spears?”
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