ENS185: Engineering Data Analysis

Mindanao State University – Main Campus

SINDANGAN EXTENSION
Mathematics Department

2nd Semester, AY 2024 – 2025

 SAMPLING CHAPTER 2
PROCEDURES
Sampling Procedures

Sampling is a process of
selecting a part (called the
Sample) from a given whole
What is Sampling? (referred to as the Population)
with the ultimate goal of
making a generalization about
parameters or characteristics
of the given population based
on the information obtained
from the sample.
 The primary concern therefore
of the process is how to select a
sample and utilize the
What is Sampling? information derived that would
allow us to be able to make
useful generalization.
Reasons for Sampling
✓ Economy – A study of a sample is less expensive than a study of an entire population.
✓ Timeliness – Samples can be studied more quickly than population. Hence, getting
results much quicker.
✓ Size of many populations – A study of an entire population is impossible in most
situations.
✓ Destructiveness of the observation - The very act of observing the desired
characteristic of a unit of the population might destroy it for the intended use.
✓ Inaccessibility of some of the population - A particular study population may be so
costly to reach or a population of some events may be taking too long to occur and
may not occur again.
✓ Accuracy - A sample may be more accurate than a census.
Disadvantages of Sampling
Sampling also has disadvantages, the biggest of which is that the
sample may not truly reflect the characteristic of the population and
this would lead to wrong conclusions. Hence, care must be taken in
choosing a sample. Also, a sample must be large enough to give a
good representation of the population, but small enough to be
manageable.
Types of sampling

Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling
A process of sampling wherein A sampling procedure wherein
each element from the some elements of the
population has a known, but population have no possibility
not necessarily equal, chance of being drawn into the
of being selected the element sample.
of randomness is present.
Types of sampling
Samples

Non-Probability Probability Sampling

Sampling
Simple
Random Stratified

Judgement Snowball
Cluster
Systematic
Quota Convenience
 Random sampling is a
process of sampling
wherein elements from the
population are selected in
Random Sampling such a way that each
individual element has an
equal chance of being
chosen.
Some probability sampling techniques

There are several ways of drawing a probability sample. The choice

of method depends on the nature of the population to be sampled
as well as the objective for sampling. Some of the basic methods of
selecting probability samples are as follows:
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling is
a process of sampling
wherein elements from the
Simple Random population are selected in
Sampling such a way that every
possible sample of the
same size n has an equal
chance of being chosen.
 A simple random sample
can be taken using the
“fishbowl” method, “draw
Simple Random lots” method or using
Sampling random numbers.
Steps in selecting a Simple Random Sample

1. Label each element of the population from 1 to N.

2. Select n numbers from 1 to N using a random process like
drawing of lots or using a table of random numbers or
generating n random numbers from a scientific calculator,
or you can use table of random numbers.
Steps in obtaining a random number from
a scientific calculator:
Steps in obtaining a random number from
a scientific calculator:
Example (SRS)

Choose a random sample of 5 students from the following 20

students:
Jm Sofia Kai Rain Kollete
Jas Binsoy Jarren Dong Pat
JP Therese Brix Kanata Noimie
Jan Gerald Kim Paulo Sam
Example (SRS)

Solution:
1. Label the elements from 1 to 20.
1. Jm 5. Sofia 9. Kai 13. Rain 17. Kollete
2. Jas 6. Binsoy 10. Jarren 14. Dong 18. Pat
3. JP 7. Therese 11. Brix 15. Kanata 19. Noimie
4. Jan 8. Gerald 12. Kim 16. Paulo 20. Sam
Example (SRS)
Solution:
A possible sample (using a calculator):
1. <Shift> <Ran#> <=> gives 0.448 x 20 = 8.96 = 9
2. <Shift> <Ran#> <=> gives 0.366 x 20 = 7.32 = 7
3. <Shift> <Ran#> <=> gives 0.894 x 20 = 17.88 = 18
4. <Shift> <Ran#> <=> gives 0.130 x 20 = 2.6 = 3
5. <Shift> <Ran#> <=> gives 0.579 x 20 = 11.58 = 12
Our sample would then include student number 9, 7, 18, 3, 12;
that is: Kai, Therese, Pat, JP, and Kim
Advantages of Simple Random Sample

1. Personal bias is eliminated as a selection depends solely on

chance.
2. There is no need for the thorough knowledge of the units
of the population.
3. The accuracy of the sample can be tested by examining
another sample from the same population when the
population is unknown.
4. This methods is also used in another methods of sampling.
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sample

1. A simple random sample can only be carried out if the list of the
population is available and complete.
2. Attaining a complete list of the population can be difficult for a
number of reasons:
• Even if a list is readily available, it may be challenging to gain
access to that list
• There may be no single list detailing the population you are
interested in.
• In terms of human populations, some of these populations will be
expensive and time consuming to contact, even where a list is
available
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sample

3. We can never be assured that all sectors or groups are

represented in the sample. For instance, in Example (b) above, there is a
possibility that all elements drawn will be girls or
all will be boys.

To avoid the above mentioned possibility, we need to contemplate and

employ other sampling procedures that can lead to more representative
sample in which the sample units are spread evenly over the entire
population. This sampling procedure is called systematic random
sampling.
 A sampling procedure where
every kth element of the
population is taken into the
sample starting from the rth
Systematic Random element. Here, k is called the
sampling interval.
Sampling
 This is also called interval
sampling. It means that
there is a gap or interval
Systematic Random between each selection.
Sampling
Steps in generating a Systematic Sample

1. Number the elements of the population from 1 to N.

2. Determine the sampling interval 𝑘, using

𝑵
𝒌= , where N = population and n = sample size.
𝒏
Round-off to the nearest integer.

NOTE:
If k is not a whole number, then it is rounded to the nearest whole number.
For example, suppose N = 400 and n =15 then k = 400/15 is equal to 26.67.
That is, 26.67 is rounded-off to nearest whole number 27.
Steps in generating a Systematic Sample

3. Select a random start r, 𝟏 ≤ 𝒓 ≤ 𝒌, (or 𝟏 ≤ 𝒓 ≤ 𝑵), then

treat the list as a circular list). The first unit of the sample is the
unit corresponding to r.
4. Take every 𝑘th element from the random start as part of the
sample.
The sample consists of the following elements:

𝑟 𝑡ℎ , (𝑟 + 𝑘)𝑡ℎ , (𝑟 + 2𝑘)𝑡ℎ , … , 𝑟 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑘 𝑡ℎ
.
Example (Systematic RS)

Choose a systematic sample of 5 students from the following 20

students:
Jm Sofia Kai Rain Kollete
Jas Binsoy Jarren Dong Pat
JP Therese Brix Kanata Noimie
Jan Gerald Kim Paulo Sam
Example (Systematic RS)
Solution:
o Label the elements from 1 to 20.
1. Jm 5. Sofia 9. Kai 13. Rain 17. Kollete
2. Jas 6. Binsoy 10. Jarren 14. Dong 18. Pat
3. JP 7. Therese 11. Brix 15. Kanata 19. Noimie
4. Jan 8. Gerald 12. Kim 16. Paulo 20. Sam
o The sampling interval would be:
𝑁 20
𝑘= = =4
𝑛 5
Example (Systematic RS)
Solution:
o Select a random number r between 1 and 4, say 𝑟 = 3 .
o The sample will consist of (𝑟 = 3)𝑟𝑑 element which is the 3𝑟𝑑
student,
o (𝑟 + 𝑘 = 3 + 4)𝑡ℎ element which is the 7𝑡ℎ student,
o (𝑟 + 2𝑘 = 3 + 2(4))𝑡ℎ element which is the 11𝑡ℎ student,
o (𝑟 + 3𝑘 = 3 + 3(4))𝑡ℎ element which is the 15𝑡ℎ student, and
o (𝑟 + 5𝑘 = 3 + 4(4))𝑡ℎ element which is the 19𝑡ℎ student.
Example (Systematic RS)
Solution:
That is, the sample consists of the following students:
3 – JP
7 – Therese
11 – Brix
15 – Kanata
19 – Noimie
Advantages of Systematic RS

1. It is easier, quicker and cheaper.

2. Time and work is reduced much.
3. If proper care is taken result will be accurate.
4. It can be used in infinite population.
Disadvantages of Systematic RS

1. Systematic Random Sampling may not represent the

whole population.
2. There is a chance of personal bias of the investigators.
 Systematic RS
For example, if our list is the monthly sales from 2005 to
NOTE: 2008 arranged in chronological order then there are 48
The list from which months to choose from. If we select a random sample of
the systematic sample 12 then k = 48/12 = 4. If we start choosing from the 3rd
is drawn should be element, then the next elements will be 7th, 11th, 15th,
examined that it must 19th, 23rd, 27th, 31st, 35th, 39th, 43rd and 47th. This
not have a periodic would correspond to the sales of March 2005, July 2005,
pattern because it
November 2005, March 2006, July 2006, November
could possibly result
2006, March 2007 and so on, and the last element is
to a biased sample.
November 2008. This sample is biased since it only
represents the months of March, July and November.
 Systematic RS

NOTE:
The list from which In this case with periodic pattern, the appropriate
the systematic sample sampling procedure to use is Simple Random Sampling
is drawn should be or SRS, since the result does not yield periodic pattern.
examined that it must Like for example if you use fishbowl or draw lots or
not have a periodic random numbers, maybe the first element is March 2005
pattern because it then July 2006 and so on until you get the desired
could possibly result sample size.
to a biased sample.
 It is a process of sampling
wherein the population is
Stratified Random subdivided into at least two
Sampling homogeneous subgroups
(strata) and then drawing a
sample from each stratum.
 This type of sampling assures
that all groups or strata are
represented in the sample.
Some stratification variables
Stratified Random commonly used by the Social
Sampling Weather Station (SWS) survey
are location, age and sex.
Other stratification may be
religion, academic ability or
marital status.
Steps in generating a Stratified Random Sample

1. Classify (divide) the population into

homogeneous strata.
2. Draw a sample from each stratum
using Simple Random Sampling or
Systematic Sampling.

Question:
How many shall we take from each stratum?
Steps in generating a Stratified Random Sample

Question:
How many shall we take from each stratum?

The most commonly used formula is proportional allocation. In

proportional allocation, the number of units to be taken from each
stratum is proportional to the size of the subpopulation; that is, between
two strata of different sizes, a bigger sample will be taken from the bigger
stratum.
Some allocation procedures are as follows:

Equal Allocation Proportional allocation

The sample size 𝑛𝑖 is the If a population of size 𝑁 is
same for all strata. Draw divided into 𝑘 homogeneous
samples of equal size from subpopulations or strata of
each stratum sizes 𝑁1, 𝑁2 , … , 𝑁𝑘 , then the
𝑛 sample size to be taken from
𝑛𝑖 = for all 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘
𝑘 each stratum 𝑖 is obtained
using the formula
𝑛
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝑖
𝑁
Example (Stratified RS)

List of
students
Example (Stratified RS)

At a private High School, students are classified according to year

level. How large a sample must be taken from each year level using
proportional allocation to select a sample of size 200?

Year Level Number of Students

First Year 3,400
Second Year 2,100
Third Year 1,500
Fourth Year 720
Example (Stratified RS)
Solution:
o There are 4 strata in this example with sizes 𝑁1 = 3400, 𝑁2 = 2100,
𝑁3 = 1500 and 𝑁4 = 720.
o Since 𝑛 = 200 and N = 3400 + 2100 + 1500 + 720 = 7720. Then,
𝑛 200
𝑛1 = 𝑁1 = × 3400 = 88.0829 = 88
𝑁 7720
𝑛 200
𝑛2 = 𝑁2 = × 2100 = 54.404 = 54
𝑁 7720
𝑛 200
𝑛3 = 𝑁3 = × 1500 = 38.860 = 39
𝑁 7720
𝑛 200
𝑛4 = 𝑁4 = × 720 = 18.6528 = 19
𝑁 7720
Example (Stratified RS)
Solution: Year Level Number of Sample Size
Students to be taken
First Year 3,400 88
Second Year 2,100 54
Third Year 1,500 39
Fourth Year 720 19
TOTAL 7720 200

Then, the units from each year level are to be selected by

simple random sampling.
Example (Stratified RS)

In an election survey in Makati City, registered voters are classified

according to the following scheme:
Economic Status Number of People
A (Upper Class or Rich People) 725
B (Middle Class) 3489
C (Lower Class or Poor People) 2146

If one uses proportional allocation to select a stratified random

sample of size n=345, how large a sample must be taken from each
stratum?
Example (Stratified RS)
Solution:
o There are 3 strata in this example with sizes 𝑁1 = 725, 𝑁2 =
3489, and 𝑁3 = 2146.
o Since 𝑛 = 345 and N = 725 + 3489 + 2146 = 6360. Then,
𝑛 345
𝑛1 = 𝑁1 = × 725 = 39.328 ≈ 39
𝑁 6360
𝑛 345
𝑛2 = 𝑁2 = × 3489 = 189.262 ≈ 189
𝑁 6360

𝑛3 = 345 − 39 − 189 = 117

Example (Stratified RS)
Solution:
Economic Status Number of Sample Size to
People be taken
A (Upper Class or Rich People) 725 39
B (Middle Class) 3489 189
C (Lower Class or Poor People) 2146 117
TOTAL 6360 345

Then, the units from each year level are to be selected by

simple random sampling.
Advantages of Stratified RS

1. It is more representative.
2. It ensures greater accuracy.
3. It is easy to administer as the population is sub-divided.
4. Greater geographical concentration reduces time and
expenses.
5. When the original population is badly skewed, this method
is appropriate.
Disadvantages of Systematic RS

1. To divide the population into homogeneous strata, it

requires more money, time and statistical experience.
2. Improper stratification leads to bias, if the different strata
overlap such a sample will not be a representative one.
 It is a process of sampling
wherein the population area
Cluster Sampling is subdivided into sections
(clusters), randomly select
some of these clusters and
then choose all the
elements from the selected
clusters. .
 Sample clusters may be
chosen by random
Cluster Sampling sampling or systematic
sampling with a random
start.
 Cluster sampling assumes
that the population is
naturally separated by
groups or clusters. A
number of clusters are
Cluster Sampling selected randomly and then
all or part of the units within
the selected clusters are
included in the sample. No
units from the non-selected
clusters are included in the
sample.
 The number of elements M
in a cluster is called the size
of the cluster.
Cluster Sampling The number of cluster N in
the population is called the
size of the population of
clusters.
Steps in taking Cluster Sampling

1. Divide the population area into clusters.

2. Select randomly a few of these clusters.
3. Choose all the elements from the clusters
selected or select only a portion of it.
Example (Cluster Sampling)

List of
students
Example (Cluster Sampling)

Suppose the population of a study is residents of a

condominium in a large city. If there are 10 condominium
buildings in this city, the researcher can select two buildings
randomly from the 10 and interview all (or a subsample) of
the residents from these buildings.
Example (Cluster Sampling)

Suppose that you wish to administer a questionnaire in a

certain school to 50 students in N=20 sections of about
M=10 students per section. Random sampling of students
will require a complete list of the names of all 200 students.
However, cluster sampling will require only a list of the 20
sections from which a random sample of n=5 sections will be
selected. The questionnaire will then be administered to all
10 students in each of the five selected sections.
Advantages of Cluster Sampling

1. There is no need to construct a list elements in the

population as one must do in random or stratified
sampling: the frame for the cluster sampling is simply a list
of the clusters;
2. Even if the list of elements were available, cluster sampling
would still be cheaper, because field cost would be
minimized by the elements’ being physically closer together
than elements selected by random or stratified sampling.
Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is not so efficient as random or stratified

sampling. In actual field applications, for example, adjacent
households tend to have more similar characteristics than do
households distantly apart. This affects the
“representativeness” of the sample and this effect is reflected
in an increased sampling error.
Non-probability Sampling

It is one in which individuals or items are chosen in a manner that

does not involve random selection process. This is usually used
when the size of the population is either unknown or cannot be
individually identified. Here, personal preferences are applied.
Because chance is not used to select items, the techniques are
called non- probability techniques and are not desirable for use in
gathering data to be analyzed by the methods of statistical
inference because the reliability of the measures cannot be
determined objectively.
Non-probability Sampling Techniques

The basic methods of selecting non-probability samples are as

follows:
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Quota Sampling
3. Judgement or Purposive Sampling
4. Snowball Sampling
 Sometimes called accidental,
grab or opportunity
sampling. Select results that
Convenience are readily available. Results in
some cases may be quite
Sampling good but may be seriously
biased in other cases and not
representative of the
population.
 Usually the researcher chooses
those that are readily available,
nearby, or willing to participate.
The result of such study usually
Convenience leads to less varied observations
Sampling than the population because in
many environments the extreme
elements of the population are
not readily available.
Example (Convenience Sampling)
Example (Convenience Sampling)

Suppose you want to get a sample of 20 users of soap “A”.

You stand at a convenient location and ask the person you
see if he/she is a user of soap “A”. If he/she is, then get the
required information. You continue until you have 20
respondents.
 Quota Sampling appears to
be similar to stratified random
sampling in which certain
population subclasses, such as
age group, gender, or
geographic region, are used
Quota Sampling as strata. However, instead of
using random sampling from
each stratum, the researcher
uses a nonrandom sampling
method to gather data from
one stratum until the desired
quota of samples is filled
Example (Quota Sampling)

Instead of randomly interviewing people to obtain a quota

of Italian Americans, the researcher would go to the Italian
area of the city and interview there until enough responses
are obtained to fill the quota.
 The elements selected for the
sample are chosen by the
judgment of the researcher.
Researchers often believe they
can obtain a representative
sample by using sound
Judgement Sampling judgment or purposely
choose as to who can provide
the best information to
achieve the objectives of the
study which will result in
saving time and money
 The researcher only goes to
people who in his/her opinion
are likely to have the required
information and are willing to
share it. This is important
Judgement Sampling when you want to construct a
historical reality, describe a
phenomenon or develop
something about which only a
little is known.
Example (Judgement Sampling)
Example (Judgement Sampling)

A student conducted a study on the history of MSU-MCSE.

To get proper information, he interviewed, Campus Director
and pioneering faculty and staff of the school.
 The survey subjects of
snowball sampling are
selected based on referral
Snowball Sampling from other survey
respondents or selecting a
sample using networks.
 This sampling technique is
useful if you know little about
the group or organization you
wish to study, as you only
Snowball Sampling need to make contact with a
few individuals, who can then
direct you to the other
members of the group.
Example (Snowball Sampling)
Example (Snowball Sampling)

A researcher wanted to study the factors why some

students occasionally use prohibited drugs. He intended to
get 50 students, but he only knew 5 students who used it.
By getting the cooperation of these 5 students, he was
referred to other drug users, who in turn also provide
additional contacts. In this way, he was able to get sufficient
number of students he needed.
DATA COLLECTION
Methods of Collecting Data

A common goal of studies and surveys and other data

collecting tools is to collect data from a small part of a
larger group so we can learn something about the larger
group. In this lecture, we will look at some of the ways to
gather data.
 This is a person-to-person
encounter between the
one soliciting information
(also known as the
interviewer) and the one
Interview Method supplying the information
(also known as the
interviewee). It can be
conducted in person or
through telephone
conversation.
Advantages of Interview Method

1. Questions can be repeated, rephrased, or modified for

better understanding.
2. Answers may be clarified, thus ensuring more precise
information.
3. Information can be evaluated since the interviewer can
observe the facial expression of the interviewee.
Disadvantages of Interview Method
1. It is too costly because you might need to spend a lot for
transportation, aside from other incidental expenses.
2. It can cover only a limited number of individuals in a given
period of time. Hence, you need longer time to finish the
data collection.
3. Interviewees may feel pressured for on-the-spot responses.
4. People may give different answers to different interviewers.
5. People may say what they think an interviewer wants to
hear or what they think will impress the interviewer.
6. A particular interviewer may affect the accuracy of the
response by misreading questions, recording responses
inaccurately, or antagonizing the respondent.
Questionnaire This could be mailed or
hand-carried (delivered in
Method person).
Advantages of Questionnaire Method

1. It is less expensive and has a greater scope than the

interview method.
2. Respondents have enough time to formulate appropriate
responses.
Disadvantages of Questionnaire Method

1. Low return rate. Only a few would care to mail back the
questionnaire.
2. People do not always understand the questions or
sometimes, certain words mean different things to
different people. Hence, there is no way that they can make
clarification before they answer the questionnaire.
 This is appropriate in
obtaining data pertaining
to behavior of an individual
or group of individuals at
Observation Method the time of occurrence of a
given situation. Subjects
may be observed
individually or collectively.
Example

If your study deals about how many people are involved in fighting
and the reason why they are fighting in that particular place, then
you must be there before their conflict will end, in order for you to
witness what is happening and also you can get reliable reason/s
behind it. Do not be too late because in this case, you can’t look
back the said conflict. And it’s impossible to rewind what is
happening unless you will secretly take a video of it.
Disadvantages of Observation Method

1. Observation is made only at the time of occurrence of the

appropriate event/s.
Experimentation This can be applied in
obtaining data from the
Method experiment.
Advantages of Experimentation Method

1. Experiment can be made again.

Disadvantages of Experimentation Method

1. It takes long time and great effort to wait for the result
especially when you failed in your first experiment because
in that case, you must repeat your experiment in order for
you to have a good outcome or result.
 The data are coming from
(a) documents (books and
magazines, hospital
Use of Existing Data records, public files,
registrations, etc.) and (b)
from the internet.
Advantages of Using Existing data

1. Provide information about the incidence (the number of

new cases), prevalence (the number of existing cases), and
rate (the proportion of a population with the particular
concern in a population (Rossi and Freeman, 1993).
2. Aid in definition and selection of target population.
3. Help improve the planning and design of new study.
Disadvantages of Using Existing data

1. If you are using agency records, your information will apply

only to those individuals participating in that program.
Agency records exclude data on individuals who are not
participating.
2. If you are using published reports or data collected by
outside sources, you will not have enough information
about the individuals involved in the specific study you are
evaluating.
Disadvantages of Using Existing data

3. It cannot give the precise information about the

geographic area, unless it was collected specifically in your
area. For example, if you access the records on teen
pregnancy rates, those rates may not accurately reflect the
pregnancy rates in your own community.
4. Published reports will not let you to determine the impact
of your study on its actual participants.