Physics – Form 2

Table of Contents
1. Static electricity
2. Current electricity
3. Magnetism
4. Forces in equilibrium
5. Simple machines
6. Motion in a straight line
7. Newton’s laws of motion
8. Temperature
9. Sustainable energy

“Expand your knowledge through solving problems”

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Author: Geofrey M Idebe
Title of the Book: Physics Classical Note for CSEE – form two
ISBN: 978 – 9912 – 9834 – 1– 0
Second Edition: 2024
Contacts info:
Phone: +255 688 082 089
Email: [email protected]
Mwanza – Tanzania

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, recording, photocopying or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the Owner

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 Preface
 Physics Classical Note for CSEE has undergone a great deal of improvement since its
first publication (2020). It has become so popular among the CSEE students in such a
way that most of the candidates go through this book before appearing for the
Examination.
 You must have already gone through first edition of Physics Classical Note for CSEE
(2020). We hope that you liked the book. We are happy to release the revised edition
of Physics Classical Note (2024). This new edition is competency based on the latest
revised syllabus prescribed by the ministry of education, science and technology
 Several new diagrams have been incorporated in this edition in order to facilitate the
understanding of the subject matter. Many examples from daily life are given to make
the topics relevant and interesting.
 In each chapter of this book, sufficient exercises (class Activities and Individual
Assignments) are given at the end of each sub – topic and at the end of each topic
respectively.
 Finally I must express my thanks to teachers and students who have kindly read parts
of the manuscript and sending their valuable suggestions. Further suggestions for
more improvements to come of this book will be gratefully acknowledged

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 Chapter: 1
Static Electricity
 In 600 B.C., Thales, a Greek Philosopher observed that, when a piece of amber is rubbed with
fur, it acquires the property of attracting light objects like bits of paper. In the 17th century,
William Gilbert discovered that, glass, ebonite etc, also exhibit this property, when rubbed with
suitable materials.
 The substances which acquire charges on rubbing are said to be 'electrified' or charged.
 These terms are derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber. The electricity
produced by friction is called frictional electricity. If the charges in a body do not move, then,
the frictional electricity is also known as Static Electricity.
 Therefore; Static electricity (Electrostatics) is the branch of Physics, which deals with static
electric charges or charges at rest.\

Some effects of static electricity in everyday life

Automobiles and trucks
 The static charge that accumulates on automobiles as they move through dry air can cause
dangerous conditions under certain circumstances. For that reason, trucks carrying
flammable materials such as gasoline or propane use a drag chain.
 One end of the drag chain is attached to the frame of the vehicle, and the other end drags the
ground. The chain is used to provide a path to the ground while the vehicle is moving and to
prevent a static charge from accumulating on the body of the vehicle.
Nylon clothes
 When the clothes made up of nylon are rubbed against some other fabric or against the
wearer’s skin, static electricity is formed.
 This electrostatic force developed between the skin and the clothing particles is accountable
for the chattering sound caused while removing such clothes.
Balloons rubbed with hair.
 When the two balloons are rubbed with hair, and if we bring them closer, the two balloons
are attracted by one another and stick together, creating the electrostatic force. After
some time, the charge created between the balloons is died out, causing their
separation. This is the most commonly used birthday party hack.
Carpet
 The static charge that accumulates on a person’s body as he or she walks across a carpet
can cause a painful shock when a metal object is touched and discharges in the form of an
electric spark.
 Most carpets are made from man-made materials that are excellent insulators such as nylon.

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Doorknob
 If you ever touched the metallic doorknob suddenly, you would have felt the electric shock.
This is due to the electrostatic force between the doorknob and the skin. Since the doorknob
is made up of metal, it has the ability to transfer the charges to the other body.
 This leads to set an electrostatic interaction between the skin and the knob. The
metallic door knob is fitted with a wooden tool to avoid such sudden shock.
Rubbing the rod with silk clothes
 One commonly known electrostatic force example is rubbing the rod with silk. Generally, the
rod is electrically neutral. When you rub the rod with silk clothes, the rod loses some of
the electrons and becomes positively charged, and the silk gains the electron to
become negatively charged.
 Thus, rubbing creates the electrostatic force of attraction between the rod and silk.
Television screen
 Have you ever observed that the television screen becomes dusty after some time? Why this
happens often, do you know?
 Well, the television screen becomes dusty after a while is due to electrostatic force. The
television screen is generally positively charged. The positive charges attract the dust
flying near the TV screen on the screen as the dust particles are considered to be negatively
charged. Thus, an electrostatic force held the positively charged screen and negatively
charged dust particles. Hence TV screens are one of the electrostatic force examples.
Comb and pieces of papers
 A very famous experiment we have been performing from the school days is comb attracting
the lightweight paper pieces. It is a very good electrostatic force example.
 When the oily hair is combed, and if we hold that comb near the paper pieces, the
lightweight pieces of paper are attached to the comb because of electrostatic force.
When we comb, the hair transfers some of the charges to the comb, and it acts as a
negatively charged body. The paper piece acts as the positively charged body and is
attracted by the comb creating electrostatic force between them.
 Note that; when hair is wet, the friction between comb and hair decreases and at this state the
comb does not get charged. Hence, it may not attract small bits of paper.
All of the above examples and many others may used to demonstrate the static electricity in the
real life situation.

Measurement of electric Charge

 Precise measurements of electrical charge were carried out by the French physicist Charles -
Augustin de Coulomb in the 1780’s using a device called a torsional balance measuring the
force generated between two electrically charged objects.
 The results of Coulomb’s work led to the development of a unit of electrical charge named in
his honor, the coulomb (C). Thus, the Electric Charge is measured in Coulomb
 He discovered that the force between two charged objects depends on how big their charges
are and on how far apart they are.
 An electron is a negatively charged particle. It is much smaller than an atom, and only weakly
attached to the outside of the atom. It is held there by the attraction of the positively charged
nucleus of the atom. The nucleus is positively charged because it contains positively charged
particles called protons.

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 An electron has a very tiny amount of electric charge. The electron charge is so small that it
takes over 6 million million million electrons to make 1C of charge, ie,.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 = −𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪
 While a proton has exactly the same size of charge as an electron, but positive, so the proton
charge is; 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 = +𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪

How is static electricity generated?

Static electricity occurs with the movement of an electric charge caused by contact or
friction between two objects.
 The atom consists of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons, and
neutrons. Typically the number of protons and electrons is the same. This maintains an
electrically neutral and stable condition.
 However, when two objects make contact or when friction occurs between them , An
electron is transferred from an atom of one material to an atom of another material. When
this occurs, electrons move from the material with a weaker bond to the material with a
stronger bond.
 With this movement of electrons, the materials lose their electrical neutrality, and static
electricity is accumulated. The material that attracted the electron is negatively charged
and the material from which the electron was lost is positively charged. This is the
Mechanism for the Generation of Static Electricity.

Types of Electric Charges

 Positive charge (+). Positive charge is a charge acquired when an object loose electrons
from its atomic structure
 Negative charge (-). Negative charge is a charge acquired when an object gain electrons
from its atomic structure
 For example, if we rub the glass with a silk cloth, the glass will lose electrons
and acquires a positive charge, whereas silk will gain electrons and acquires a
negative charge.
 The table below summarizes the acquisition of charges for some materials after
rubbing
Charge acquired after rubbing

Materials Rubbed with Charge acquired

Ebonite Fur/cloth Negative
Glass Silk Positive
Polythene Cloth/fur Negative
Polystyrene Cloth/fur Negative
Perspex Woolen cloth Positive
Cellulose Woolen cloth Positive

Fundamental law of electrostatics (static charges)

 The law states that: “Like charges repel, unlike charges attract each other”
The following experiment demonstrates that like charges repel and unlike charges attract each
other:

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  Take a glass rod A. Rub it with silk to make it charged. Suspend the charged rod A with a silk
thread. Then take another glass rod B. Rub it also with silk and bring it near one end of the
suspended rod A as shown in Figure (i) below. You will observe that the suspended glass rod
A gets repelled (i.e., it moves away) from glass rod B. However, if a charged ebonite rod C is
brought near the end of the suspended rod A, It will be observed that the two rods attract each
other as shown in figure (ii). From the above experiment, it shows that like charges repel and
unlike charges attract each other

NB;
 If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, it acquires a positive charge while the silk cloth
acquires an equal amount of negative charge. When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, it
becomes negatively charged, while the fur acquires equal amount of positive charge.

Charging
 As we saw earlier, electrons (negative electric charges) in the outermost orbit of an atom can
be easily removed. They can be transferred from one body to another. The body which gains
electrons becomes negatively charged and the body which looses electrons becomes
positively charged.
 Therefore; Charging is the process whereby a material looses or gains electrons
Methods of charging a body
 By Rubbing or friction
 By Conduction or contact
 By induction
Charging by Friction
 When an object is rubbed over another object, the electrons get transferred from one
object to another. This transfer of electrons takes place due to friction between the two
objects. The object that transfers electrons loses negative charges (electrons) and the
object that accepts electrons gains negative charge (electrons).
 Hence, the object that gains extra electrons becomes negatively charged and the object that
loses electrons becomes positively charged. Thus, the two objects get charged by friction.
The charge obtained on the two objects is called friction charge. This method of charging an
object is called electrification by friction. (see the fig. below)

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Examples
(i) When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, the electrons from the fur get transferred
to the ebonite rod. The ebonite rod acquires a negative charge due to the gain of
electrons, and the fur becomes positively charged because it loses electrons.
(ii) When rubbing Styrofoam with a paper, some electrons from the paper get
transferred to the Styrofoam. Therefore, the Styrofoam acquires a net negative
charge because it gains an excess of negatively charged particles, and the
paper acquires a positive charge.
(iii) When rubbing a plastic comb with dry hair, it acquires some charges, and it attracts
tiny pieces of paper.

By Contact
 The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing it in contact with another charged
object is called charging by conduction.
 Consider an uncharged metal rod A kept on an insulating stand and a negatively charged
conductor B as shown in figure (i) below.

 If we touch the uncharged conductor A with the negatively charged conductor B, transfer of
electrons from charged conductor to uncharged conductor takes place. Hence, uncharged
conductor gains extra electrons and charged conductor loses electrons. Thus, uncharged
conductor A becomes negatively charged by gaining of extra electrons as seen in figure (ii).
 Similarly, uncharged conductor becomes positively charged if it is brought in contact with
positively charged conductor.

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By Induction
 We saw that we can charge an uncharged object when we touch it by a charged object. But, it
is also possible to obtain charges in a body without any contact with other charged body. The
process of charging an uncharged body by bringing a charged body near to it but without
touching it is called induction.
 Consider an uncharged metal sphere and negatively charged plastic rod as shown in figure (a)
below. If we bring the negatively charged plastic rod near to uncharged sphere as shown in
fig (b) below, charge separation occurs.
 The positive charges in the sphere get attracted towards the plastic rod and move to one end
of the sphere that is closer to the plastic rod. Similarly, negative charges get repelled from the
plastic rod and move to another end of the sphere that is farther away from the plastic rod.
Thus, the charges in the sphere rearrange themselves in a way that all the positive charges
are nearer to the plastic rod and all the negative charges are farther away from it.

 If this sphere is connected to a ground through the wire as shown in fig (c) above, free
electrons of the sphere at farther end flow to the ground. Thus, the sphere becomes positively
charged by induction. If the plastic rod is removed as shown in fig (d) all the positive charges
spread uniformly in the sphere.

Class Activity – 1:1

1. Two positive electrical charges are placed next to one another. Do they attract or repel?
2. Two plastic rods repel each other after they have been rubbed with a cloth. Suggest
why the plastic rods repel each other.
3. When a cloth is rubbed against an acetate rod, electrons from the rod move onto the cloth. Is
the acetate rod positively or negatively charged? Explain your answer.
4. Two small balls coated with metallic paint are suspended by insulating threads as
shown in the diagram. Describe what you would observe if both balls were given a
positive charge. How does the effect depend on the distance AB?

5. A comb run through one’s dry hair attracts small bits of paper. Why? What happens if the hair
is wet or if it is a rainy day?

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 6. Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But special rubber tyres of aircraft are made slightly
conducting. Why is this necessary?
7. How does an ebonite rod become negatively charged when it is rubbed with a
duster? What is the charge of the duster and how does it acquire that charge?
8. Vehicles carrying inflammable materials usually have metallic ropes touching the ground
during motion. Why?
9. While charging a metallic sphere negatively by induction by bringing a positively charged rod
near it the electrons will flow from the ground to the sphere when the sphere is connected to
the ground with a wire. Why does this happen?
ANS;
 When we charge a metal sphere negatively by bringing a positively charged rod near its
left surface, the electrons get attracted towards the left side and positive charges on right
side. Now, when the sphere is earthed the electrons from earth flow to the sphere to
neutralise the positive charge collected on the right side.
 Now, when the positively charged rod is removed the negative charges get distributed
over the metal surface and the sphere gets negatively charged.
10. How will you show that like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other?
11. Imagine that it is a cold winter day, and you are removing your woolen sweater. As you pull it
over your head, you see little sparks and you hear popping and crackling sounds in the
sweater. Explain what might be causing the sparks and sounds.
12. Passengers sliding off a car seat on to the ground sometimes get a shock.
13. A mirror or window polished by a dry cloth on a dry day soon becomes dusty
14. Explain why a charged balloon will “stick” to a wooden wall but not to a metal wall.
ANS:
Charged balloons would stick to a wood wall but not to a metal wall because the electrons in
the metal are free to move about. The charges can flow from the balloon into the metal or
from the metal into the balloon, thus, neutralizing the negative charge of the balloon. This is
not the case in the wood.
15. Explain why clothes dried in the clothes dryer have more static electricity than those dried on
a clothesline.
ANS:
Clothes on a clothesline are not touching each other thus, no charge is generated.
In the case of a dryer since the clothes are continuously rubbing against each other, static
electricity is generated.
16. Nylon clothing crackles as you undress
17. In a dry weather, people walking on nylon carpets may get a shock if they touch a radiator or
metal door knob
18. Explain why small pieces of paper are attracted to charged objects even though the paper
itself is not electrically charged.
19. Why is it not possible to charge a metal rod by holding it in your hand and rubbing it with a
duster?
ANS; A metal rod as well as human body is a good conductor of electricity. So, by holding a
metal rod with bare hand if it is rubbed, the charge acquired due to friction flows through the
body of the experimenter. That's why the rod remains uncharged

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Conductor and Insulator
Conductor
 An electrical conductor is defined as materials that allow electricity to flow through them easily.
This property of conductors that allow them to conduct electricity is known as conductivity.
 The flow of electrons in a conductor is known as the electric current. The force required to
make that current flow through the conductor is known as voltage.
 Graphite, metals and the earth are good conductors of electricity.
 Some of the common conductor examples include metals are: Silver, Copper, Aluminium,
Iron, etc
NB;
 The human body conducts electricity to small extent as it is a poor conductor of electricity. A
person gets electric shock on touching an uncovered electric wire carrying current because
some electric current passes through his body
 Water is a poor conductor of electricity. If a person operates an electric switch with wet
hands, he can get an electric shock because water present on the wet hands can conduct
some electricity from the switch into his body. We should, therefore operate the switches of
electrical appliances with dry hands.

Insulator
 Electrical Insulators are materials that do not allow electricity to flow through them.
 Plastic, wood, glass and rubber are good electrical insulators. That is why they are used
to cover materials that carry electricity.
 For example; Electrician wear rubber hand gloves while handling naked electric wires
because rubber is a good insulator and protects them from electric shocks.
 The handles of tools like screwdrivers and pliers used by electricians for repair works usually
have plastic or rubber covers on them. This is because plastic and rubber are insulators which
protect the electrician from electric shocks when he is handling current – carrying electrical
appliances. It is advisable to wear rubber soled shoes or rubber while operating electrical
appliances. This is because rubber is an insulator and does not allow current to flow through
it. It has a very high resistance. So, we are protected from electric shocks in case there is a
leakage of electric current from the appliances.
Electrophorus
 Is a device used to produce electrostatic charges through the process of electrostatic induction.
 An electrophorus consists of a metal disc made of brass fitted with an insulating handle (usually
an ebonite rod) resting on polythene base.
 It can produce numerous positive charges from a single negative charge.

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Charging an Electrophorus

 The polythene slab is given a negative charge by flicking it with a piece of fur, and then the
brass disc is placed on top of it. This results in positive and negative charges becoming
induced respectively on the lower and upper surfaces of the brass disc, see figure (a)
 The brass disc is now earthed momentarily by touching it with the finger so that the negative
induced charge is repelled to earth, see figure (b)
 On removing the disc from the slab it is found to be positively charged and a spark may be
drawn from it (Fig. (c)). The spark is usually hot enough to light a bunsen burner if the edge of
the charged disc is presented to the burner with the gas turned on.
Diagram:

Gold Leaf Electroscope

 Gold leaf electroscope is an instrument used for detecting the presence of an electrical charge
on an object.
Construction:
 It is made up of a glass jar. A vertical brass rod is inserted into the jar through a cork. The top
of the brass rod has a horizontal brass rod or a brass disc. Two gold leaves are suspended
from the brass rod inside the jar.
 A glass jar prevents air draughts but allows you to watch the behaviour of the leaf.

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Working:
 Since electroscope is used to detect the presence of charge. So through it we can find whether a
body is charged or uncharged. Therefore the body to be detected is brought close enough to the
metal knob.
 When a charged object touches the knob at the top of the rod, charge flows through the rod on to
the leaves.
 Both the gold leaves will have same charge and hence as a result they will repel and diverge. The
degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of charge i.e., more the charge, more will be the
divergence.
NB:
 The wall (casing) of an electroscope is earthed. This is to ensure that any negative charge
induced in the casing is conducted to the ground, or any positive charge induced is neutralized
by charge from the ground. The casing therefore remains neutral at all times hence bearing no
effect on the deflection of the gold-leaf.
 If an electroscope is not charged, the gold-leaf is not diverged. However, if the electroscope is
charged, or a charged body is brought close to the electroscope, the leaf diverges. The degree
of divergence is proportional to the magnitude of charge on the electroscope (or in the body).

Charging a gold leaf electroscope

 Transfer of charge from one object to another is called charging. In case of the gold
leaves, charge is transferred through the brass rods.
 Two methods of charging an electroscope are used. That is charging by contact and
charging by Induction
(i) Charging by contact
 The charging process starts by bringing a charged body, say a negatively charged rod,
near the cap of the electroscope. As a result of electrostatic force and bearing in mind
that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, the negative charges on the
electroscope are repelled to the leaf and the plate resulting in leaf divergence, while the
positive charges move to the cap.
 The rod is then brought into contact with the cap. Consequently, some negative charges
on the rod enter the electroscope and neutralize some of the positive charges, leaving the
electroscope with a net negative charge. When the rod is withdrawn, the negative
charges on the leaf and the plate are distributed throughout the electroscope. The leaf
divergence reduces as the magnitude of charge reduces.

(ii) Charging by induction

 A charged rod, say negatively charged, is brought close to but not touching the cap of the
electroscope. The negative charges on the electroscope are repelled to the leaf and the
plate (leaf diverges) while the positive charges move to the cap. With the rod still in place,
the cap is touched (earthed). Consequently, the negative charges on the electroscope
are conducted to the ground leaving the plate and the leaf with no net charge, and the
leaf therefore collapses see figure below.

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  The earth connection is then removed while the rod is still in place (to prevent the
electroscope from discharging). The rod is then withdrawn. The positive charges on the
cap are distributed to the leaf and the plate. Consequently, the leaf diverges. The
electroscope in this case has a net positive charge.

 If a positively charged rod was used instead, the electroscope would have acquired a net
negative charge.

Discharging a gold – leaf electroscope

 The gold leaves return to their normal position after some time. This happens because
they lose their charge. This process is called electrical discharge. The gold leaves would
also be discharged when someone touches the brass rod with bare hands. In that case,
the charge is transferred to the earth through the human body.

These are some of the applications of Gold Leaf Electroscope:

(i) Detect the presence of charge on a body:
Body under test is touched with the metal cap. If the leaves diverge, the body is charged and if
there is no effect on leaves, then the body is uncharged.
(ii) To identify the nature of charge:
The electroscope is charged by a known body (say positively charged body) and then the body
is removed. Next, the body under test is brought in contact with the metal cap. If the leaves
diverge further, the body has same charge (positive) and if the leaves come closer to each
other, the body has opposite charge (negative).

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 (iii) Identify a body as conductor or insulator:
Take two electroscopes. Charge one of the electroscopes so that its leaves will diverge. Then,
connect the two electroscopes by the object under test. If the leaves of other electroscope
diverge, the body is a conductor and if there is no effect on the electroscopes, the body is said
to an insulator
(iv) To test the insulating properties of various materials. The insulating or, conversely,
the conducting property of a given substance may be tested by holding a sample of the
substance in the hand and then bringing it into contact with the cap of a charged
electroscope. If the substance is a good insulator there will be no leakage of charge
through it and the leaf divergence will not alter. If, however, the leaf collapses instantly it
shows that the substance is a good conductor.

Activity – 1:2
1. Draw the sketch of a large and well labeled gold – leaf electroscope and describe its
construction
2. State the effect on the divergence of the leaves of a gold leaf electroscope on bringing a
negatively charged rod near it if the electroscope is positively charged
3. Why do we wear rubber slippers and gloves when working with electricity?
4. How will you use a gold leaf electroscope to find out whether a body is charged or
uncharged?
ANS; Bring the body and touch it with the brass disc of the gold leaf electroscope. If the
leaves diverge, the body is charged. But if the leaves do not diverge, the body is uncharged.
5. How will you use a gold leaf electroscope to find out whether the charge on a charged
body is positive or negative?
ANS;
Gold leaf electroscope is used to detect the type of charge present in a charged body by the
following method;
 Take a charged gold leaf electroscope (Suppose the electroscope is positively charged).
 Bring the charged body to be tested in contact with the brass disc of the electroscope.
 If divergence of leaves increases, the body has positive charge.
 If divergence of leaves decreases, the body has negative charge.
For the case when electroscope is negatively charged, if divergence of leaves increases, then
body is negatively charged and if it decreases then body is positively charged.

6. A negatively charged ebonite rod is touched with the disc of a negatively charged gold leaf
electroscope. What will be your observation? [ANS; The divergence of leaves will increase.]
7. When a charged rod is touched with the disc of a positively charged gold leaf electroscope, it
is observed that the divergence of leaves decreases. What is the kind of charge on the rod?
8. A gold-leaf electroscope is given a negative charge. When an object of unknown charge is
placed near the bottom of the rod, the gold leaf is observed to collapse slightly. State, with
explanation, whether you think the object has a positive or negative charge.

Potential difference
 Potential difference (Pd): Is the work done needed to move a charged particle from one
point to another point. Its SI unit is Volt.
 A volt is one joule of work per electric charge of one coulomb

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Capacitors
 A Capacitor is a passive device that stores energy in its Electric Field and returns energy to
the circuit whenever required. A Capacitor consists of two Conducting Plates separated by an
Insulating Material or Dielectric. Figure (a) and Figure (b) are the basic structure and the
schematic symbol of the Capacitor respectively.

 Dielectric material is an insulating medium used between the plates of a capacitor

 The ability of a capacitor to store electric charges is known as capacitance.
 The SI unit of Capacitance is Farad
 Other unit of capacitance are mill Farad (mF), micro Farad (𝝁𝑭), nano Farad (nF) and pico
Farad (pF) whereby;
𝟏𝒎𝑭 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑭, 𝟏𝝁𝑭 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑭, 𝟏𝒏𝑭 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗𝑭, 𝟏𝒑𝑭 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐𝑭
 Farad is the capacitance of a capacitor in which one coulomb of charge causes a potential
difference of one volt
 Capacitors are found in all electronic circuits, e.g. in radios, television, alarm systems, etc.
 The potential difference, V across the two capacitor plates of the capacitor is directly
proportional to the charge, Q accumulating on its plates that is Q ∝ 𝑉
 Removing the proportionality constant. Q = kV but: k = C = capacitance

∴ 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽
Worked Examples
1. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 2.5𝜇F. The capacitor is connected to
a 500V power supply. What is the charge on the plates of the capacitor?
ANS; From 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 ∴ 𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝝁𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑪
2. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance 4μF carries a charge of 600 μC. What is the
potential difference between the plates of the capacitor?
ANS;
𝑸 𝟔𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟔
From; 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 → 𝑽 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑽
𝑪 𝟒×𝟏𝟎−𝟔

Types of Capacitors
There are different types of capacitors depending on the dielectric material used and the
application. These are as follow;

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 16

 (i) Paper (Plastic filled) Capacitor
 A paper capacitor is a type of electronic component that stores and releases electrical
energy. It is made up of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material, which
in this case is paper. When a voltage is applied to the plates, the paper acts as an
insulator and allows the capacitor to store electrical energy.

 A paper capacitor is made by sandwiching a strip of paper between two sheets of

conductive material, usually aluminum foil. The layers are then rolled tightly together
and placed in a cylindrical or rectangular casing. The ends of the conductive layers are
connected to metal leads, which allow the capacitor to be connected to a circuit.
 Paper capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices such as radios, amplifiers,
and power supplies.
(ii) Electrolytic capacitor
 This type of capacitor is polarized. These capacitors are capable of offering higher
capacitance value -generally above 1μF, this type of capacitor is commonly used in low
frequency applications

 Sheets of Aluminium foil have a layer of paper soaked in a chemical solution between
them. When you apply a voltage to the capacitor it causes a chemical reaction on the
positive plate surface. This produces a thin Aluminum – Oxide layer, which forms the
capacitor dielectric (A thin insulating layer). The electrolytic Capacitors have a high
Capacitance value in a small package because of this thin dielectric layer i.e, The
thinner the layer the higher the Capacitance
NB;
 It is important to observe the polarity markings on electrolytic capacitors and connect
them accordingly in a circuit because a wrong connection can lead to formation of gas
inside the capacitor and may cause it to explode. At the very least, the capacitor will be
destroyed by connecting it with reverse polarity.

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 17

 (iii) Mica capacitor
 Mica Capacitor is one kind of capacitor where the mica (silicate mineral) is used as a
dielectric material. In a mica capacitor, the sheets of metal foil are separated by strips
of mica as shown in figure below. Mica is preferred because it is natural and splits
easily into very thin sheets

 Generally, mica capacitors are low loss capacitors which are used where the high
frequency is required and their value doesn’t change much over time.

(iv) Variable ( air filled) capacitor

 Air capacitors are made of two conductive plates separated by an air gap. Air
capacitors can be made in a variable or fixed capacitance form. Variable air capacitors
are used more often because of their simple construction.

 They are usually made of two sets of semicircular metal plates separated by air gaps.
One set is fixed and the other is attached to a shaft which allows the user to rotate the
assembly, therefore changing the capacitance as needed. The larger the overlap
between the two sets of plates, the higher the capacitance. Thus, the maximum
capacitance state is achieved when the overlap between the two sets of plates is
highest, while the lowest capacitance state is achieved when there is no overlap.
 It is usually used as a tuning capacitor in a radio receiving circuit.
Charging and discharging of a Capacitor
 When a capacitor is connected to a circuit with Direct Current (DC) source, two processes,
which are called "charging" and "discharging" the Capacitor, will happen in specific conditions.
Charging of a Capacitor
 Charging refers to the situation where there is an increase in potential difference, while
both conducting plates get an equal and opposite charge.
 A capacitor is charged by applying a DC across its plates. During the charging process,
electrical energy is transferred from the battery to the capacitor, which then stores the
energy
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 18
  As the p.d is increased, the charge is increased up to a certain value. The capacitor is
charged when the p.d across its plates equals the p.d of the source (see the fig. below)

 The capacitor is fully charged when the voltage of the power supply is equal to that at the
capacitor terminals. This is called capacitor charging; and the charging phase is over
when current stops flowing through the electrical circuit.
 A Capacitor is equivalent to an Open-Circuit to Direct Current, R = ∞, because once the
Charging Phase has finished, no more Current flows through it. The Voltage on a
Capacitor cannot change abruptly.

Discharging of a Capacitor
 When the power supply is removed from the capacitor, the discharging phase begins.
During discharging, there is a constant reduction in the voltage between the two plates
until it reaches zero. That is, the electrons now flow back from the negative plate to the
positive plate until there are equal numbers on each plate and no potential difference
between them.
 A capacitor is discharged by connecting the plates of a charged capacitor across the load,
R (see the fig. below)

 The rate at which a capacitor discharges depends on the resistance of the circuit. If the
resistance is high, the current will decrease and charge will flow from the capacitor plates
more slowly, meaning the capacitor will take longer to discharge
 If the resistance is low, the current will increase and charge will flow from the capacitor
plates quickly, meaning the capacitor will discharge faster.
NB:
 At the start of charging, the current is large and gradually falls to zero as the electrons stop
flowing through the circuit. The current decreases exponentially. This means the rate at
which the current decreases is proportional to the amount of current it has left

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 19

  At the start of discharging, the current is large (but in the opposite direction to when it was
charging) and gradually falls to zero
 As a capacitor discharges, the current, p.d and charge all decrease exponentially. This
means the rate at which the current, p.d or charge decreases is proportional to the amount
of current, p.d or charge it has left
 The larger the value of Resistance (R) and Capacitance (C), the longer it takes for the
capacitor to charge or discharge
 Capacitors are found in almost all electronic circuits. They can be used as a fast battery. For
example, a Capacitor is a storehouse of energy in photoflash unit that releases the energy
quickly during short period of the flash.

Class Activity – 1:3

1. A 1000 μF capacitor, initially uncharged, is charged by a steady current of 50 μA. How long
will it take for the potential difference across the capacitor to reach 2.5V
𝑪𝑽 𝑪𝑽 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ×𝟐.𝟓
ANS; 𝑰 = → 𝒕= = = 𝟓𝟎𝒔
𝒕 𝑰 𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟔

2. Why it important to indicate the polarity for an electrolytic capacitor?

3. A label on a capacitor shows it to have a capacitance of 0.020 F. Explain what this tells you
about the capacitor.
4. Explain why the rate of change of the potential difference decreases as the capacitor
discharges.
5. Explain why the current that charges the capacitor falls as the capacitor charges.

Arrangement of Capacitors
(a) Capacitors in Series

From the figure above, 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐

But: Q = CV ------------- make V the subject
𝑸 𝑸
Then, 𝑽 = → 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑻
𝑪 𝑪𝑻
But: Charge stored is the same, i.e 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 = 𝑸

𝑸𝑻 𝑸 𝑸 𝑸 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
This gives: 𝑽𝑻 =  = +  = +
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝒕 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒕 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

If two capacitors are in series, then their total capacitance, C is given by:
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
∴ 𝑪𝑻 =
𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 20

 (b) Capacitors in Parallel connection

From the diagram above;

𝑸𝑻 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 → 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑪𝑻 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑽𝟐

Since: voltage across each capacitor is the same, ie,.. 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽

Then; 𝑪𝑻 𝑽 = (𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 )𝑽 ∴ 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐

If two capacitors are in parallel, then their total capacitance, C is given by:

𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
Worked examples

1. Three capacitors A, Band C are arranged in (i) series (ii) Parallel. If their capacitances are
10𝜇𝐹, 20𝜇𝐹 and 30𝜇𝐹, respectively. Calculate the value of a single capacitor that could
replace them for each case
ANS;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝟑+𝟏.𝟓+𝟏) 𝟓.𝟓
(i) From; = + +  = + + = =
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝑻 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝟏 𝟓.𝟓 𝟑𝟎
=  𝑪𝑻 = = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝜇𝐹
𝑪𝑻 𝟑𝟎 𝟓.𝟓

(ii) For parallel connection; 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎 𝝁𝑭

2. Two capacitors 𝐶1 = 1𝜇𝐹 and 𝐶2 = 2𝜇𝐹 are connected in parallel as seen from the figure
below,

Find:
(a) The equivalent capacitance
(b) The total charge

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 21

 (c) Potential difference across each capacitor and
(d) The charge on each capacitor.
From;
(a) For parallel connection; 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝟑𝝁𝑭
(b) From; 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 → 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑪𝑻 × 𝑽𝑻 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 × 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑪
(c) In parallel connection the potential difference across each capacitor is equal to the total
potential difference of the circuit. So, 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
(d) 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 → 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑪𝟏 × 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 × 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑪
𝑸𝟐 = 𝑪𝟐 × 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 × 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑪

Factors affecting Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

 The area of the plates
 The dielectric material
 The distance between the plates

Area of Plates
 An increase in the area of the plate causes a decrease in potential difference between the
𝟏
plates, hence an increase in capacitance. (C ∝ 𝒐𝒓 𝑪 ∝ 𝑨)
𝑽

Dielectric Material
 Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to increase or decrease depending on the
material. Example, capacitance increases if we use dielectric material such as glass or
book or polythene between the plates rather than air

Distance between Plates

 A decrease in the distance between plates causes a decrease in potential difference
𝟏
between the plates, hence an increase in capacitance. (C ∝ )
𝒅
𝑨 𝑮𝑨
 ∴𝑪 ∝ → 𝑪= , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝑮 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒅 𝒅

Charge distribution on a conductor

 Conductors appear in many different shapes such as spherical, pear – shaped and cylindrical
surfaces. It has been observed that:
 A pear-shaped conductor on an insulating stand is charged using an electrostatic generator.
Using a proof plane, charge is transferred from various parts of the conductor to an
electroscope. It is observed that the greatest amount of charge is transferred when the proof
plane touches the region of the conductor having the smallest radius of curvature. It can be
inferred that if the conductor has a sharp point, the charge density and hence, the
electric field, is very large at the point.
 Therefore; the charge distribution on a conductor depends on the shape of the conductor
surface as shown in the figure below;

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 22

 NB;
 Charge distribution for hollow conductor is concentrated on the outside. The inside of the can
has no charges
Class Activity – 1:4
1. Two capacitors of 20 μF and 25 μF are connected in (i) series and (ii) parallel. What is the
effective capacitance for (i) and (ii)? (ANS: (i) 11.11 μF (ii) 45 μF)
2. Determine the effective capacitance obtained when two capacitors each of 10 μF are
connected first in parallel and then in series. (ANS: (i) 5 μF (ii) 20 μF)
3. A capacitor of capacitance 250 𝜇𝐹is allowed to charge until the potential difference
between its plates is 10V. How much charge accumulates on the plates during the charging
process? ANS; 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑪
4. It is required to obtain effective capacitance of 3 μF, there are two capacitors; the first is 12
μF, what will be the value of the other capacitor. State the way it will be connected to the
first. ANS: (i) It will be connected in series to the first, and its value will be 4 μF
5. Two capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are connected in series as shown in the figure below, find:

(a) The equivalent capacitance [ANS; 𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝝁𝑭 ]

(b) The total charge [ANS; Q =CV = 24𝝁𝑪]
(c) The charge on each capacitor and [𝑨𝑵𝑺; 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝝁𝑪]
𝑸 𝟐𝟒 𝑸 𝟐𝟒
(d) The voltage across each capacitor. [AN;𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏 = = 𝟖𝑽, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐 = = 𝟒𝑽]
𝑪𝟏 𝟑 𝑪𝟐 𝟔

6. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 10nF. The capacitor is connected to

a 250V power supply. What is the charge on the plates of the capacitor? [ANS; 2.5𝝁𝑪]
7. A capacitor of capacitance 250 𝜇𝐹 is allowed to charge until the potential difference
between its plates is 10V. How much charge accumulates on the plates during the charging
process? ANS; From; 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 → 𝑄 = 250 × 10−6 × 10 = 2.5 × 10−3 𝐶
8. Two capacitors of capacitances of 18𝜇𝐹 and 51𝜇𝐹, and resistance of 4.5k are
connected into the circuit as shown below
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 23
 The battery has an E.M.F of 8V,
𝑪 𝑪
(i) Calculate the combined capacitance of the two capacitors. [A;𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪 𝟏+𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝝁𝑭]
𝟏 𝟐
(ii) The two way switch S is initially at position P, so that the capacitors are fully
charged. Use the information in c(i) to calculate the total energy stored in the two
𝟏
capacitor [ANS; 𝑬 = 𝑪𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 × 10−6 × 𝟖𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟔 × 10−4 𝑱]
𝟐
9. Three capacitors, each of capacitance 27𝜇𝐹 are connected as shown below

Calculate the total capacitance between point P and Q [ANS; 18𝝁𝑭]

10. Four metal conductors having different shapes
A sphere, Cylindrical, Pear and Lightning conductor
Which shape will sustain its charge for the longest time? Why?
ANS; In case of spherical metal conductor, the charges quickly spread uniformly over the
entire surface because of which charges stay for longer time on the spherical surface.
While in case of non-spherical surface, the charge concentration is different at different
points due to which the charges do not stay on the surface for longer time.
11. State two functions of capacitors connected in electrical circuits
12. Three capacitors are connected in parallel to a power supply as shown in figure below

The capacitors have the capacitance 𝐶𝐴 , 𝐶𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐶 . The power supply provides a
potential difference E.
(i) Explain why the charge on the positive plate of each capacitor is different
(ii) Use your answer in (i) to show that the combined capacitance CT of the three
capacitors is given by the expression 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝑨 + 𝑪𝑩 + 𝑪𝑪

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 24

Lightning
 Lightning is an electric discharge in the atmosphere between oppositely charged clouds or
between charged cloud and the earth. Lightning is actually a great electric spark in the sky
How Lightning Happens
 Lightning is produced by discharge of electricity from cloud to cloud or from cloud to ground.
During thunderstorm air is moving upward rapidly. This air which moves rapidly carries small
ice crystals upward. At the same time, small water drops move downward. When they collide,
ice crystals become positively charged and move upward and the water drops become
negatively charged and move downward. So the upper part of the cloud is positively charged
and the lower part of the cloud is negatively charged. When they come into contact, electrons
in the water drops are attracted by the positive charges in the ice crystals. Thus, electricity is
generated and lightning is seen.
 Sometimes the lower part of the cloud which is negatively charged comes into contact with the
positive charges accumulated near the mountains, trees and even people on the earth. This
discharge produces lot of heat and sparks that results in what we see as lightning. Huge
quantities of electricity are discharged in lightning flashes and temperatures of over 30,000°C
or more can be reached. This extreme heating causes the air to expand explosively fast and
then they contract. This expansion and contraction create a shock wave that turns into a
booming sound wave, known as Thunder.

 Lightning's extreme heat will vaporize the water inside a tree, creating steam that may burn
out the tree.
 Sometimes lightning may be seen before the thunder is heard. This is because the distance
between the clouds and the surface is very long and the speed of light is more than the speed
of sound.

Dangers of Lightning
 A flash of lightning carries a lot of electric energy. When lightning strikes a building, its
tremendous electric energy can set the building on fire or cause serious damage to its
structure. When lightning strikes a tree, it can burn up the tree and damage it by its enormous
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 25
 electric energy. And when a person is hit by lightning during a thunderstorm, then the electric
energy passes through the body of the person due to which the person gets severe burns
and gets killed. Thus, when lightning strikes the earth, it can cause a lot of destruction by
damaging property (buildings, etc.), trees and killing people.
 Since lightning strikes can destroy life and property, it is, therefore, necessary to take
measures to protect ourselves and our buildings from the dangers of lightning. The damage
caused to buildings and other tall structures by lightning can be prevented by installing
lightning conductors on them. This is discussed below.

A lightning conductor
 Lightning conductor is a device used to protect a building from the effects of lightning.
 It consists of a long thick copper rod passing through the building to ground. The lower end of
the rod is connected to a copper plate buried deeply into the ground. A metal plate with
number of spikes is connected to the top end of the copper rod and kept at the top of the
building. See the fig below

Mode of action
 When a negatively charged cloud passes over the building, positive charge will be induced on
the pointed conductor. The positively charged sharp points will ionize the air in the vicinity.
 This will partly neutralize the negative charge of the cloud, thereby lowering the potential of
the cloud. The negative charges that are attracted to the conductor travels down to the earth.
Thereby preventing the lightning stroke from the damage of the building.
NB:
 Thunderstorm – Is a severe weather associated with lightning and thunder, heavy rainfall
and strong wind
 Ground (Earth) –Is a large conductor which acts both as an infinite supplier of electrons or
an infinite receiver for electrons
 Earthing (Grounding) – A safety measure devised to prevent people from getting shocked if
the insulation inside electrical devices fails is called earthing. Electrical earthing can be
defined as the process of transferring the discharge of electrical energy directly to the earth
with the help of low-resistance wire.
 Point of action – Is the behavior of charges to concentrate at the edges of sharp or pointed
objects

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 26

Measures to protect ourselves from Lightning
We can take the following measures (or steps) to protect ourselves from lightning strikes during a
thunderstorm:
 No open space is safe during lightning and thunderstorm. A house (or any other building) is a
safe place during lightning. So, if we are in an open space (such as a park, playground, or
road, etc.), we should rush to a safer place like a house or some other building nearby on
hearing the thunder and observing the lightning in the sky.
 Open vehicles like motorbikes, scooters, tractors, and construction machinery (like earth
movers, etc.) are not safe during lightning and thunderstorm. So, we should leave such open
vehicles during lightning and take shelter inside a house (or some other building). If, however,
we are travelling by a covered vehicle like a car (or bus) when thunderstorm and lightning
occur, then we are safe inside the car (or bus) with windows and doors of the vehicle closed.
 If a person is in open space when thunderstorm and lightning begin, and there is no suitable
shelter available nearby, then the following precautions should be taken for protection from
lightning :
(a) When in open space, a person should never stand under a tree to take shelter during a
thunderstorm because there is danger of lightning striking the tree and burning it up. This
lightning can also pass through the body of the person standing under the tree and kills
him. If, however, a person is in a forest, he should take shelter under a short tree because
a short tree is less likely to be hit by lightning. On the other hand, a tall tree (being nearer
to the thunderclouds) is more likely to be hit by lightning.
(b) When in open space, a person should not lie on the ground during the thunderstorm and
lightning. A person should squat low on the ground during lightning. The person should
place his hands on his knees with his head between the hands. This position will make the
person the shortest object around which is unlikely to be hit by lightning. The person
should also stay away from electric poles, telephone poles and other metal objects during
lightning.
 We should avoid raising an umbrella over our head during lightning.
This is because lightning may strike the top end of the metal rod of umbrella (held high over
the head) and harm us.
 The TV antennas and dish antennas fixed on tall buildings are especially prone to lightning
strikes. We should, therefore, switch off our TV sets during frequent lightning otherwise TV
sets may get burnt.
 Lightning can strike metal pipes (such as water pipes) fixed in buildings. So, during a
thunderstorm when lightning is taking place, we should avoid touching the metal pipes fixed in
a house or building.
Class Activity – 1:5
1. What is a lightning conductor? How does it work?
2. Why does lighting strike in zig – zag pattern?
This is because: “The propagation of the lighting channel follows a path of the least
resistance which is not a straight but a zig – zag line because impurity (moisture) in the
atmosphere causes the air to be ionized in different directions
3. Are you relatively safe from lightning inside an automobile? Explain.
4. How is a tall building protected from damage due to lightning?
5. State three safety measures that you will observe in a thunderstorm.
6. Explain any two Hazards of Electrostatic Charging and suggest the way to protect it from
happening

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 7. Why is it safe to stay inside an automobile during a lightning storm?
8. What precautions would you take if lightning occurs while you are outside the house?
9. An airport worker is refueling an aircraft. As fuel moves through the pipe, it becomes
positively charged. Explain how the worker can prevent a build-up of charge when
pumping fuel into the aircraft.
10. Explain why it is safer to use a wireless telephone instead of a landline telephone during
lightning.
11. Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA) has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to
occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out on that day. Would you carry an
umbrella? Explain.
Application of Static Electricity
1. Used in paint spraying of car bodies by using an electrostatic spry gun
2. Used in photocopying. A photocopier uses electrostatic charge to produce a copy of any
original document
3. Used in printing: A printer uses electrostatic charges to direct ink to the correct place on
the page of paper
4. Used in industrial chimneys: Pollution in industries can be reduced using electrostatic
charges
Dangers of Electrostatics
 When a liquid flows through a pipe its molecules become charged due to rubbing on the inner
surface of the pipe .If the liquid is inflammable it can cause sparks and explode
 Similarly , explosive fuel carried in plastic cans can get charged due to rubbing which may
result in sparks and even explosion
 It is therefore advisable to store fuels in metal cans so that any charges generated continually
leak.
 For the same reason, whenever an aeroplane is being re – fueled by a tanker lorry, they are
always connected together by a copper wire

Self Assessment – 1
1. State what happen in the following conditions.
a) An ebonite rod is rubbed with fur
b) A negatively charged electroscope’s cap is touched by a neutral glass rod
c) A proof plane is inserted in a hollow and tested for charge
2. A glass rod rubbed with ---------------- becomes ---------------- charged
3. Draw the sketch of a large and well labeled gold – leaf electroscope.
4. Define capacitor and capacitance
5. A sharp needle was brought close to the cap of a charged gold – leaf electroscope .Explain
why the leaf collapsed.
6. After walking across a carpeted floor you sometimes get a mild electric shock when you
touch a metal door knob. Explain how this happens
7. List the three types of capacitors that you know and their uses
8. State the factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
9. Explain how the factors affect the capacitance of the capacitor
10. State the appliances that use capacitors
11. Calculate the charge stored in a capacitor of 100 𝜇𝐹 capacitance when connected to a 2 v
d.c supply. (ANS: Q = 0.2 𝒎c = 0.0002 C)
12. Two capacitors of capacitance 10 𝜇𝐹 and 15 𝜇𝐹 are connected in:
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 28
 (a) series (b) parallel. Calculate the effective capacitance in each case
13. The charge stored in a capacitor of capacitance 7 200 𝜇𝐹 is 32.4 mC. Calculate the e.m.f
of the battery charging the capacitor
14. A capacitor of two parallel plates separated by air has a capacitance of 15 pF. A potential
difference of 18 volts is applied across the plate
a) Determine the charge on the capacitor.
b) If the space between is filled with mica, the capacitance now increases to 240 pF
.How much more charge can be put on the capacitor using the 18 volts supply.
15. Two capacitors of capacitance 2 𝜇𝐹 and 4 𝜇𝐹 are connected in
(a) series (b) parallel .Calculate the effective capacitance in each combination .
(ANS: (a) CS = 1.33 𝑭, (b) CP = 6 𝝁𝑭)
16. When a capacitor is connected to a battery of e.m.f 12 v, the charge stored on each plate is
0.06 𝜇𝐹.Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor in 𝜇𝐹
17. Mention at least five losses which are due to lightning strikes.
18. What is the difference between charging an object by induction and charging it by
conduction?
19. A negatively charged object attracts a piece of paper because it ---------------- electrons
away from the surface of the paper.
20. Explain why:
(a) Nylon cloth crackles as you undress.
(b) Are TV screens dusty after a while?
(c) It might be dangerous to raise an umbrella in a storm
21. What is (a) Capacitor (b) Capacitance
22. Determine the effective capacitance in each of the following diagram

(ANS: (a) C = 2 𝝁𝑭 (b) C = 18 𝝁𝑭 (c) C = 9 𝝁𝑭 (d) C = 4 𝝁𝑭)

23. Match the items in List A with those in List B
List A List B
a) Stores charge i) Repel
b) C = C1 + C2 ii) Capacitor
c) Glass iii) Metal caps
d) Similar charges iv) Positive charge
e) Detect charges v) Gold – leaf
vi) Insulator
vii) Attracts

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 viii) Capacitors in parallel
ix) Capacitors in series
x) Negative charge
24. (a) Determine the effective capacitance of the circuit below
(b) What is the value of the stored charge?

25. Explain why are metal chains attached to the trucks carrying petrol or other inflammable
materials?
26. Are conductors and insulators? Give three examples of each
27. What does the study of electrostatics deal with?
28. State the law of charges. Explain the law with a suitable example
29. When a charged rod is held close to a metal sphere placed on an insulated stand ,the
charge distribution on the sphere is also shown in the fig below

a) What is the sign of charge on the rod?

b) Describe a simple method to charge the rod
c) Explain why the far side of the metal sphere has a positive charge.
d) What happens to the charges on the metal sphere, if the charged rod is moved away
from the sphere?
30. Explain any two day to day applications of static electricity
31. Define the terms below
a) Ground (c) Farad (e) Dielectric material
b) Induction (d) Conductor (g) Insulator
32. A lighting conductor protects building and other structures from damage in case of lighting
attacks. Describe how it works
33. Describe the distribution of charges along:
a) A negatively charged spherical conductor
b) A negatively charged pointed metal rod
34. What is lighting conductor and what is its purpose?
35. Show that for capacitors arranged in a series configuration the effective capacitance is
given by:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪𝑻
= 𝑪 +𝑪 +𝑪 + −−−−𝑪
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏

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 36. Four capacitors of capacitance 2.4 𝝁𝑭, 3.6 𝝁𝑭 ,4.0 𝝁𝑭 and 2.0 𝝁𝑭 are connected in
series to a potential difference of 15.0 V . Find:
a) The effective capacitance (ANS: C = 0.69 x 10-6 F)
b) The total charge (ANS: Q = 10.35 x 10-6)
c) The charge on each capacitor (ANS: Q = 10.35 x 10-6)
d) The voltage across each capacitor (ANS: V1 = 4.31V, V2 = 2.88V, V3 = 2.59V and V4
= 5.18 V)
37. Two capacitors of capacitance 2.5 𝝁𝑭 and 3.5 𝝁𝑭 connected in series are connected to
two other capacitors each of capacitance 4.0 𝝁𝑭 which are connected in parallel to each
other .If the circuit is supplied by a potential difference of 20.0 V, find:
a) The effective capacitance (ANS: C = 1.23 𝝁𝑭)
b) The voltage on each capacitor (ANS: V1 = 9.87 V, V2 = 7.05 V)
c) The total charge (ANS: Q = 24.67 x 10-6)
d) The charge on each capacitor. (ANS:Q1 = Q2 = 24.67 x 10-6 C, Q3 =Q4 = 12.33 x 10-6)

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 Chapter: 2
Current Electricity
Current electricity: The branch of physics which deals with the study of charges in motion
OR Is a flow of electric charges along a conductor

Electric Charge
 The distribution of charge in a body is measured in coulombs. The quantization of charge
requires that a charge on a body always remain the integral multiple of charges in an electron.
Therefore, we have the relation; 𝑸 = 𝒏𝒆
 Where, 𝑸 is the charge on the body, 𝒏 is the number of electrons and 𝒆 is the charge on
electrons (1.6 ×10–19)
 The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb, denoted by the letter ‘𝑪’.
 Number of electrons in 𝟏𝑪 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
 Total charge possessed by one electron = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪
𝒊. 𝒆, 𝟏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗𝑪
𝟏
 Thus; 𝟏𝑪 = −𝟏𝟗
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝟏.𝟔 ×𝟏𝟎
 Hence, we can say that one coulomb of electric charge contains 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔.

Electric current
 When we speak of electric current, often we are referring to a specific quantity – the rate at
which charge flows. A large current, such as that used to start a truck engine, moves a large
amount of charge in a small time, whereas a small current, such as that used to operate a
hand-held calculator, moves a small amount of charge over a long period of time.
 mathematically, electric current 𝑰 is defined as;-
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆(𝑸) 𝑸
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) =
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)
→ 𝑰= 𝒕

 Where 𝑸 is the amount of charge passing through a given area in time 𝒕.

 OR; Electric current – Is the amount of charge passing a given point in a circuit in one
second.
 The common SI unit of current (I) is ampere (A); whereby; 𝟏𝑨 = 𝟏𝑪/𝒔
 Ampere (A): Is the current through a point in a conductor when a charge of one coulomb
passes through the point after every one second.
 The device used to measure electric current is called Ammeter.
 The other units are mill Ampere (mA), Kilo ampere (kA), and micro ampere (μA)
 Their equivalence to the ampere is as follows
1A = 10 6 μA, 1A =103 m A and 1kA = 1000A

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Coulomb
 Coulomb – Is the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second
OR
 Coulomb – Is the quantity of electricity passing at a given point in 1second when steady
current of 1A is flowing in a circuit

Worked Examples;
1. An electric current of 0.12A passes a point B along a conducting wire. How much electric
charge is flowing through this point in a minute?
Solution:
Charge = current x time
Q = It = 0.12 x 60 = 7.2 C
2. Change 0.25mA into A
ANS;
𝟏𝒎𝑨 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨
𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝒎𝑨×𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝑨 =? → = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑨
𝟏𝒎𝑨

Uses of Current Electricity

Electric current has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the major applications of
electric current are:
 Power generation and distribution: Electric current is used to generate, transmit, and
distribute electrical power to homes, businesses, and industries.
 Lighting: Electric current is used to power various types of lighting systems, including
incandescent bulbs, fluorescent lamps, LED lights, and others.
 Heating and cooling: Electric current is used to heat and cool homes and buildings using
devices such as heaters, air conditioners, and refrigerators.
 Electronics: Electric current is used to power electronic devices such as computers,
televisions, radios, and mobile phones.
 Transportation: Electric current is used to power electric vehicles, trains, and other forms of
public transportation.
 Medical applications: Electric current is used in various medical devices and treatments,
such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), electroencephalograms (EEGs), and nerve stimulation
therapies.
 Manufacturing: Electric current is used in various manufacturing processes, such as welding,
electroplating, and electrolysis.
 Communication: Electric current is used to power various communication systems, such as
telephones, telegraphs, and internet networks.

Source of Current Electricity

 Cells
 Batteries
 Generators
Electrical Cell
 An 'electric cell' is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, thus
producing a small amount of electricity. A cell is a single unit.

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 A battery is a collection of two or more cells. It is the main source of electric current.
 A battery can be made by connecting the positive terminal of a cell to the negative terminal of
another cell. It is not necessary to place the electric cells one after another. It can be placed
next to each other.

Generators
 It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Simple Electric Circuit

 An electric circuit is the continuous closed path along which current flows from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal of the battery.
 Construction of a circuit: An electric circuit consists of a cell or a battery, connecting
wires, a bulb, and a switch.

Switch.
 A switch is a simple device which breaks a circuit or completes a circuit as desired by us.
 A switch works by opening and closing a gap in an electric circuit.
 When the switch is in “off position”, a gap opens up in the circuit due to which electricity stops
flowing in the circuit and hence the electrical appliance stops working
 When the switch is turned on, the gap in the circuit is closed and a complete circuit is made.
Due to complete circuit, electricity starts flowing in the circuit and electrical appliance will now
start working. The purpose of using a switch is to “turn on” or “turn off” an electrical appliance
by closing the circuit or opening the circuit respectively.

Complete (Closed) circuit and Open Circuit

 An electric circuit in which there is no gap in the connections between the terminals of the
cell, wires and bulb, etc, is called complete circuit or closed circuit. A bulb will light up if there
is no gap in the circuit (if the circuit is closed).
 An electric circuit in which there is a gap in the connections between the terminals of the cell,
wires and bulb, etc,. is called incomplete circuit or open circuit. Electricity does not flow
through an open circuit because there is a gap in its path. A bulb will not light up if there is a
gap in the circuit. A will not light up if the circuit is open (broken)

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Consider the electric circuit components and their uses, in the table below,
Table Showing Electric circuit components
Circuit device Purpose Symbol
Connecting wire Carrying current from one point
Wire joined to another

Wire crossing (not

connected)
Cell Supplies electrical energy.

Battery

Battery (multiple cells)

Alternate current (AC)

supply
Dc supply

Lamp / Bulb Convert electrical energy to

heat and light energy
Resistor Impedes the flow of current
Switch Opens and closes a circuit
Rheostat (variable) Controls amount of current

Galvanometer Detecting the presence of

current
Ammeter and Measure current
milliammeter
Capacitor Stores electric charges

Fuse Breaks the circuit if excessive

current flows

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Detection and measurement of electric current
 A galvanometer is a sensitive electrical instrument used for detecting and measuring small
electric currents.
 In order to measure large currents it is converted into an ammeter. It can be converted into
an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt resistance in parallel to the
galvanometer.

Voltage
 Voltage is the energy or work done required to move a unit charge from one point to another
(from higher potential to lower potential)
 We can also describe the Voltage as an electrical pressure, which forces the electric charges
(electrons) to move in an electrical circuit. Voltage is measured in volts, abbreviated as ‘𝑽’.
 To understand the concept of voltage, consider a water pump which is pumping the water.
The pump pushes the water to flow in the pipes. The pump acts like the voltage and the
water acts like charges. The more you pump, the more water is flowing through the pipe
(𝒊𝒆. . 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕; 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰).
 However, it is not necessary that when the voltage is applied, the electric charges will flow
(current). Charges need a complete closed path to flow.
 Every cell has a voltage commonly referred to as potential difference (P.d), across its
terminals.

Volt, V
 Is the potential difference between two locations when a charge of one coulomb will gain a
potential energy of one joule when the charge is moved between the two locations
Potential difference:
 Potential difference – Is the difference of electrical potential between two points
 OR; Is the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to another
 Voltage is measured by using a device known as Voltmeter
 The SI unit of voltage is Volt (V)
 It is always connected parallel to the device whereby you want to measure its voltage drop
across it. A parallel connection is used because devices in parallel experience the same
potential difference. See figure below

 Wrong connection of an ammeter can damage it, so the red terminal (positive) of the ammeter
should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the black lead will always go to
the negative terminal of the battery.
 Ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 36
Current
 Electric current is the number of electrons flowing through a point in a circuit. Consider a
circuit, which is marked ‘A’ at a point. The number of electrons that will pass through the
point ‘A’ in one second will be the current of the circuit. You can consider the current in a
circuit as a flow of water in the pipes.
 The current in a circuit is caused by the voltage, much like the water flow in the pipes is
caused by the pump. Electric current is measured in the amperes, sometimes called
“amps”. It is denoted by the letter ‘I’.
 Current is like the diameter of the hose. The wider it is, the more water will flow through. It
is measured in amps (I or A).
 Current is measured by using a device known as Ammeter
 Ammeters are connected in series with whatever device’s current is to be measured. A
series connection is used because objects in series have the same current passing through
them. See the figure above

Resistance
 Resistance, as the name suggests, It is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an
electrical circuit. It always tries to stop the current from flowing. Every material around the
world has resistance for electric current.
 Some materials have very small resistance, called conductors. While, other materials have
very high resistance, called insulators. We use the conductors in the circuit for electric
current to pass easily
 Resistance is like sand in the hose that slows down the water flow.
 It is measured in ohms (Ω).
 The device which measures the resistance is known as Resistor
 Resistor is an electrical component with two terminals that is used to limit or regulate the
flow of electrical current in electronic circuits

Ohm (Ω) – Is the resistance of a conductor such that, when a potential difference of
1volt is applied to its ends a current of 1 ampere flows through it.

Types of Resistor
(i) Fixed resistor (Standard resistor)
 As the name suggests, fixed resistors have a constant resistance value that does not
change during their operation. They are designed to offer a specific amount of
resistance in a circuit, limiting the flow of current accordingly.
(ii) Rheostat (variable resistor)
 Variable resistors, on the other hand, allow for the adjustment of their resistance value
during operation. They are used in applications where it is necessary to change the
resistance in a circuit to control voltage, current, or signal levels. Variable resistors can
be further divided into two categories: potentiometers and rheostats.

The relationship between Current, Voltage and Resistance

 When it comes to understanding the flow of current in an electric field, Ohm's Law is a
fundamental concept. This law describes the relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance in an electrical circuit.

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  The law is named after Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist who first described the
relationship in 1827.
 Ohm's Law states that;

“At constant temperature and other physical factors, a current passing through a
conductor (wire) is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends”
That is: 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰  𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Where: 𝑲 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝑹) = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

∴ 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹

 In this algebraic expression, Voltage (V) is equal to current (I) multiplied by resistance (R).
Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two variations, solving for I
and for R, respectively:
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰 = , 𝑹 =
𝑰 𝑰
 Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

 In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and only
one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy to
apply Ohm’s Law. If we know the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage, current,
and resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine the third quantity.
 Ohm's Law tells us that if a conductor is at a constant temperature, the current flowing
through the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it. This means that if we
plot voltage on the y-axis of a graph and current on the x-axis of the graph, after collecting
experimental data, which includes various current and voltage values, we will get a straight-
line.

Verification of Ohm’s law

 Ohm's law can be easily verified in the laboratory. You need a voltmeter, an ammeter,
power supply (dry cells), resistors, switch and connecting wires.

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  A simple procedure to verify Ohm's law is given below:

Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as above. Connect the resistor, ammeter, battery, rheostat and key in
series. Connect the voltmeter parallel to the resistor as shown in figure below.

 The experimental setup used in the laboratory makes use of a Rheostat to vary the
potential difference V across a standard resistor R while noting down the corresponding
value of current I from the ammeter.
 The table of results is as follows
S/No Potential difference (V) in Volt Current (I) in Ampere
1
2
3

 If you plot a graph of the current I against the potential difference V, it will be a straight line.
This shows that the current is proportional to the potential difference.
 The graph below illustrates the relationship between current and voltage for Ohm’s Law.

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 𝜟𝑽
 From the graph above, 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 (𝒎) =
𝜟𝑰

 Whereby the physical meaning of the Slope = Resistance

Factors affecting Resistance of a wire

The word Resistance is an important term in electrical terminology. It means opposition to
electric current. An electrical circuit has resistance to control to flow of current. It is dependent on
certain factors. Let us see what factors affect the resistance in this article.
(i) Length of the conductor
 The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length. The longer the conductor,
the greater the resistance.
(ii) Temperature
 The higher the temperature the higher the resistance and vice versa (𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 )
 The resistance of a conductor increases as the temperature increases. This is because the
atoms in the conductor vibrate more at higher temperatures, which makes it more difficult for
the electrons to flow.
(iii) Type of material (Nature of material)
 Different materials have different resistivities. Resistivity is a measure of how much a material
opposes the flow of electric current. The higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance.
 Example nichrome wire has more resistance than a copper wire of the same dimension. That
is why Nichrome wire is used in heating element of electric fires while Copper wire is mostly
used for connecting wires.
(iv) Cross – sectional Area
 The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. The greater
the cross-sectional area, the lower the resistance. A wide wire has less resistance than a
narrow wire of the same material. Electricity flowing through a wire is like water flowing
through a hose. More water can flow through a wide hose than a narrow hose. In a similar
way, more current can flow through a wide wire than a narrow wire
Worked examples;
1. The current through a resistor is measured to be 5 amperes. The resistance of the resistor is
10 ohms. What is the voltage across the resistor?
ANS;
Using Ohm’s Law

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 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑽 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝑽
2. Voltage across a resistor was found to be 12 volts, and the current through it was 0.5
Amperes. What is the resistance of the resistor?
ANS;
Using Ohm’s Law
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑹 = = = 𝟐𝟒
𝑰 𝟎.𝟓

3. Voltage across a resistor was measured to be 50 volts. The value of the resistor is 100 ohms.
What is the current through it?
ANS;
Using Ohm’s Law
𝑽 𝟓𝟎
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑰 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑨
𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Class Activity – 2:1

1. A battery is 5V has a resistance wire of 20Ω connected across it. Calculate the current in the
circuit. (ANS: I = 0.25A )
2. The electric cables that carry current are made of thick bundles of wires. Why?
ANS: Higher the cross-sectional area, the lower is the resistance.
3. Draw a diagram showing an ammeter correctly connected in a circuit.
4. An Ohmic conductor has a voltage drop of 9V measured across it. The current flowing in the
conductor is 3 mA what is its resistance? (ANS : R = 3000 Ω = 3 kΩ)
5. Explain why a voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the circuit.
6. Calculate the reading of the voltmeter, P and the ammeter, Q in the electric circuit battery.
(ANS: P =10V , Q = 3 A )

7. State any two important requirements for a complete circuit

8. Draw a simple circuit to show two bulbs in series connected to a battery of two cells
9. Name the device that measures the potential difference across two points in an electric circuit.
How it is connected in an electric circuit?
10. What is meant by saying that potential difference between two points is 1V?
11. Explain the purpose of using electric switch in an electric circuit
12. Explain how will distinguish between open and closed circuit
13. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same material, when
connected to the same source? Why?
14. (a) How do we connect the ammeter and voltmeter in an electrical circuit?
(b) Draw a circuit diagram in order to justify your answer in part (a) above.
(c) What will be happening if the positions of these instruments are interchanged? Specify the
reasons.
ANS;

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 (a) An ammeter is always placed in series to get the full current flowing through a branch and
must have a small resistance to limit its effect on the circuit. While a voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with the voltage source to receive full voltage and must have a large
resistance to limit its effect on the circuit.
(b) See the figure below;

(c) On interchanging their position, An ammeter is usually connected in parallel. Since it

will be having a very low resistance, most of the current will be flowing through it and will
be resulting in a short circuit and can also damage the circuit. Now, if the Voltmeter has
been connected in series as it will be having a high resistance no current will flow through
it, and the voltage indicated will be zero.
Therefore, it is important to connect the voltmeter and ammeter in the correct positions in a
circuit to obtain accurate measurements and avoid any damage to the instruments or the
components being measured.
15. Suppose you are asked by your teacher to prepare electrical components and instruments for
an experiment to determine the relationship between voltage and current;
(a) Give five electrical components that can be used in this experiment.
(b) Draw a simple electric circuit which will be suitable for that experiment
(c) From the simple electrical circuit drawn in part (b) above, explain how will you connect the
electrical devices used for measuring the current and the potential difference?
16. How many electrons would it be necessary to remove from an object in order to give it an
overall charge of 6 x 10-8 C? (Charge on one electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C.) [ANS; 3.7511 electrons]

Combination of Resistors
 Apart from potential difference, current in circuit depends on resistance of the circuit. So, in
the electrical circuits of radio, television and other similar things, it is usually necessary to
combine two or more resistances to get the required current in the circuit.
 We can combine the resistances lengthwise (called series) or we can put the resistances
parallel to one another. Thus, the resistances can be combined in two ways:
(i) Series combination (ii) Parallel combination

Series Connection
 Consider three resistors of resistances; 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹𝟑 connected in series to cell of
potential difference 𝑽 as shown in figure below. Since the three resistors are connected in
series therefore the current 𝑰 through each of them is same. Then by Ohm’s law the potential
drop across each resistor is given by; 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 42

 Since 𝑽 is the total potential in the circuit therefore by conservation of energy we have
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
Substituting for 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 and 𝑽𝟑 in above equation we have,
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑 − − − (𝒊)
 If 𝑹𝑬𝒒 is the equivalent resistance of the series combination, then by Ohm’s law we have
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝑬𝒒 − − − −(𝒊𝒊)
 Therefore; if we compare the equations (i) and (ii), we will have
𝑰𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑  𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
 Thus in series combination the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
 For more resistors, the above expression would have been:-
𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 − − − − − − + 𝑹𝒏

NB:
In a circuit, if the resistors are connected in series:
 The current is same in each resistor of the circuit:
 The resistance of the combination of resistors is equal to sum of the individual resistors.
 The total voltage across the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across the
individual resistors.
 The equivalent resistance is greater than that of any individual resistance in the series
combination.

Parallel Connection
 Consider two resistors 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 connected in parallel as shown in figure below. When the
current 𝑰 reached point 𝑨, it splits into two parts (ie,. 𝑰𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝟐) whereby; 𝑰𝟏 going through
𝑹𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 going through 𝑹𝟐 . If 𝑹𝟏 is greater than 𝑹𝟐 , then 𝑰𝟏 will be less than 𝑰𝟐 i.e. the
current will tend to take the path of least resistance.

 Since charge must be conserved, therefore the current 𝑰 that enters point 𝑨 must be equal to
the current that leaves that point. Therefore we have 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 -------- (i)

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 43

 Since the resistors are connected in parallel therefore the potential across each must be the
same, hence by Ohm’s law we have;
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
𝑰𝟏 = , 𝑰𝟐 = , substituting into equation (i)  𝑰 = + ----------- (ii)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

 Let 𝑹𝑬𝒒 be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then by Ohm’s law we have,
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑰 = ; Hence from equations (ii) we have, = + → = +
𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

 Therefore the sum of two resistors in parallel arrangement is given by:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
= + 𝑶𝑹 𝑹𝑬𝒒 =
𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
 An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel gives the following general
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
expression; = + +−−−−−+
𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
NB:
 The sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance is equal to the reciprocal of equivalent
resistance, 𝑹𝑬𝒒
 The currents in various resistors are inversely proportional to the resistances, higher the
resistance of a branch, the lower will be the current through it. The total current is the sum of
the currents flowing in the different branches.
 The voltage across each resistor of a parallel combination is the same and is also equal to the
voltage across the whole group considered as unit.
 It is advisable to connect bulbs in parallel during electrical installation so that when the bulb
blows out or disconnected, the other bulbs will keep working
 If you connect in series when one bulb disconnected (blows out) will cause the other bulbs not
working

Worked Examples
1. Two resistors of resistance 10 Ω and 50 Ω respectively are to be connected between two
points A and B. What will be the resistance between A and B if the two resistors are to be
connected in (a) series (b) parallel
Solution:
Given: R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 50 Ω
(a) In series: RT = R1 + R2 = 10 + 50 = 60 Ω
𝑹 𝑹 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎𝟎
(b) In parallel: 𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏 𝟐 = = = 𝟖. 𝟑
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟎+𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎
2. Three resistors of 2, 3 and 6 are connected in series to a 3V battery. What is the
current in the circuit?
ANS;
 In series connection; 𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 − − − − − − + 𝑹𝒏
 𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏
 Total voltage through the circuit, V = 3V,
𝑽 𝑽 𝟑
 Therefore; the current in the circuit = = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝑨
𝑹 𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝟏𝟏

3. Two resistors of 2 Ω and 3 Ω are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel, with a battery of 6.0
V and negligible internal resistance. For each case draw a circuit diagram and calculate the
current through the battery.

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 44

 ANS;
(a) For series connection

 Total resistance; 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟓𝛀
𝑽 𝟔
 Current through the battery; 𝑰 = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝑨
𝑹 𝟓
(b) For parallel connection;

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟐×𝟑
 Total resistance;
𝑹
=
𝑹𝟏
+
𝑹𝟐
 𝑹= 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
=
𝟐+𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝛀
𝑽 𝟔
 Current through the battery; 𝑰 = = = 𝟓𝑨
𝑹 𝟏.𝟐

4. Consider the circuit in the figure below;

(a) Find the equivalent resistance.

(b) Determine the current in the circuit;
ANS;
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝟒×𝟔 𝟐𝟒
(a) Total resistance, 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + =𝟐+ =𝟐+ = 𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟒 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝛀
𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑 𝟒+𝟔 𝟏𝟎
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
(b) The current in the circuit; 𝑰 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝑨
𝑹 𝟒.𝟒

Class Activity – 2:2

1. Consider the figure below .Calculate P.d across: (a) 4 Ω (b) 6Ω

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 ANS: (a) V1= 9.6 V (b) V2= 14.4 V

2. Two lamps are connected in series. The current in one lamp is 5A. What is the current in
the other lamp [ANS; 5A]
3. In the circuit, shown in the figure below

(ii) Would any of the bulb glow when the switch is in the “OFF” position?
(iii) What will be the order in which the bulbs A, B and C will glow when the switch is
moved to the “ON” position?
4. A student connects three resistors in a series circuit, and then in a parallel circuit. Which
circuit has the least overall resistance? Explain your answer.
ANS; The parallel circuit has the least overall resistance. This is because in series,
each charge carrier must flow through each resistor and so the resistances add up. In
parallel, the charge carriers have multiple possible paths and so resistance is less.
5. Calculate the combination resistance in

ANS: (a) R = 18 Ω (b) R = 3.61 Ω (c) R = 9.2 Ω

Class activity – 2

1. A p.d of 12 v is applied across two resistors of 10 Ω and 20 Ω connected in series .Find:

a) The equivalent resistance for the circuit (ANS: R = 30 Ω)
b) The total current in the circuit (ANS: I = 0.4 A)
c) The current through each resistor (ANS: I = 0.4A)
d) The voltage drop across each resistor (ANS: V1 = 4v, V2 = 8 v)
2. What do you understand by the following term?
(a) electric current (b) electric circuit

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 3. Calculate the amount of charge that passes through a point in a circuit in 3 seconds, if the
current in the circuit is 0.5 A (ANS: Q = 1.5 C)
4. A torch is switched on for 30 minutes .The current in the bulb of the torch is 0.45 A. Calculate
the charge which flowed through the bulb. (ANS: Q = 810 C)
5. State the two conditions which are necessary for charge to flow in a circuit.
6. A charge of 4500 coulombs flows through a point in a conductor .It causes the ammeter to
show a reading of 5.0 A .For how long does the charge flow through the point (in minutes)
(ANS: t = 15 minutes)
7. A charge of 300 coulombs flows through a point in a conductor for two minutes. What is the
ammeter reading for this flow? (ANS: I = 2.5 A)
8. Three resistors of resistances 5.0 Ω, 7 Ω and 12 Ω were arranged in series. Calculate the
equivalent resistance in the circuit (ANS: RT = 24 Ω)
9. A parallel circuit consists of two resistors. Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit
(ANS: RT = 2.5 Ω)
10. Three resistors of resistances 5 Ω,7 Ω and 12 Ω were placed in a parallel circuit. Calculate
the equivalent resistance of the circuit (ANS: RT = 2.3 Ω)
11. A 12 V battery is connected to two resistors as shown in the fig. below. Find

(a) Total current (b) the current through each resistor

(ANS: (a) I = 6 A (b) I1 = 4A , I2 = 2 A)
12. A current of 4.5 A flows through a point for 25 minutes. Calculate the charge through the
point after 25 minutes.
13. During a flash of lightning, 600 C of charge is transferred in 0.15 s. Calculate the average
current. (ANS: I = 4000 A)
14. Draw a series circuit containing a battery ,switch ,lamp, a variable resistor and an ammeter
connected so that it can be used to measure the current in the lamp
15. Draw a circuit with a battery and switch in series, two lamps in parallel and a voltmeter
connected so that it can be used to measure the voltage across one of the lamps
16. A student is carrying out an experiment with ten 10 Ω resistors. The student connects all of
the resistors firstly in series, and then in parallel.
(a) Calculate the total resistance of the ten resistors when they are connected in
series. (ANS: RT = 100 Ω)
(b) calculate the total resistance of the ten resistors when they are connected in
parallel (ANS: RT = 1.0 Ω)
17. An electric torch contains two 1.5 V batteries .The current in the bulb of the torch is 0.45 A
.Calculate the resistance of the torch bulb.(ANS: R = 6.7 Ω)
18. Define the terms below as used in Physics:
a) Volt
b) Current electricity
c) Voltage
19. State two essential requirements of a circuit.

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 20. A current flows through a coil of wire of resistance 80 Ω w when it is connected to the
terminals of a battery .If the potential difference is 60 V. Find the value of the current (ANS:
I = 0.75 A)
21. In the circuit below , the current in the 5.0 Ω resistor is 0.5 A

(i) State the current in the 4.0 Ω resistor (ANS: I = 0.5 A)

(ii) Calculate the battery voltage. (ANS: V = 4.5 V)
22. In a circuit below, a 12 volt power supply was used. Calculate.

a) The equivalent resistance.

b) The total current through the circuit.
c) The voltage drop across each resistor.
23. Which figure below has a lower combined resistance?

24. The current through the 6 Ω resistor is 2.5 A. Calculate.

a) The voltage from the power supply

b) The current through the 8 Ω resistor.
c) The equivalent resistance.
d) The total current.
25. When resistors are connected are connected in series, which of the following is the same for
all the resistors (a) current (b) potential difference?
26. If a pd of 6.0 V is measured across the ends of a wire of resistance 12 Ω,
(a) What current flows through it?
(b) What pd is required to make a current of 1.5 A flows through it?
27. How does ohm’s law explain the fact that the resistance of a conductor depends on the area
of cross – section of the conductor?

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 28. Why does a bird safely porch on a high potential electric wire? (ANS: When a bird is
perched on a single wire, its two feet are at the same electrical potential, so the
electrons in the wires have no motivation to travel through the bird’s body)
29. Match the items in list A with those in List B.
Lit A List B
(a) Ammeter (i) Measures pd
(b) 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰 (ii) Measures current
(c) Rheostat (iii) Ohm
(d) Series connection (iv) Controls current
(e) Charge (v) Ohm’s law
(vi) Controls pd
(vii) Coulomb
(viii) Constant current
(ix) Galvanometer
(x) Constant pd

30. State ohms’ law

31. State the factors that affect the resistance of a conductor.
32. What do you understand by an ohmic conductor?
33. Which has a greater resistance between a long, thin, hot nichrome wire OR a short, thick,
cool wire?
34. Distinguish between.
(a) Parallel circuit and series circuit.
(b) Ammeter and voltmeter
(c) Resistance and equivalent resistance
35. A current of 0.25 A flows through a circuit of voltage 10 V across a bulb .What is the
resistance of the bulb?
36. Find the equivalent resistance for the resistors connected as shown below.

37. In an experiment to determine the value of resistance, the following results were obtained.
Voltage (v ) 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0
Current (A) 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
(a) Plot a graph of V against the I
(b) Determine the resistance R of the conductor
38. Three resistors of resistance 8 Ω, 10 Ω and 12 Ω are connected in series. A voltmeter
connected across the 10 Ω resistor reads 6 V. Calculate the.
(a) Current through the circuit (c) Total voltage in the circuit
(b) Voltage across the circuit

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 49

 Chapter–3: Magnetism
 A magnet is a substance which attracts metals or magnetic materials. OR
 A magnet – is a piece of metal with either natural or induced properties of attracting another
metal objects
 Magnetism is the behavior shown by a magnet, the behavior of attracting metals (magnetic
materials) OR;
 Magnetism –is the ability of one magnet to attract (pull towards) and repel (push away)
another magnet without touching one another.

Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials
 Those materials which are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials. Iron, steel,
nickel and cobalt are attracted by a magnet, so they are magnetic materials.
 The objects made of these materials like nails, paper clips, sewing needle, hair pins, paper
pins, drawing pins, safety pins, knife blade, scissors, spade, blade, etc., are all attracted by a
magnet. The objects made of nickel and cobalt metals are also attracted by magnets and
hence they are also magnetic in nature.
NB;
 If a large number of pins from a pin box fall on the floor and get scattered, we can collect all
the pins quickly by using a magnet (instead of picking up each other and every pin by hand).
So, if we move a magnet over the pins scattered on the floor, all the pins (being magnetic) will
get attracted to the magnet and stick to it.
 Suppose a carpenter has mixed some iron nails and screws with lots of wood shavings while
working. We can help him in getting back the nails and screws from the wood shavings by
using a magnet. If we move a magnet through the wood shavings containing nails and screws,
then the nails and screws (being magnetic) will get attracted to the magnet and stick to it.
Wood shavings are non – magnetic and hence they do not stick to the magnet
 A pencil sharpener gets attracted by a magnet though its body is made of a non – magnetic
material called plastic. There is also a steel blade in the middle of sharpener. It is due to the
presence of a steel blade (which is magnetic) in the middle of a sharpener that it is attracted
by a magnet. Magnets attract only magnetic materials. Magnets do not attract non magnetic
materilas

Non-magnetic materials
 Those materials which are not attracted by a magnet are called non – magnetic materials.
 All the materials other than iron, steel, steel, nickel and cobalt are non – magnetic materials.
 For example: wood, plastic, rubber, paper, cloth, glass, leather, thermocol, copper,
Alluminium, brass, lead, stone, diamond, graphite, paint, charcoal, air, water, skin and bones,
etc,. are all non – magnetic materials (because they are not attracted by a magnet)
 The objects made of non – magnetic materials are also non – magnetic in nature. Thus, a
wooden spoon, a plastic scale, pencil, rubber, eraser, copper wire, alluminium can, brass
utensils, a book, leather shoes and wood shavings, etc,. are all non – magnetic objects
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 50
 Non – magnetic materials cannot be magnetized. This means that non – magnetic materials
cannot be converted into magnets.

Identification of Magnetic and Mon Magnetic Materials

There are two simple methods to test if a material is Magnetic or Non Magnetic
(i) Magnet Test
 The easiest, simplest, and most basic way of testing if something is magnetic is by
using a magnet.
 Simply use a magnet and hold it close to the object you are wanting to test, if the
object is magnetic it will attract towards the magnet, but if the object is non -magnetic,
it will not attract.
(ii) Compass Test
 Another method of testing if something is magnetic is by using a compass, firstly
place the object you are testing on a flat surface and then place the compass close to
the object.
 If the object is magnetic the compass needle will move and point toward the object, if
the object is non-magnetic the compass needle will not move.

Types of Magnetic Materials

 The Magnetic Materials are classified into three types namely; Diamagnetic materials,
Paramagnetic materials and Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic Materials
 Diamagnetic Materials are those substances in which the spin of the electrons are paired and
hence there is no magnetization in presence of a magnet. In presence of external
magnetic field the spin of the electrons arrange themselves in a direction opposite to that of
the magnetic field. In general they are repelled by the magnetic field.
 Examples of Diamagnetic Materials include Mercury, Copper etc.
Paramagnetic Materials
 Paramagnetic Materials are those materials which get weakly magnetized in the presence of
external magnetic field. In paramagnetic materials, spin of the electrons are randomly
organized and when magnetic field is applied few of them get aligned in the direction of
magnetic field exhibiting partial magnetization.
 Examples of Paramagnetic Materials include Magnesium, Lithium, Molybdenum etc.
Ferromagnetic Materials
 Ferromagnetic Materials are those materials which get strongly magnetized in the presence of
magnetic field. In Ferromagnetic Materials, spin of the electrons are already aligned hence
they get spontaneously magnetized when they come under the influence of magnetic field.
 Examples of Ferromagnetic Materials include Iron, Cobalt and Nickel
Poles of Magnets
 If bar magnet is put into a heap of iron fillings, then the iron fillings will cling to it or stick to it.
The maximum amount of iron fillings cling to the two ends of the bar magnet. The force of
attraction of the magnet is strongest near the two ends of the bar magnet. The two ends
of the bar magnet are called poles of the magnet. The two poles of a magnet are always
different.

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  One pole of the magnet is called North pole denoted by “N” and the other pole of magnet is
called South Pole denoted by “S”
 The North pole and South pole of a magnet always exists together. Every magnet, whether
big or small, must have the North Pole and South Pole. For example; if we break a magnet
into several pieces, each piece will be a separate magnet with a North and South Pole.
Some forces of attraction also exists in the middle part of the bar magnet but it is very small
 The same type of magnetic poles are called like poles while the different types of magnetic
poles are called unlike poles
Determination of polarity of an unmarked magnet
 There are a number of methods you can use to identify the polarity of unmarked magnets:
(a) The traditional method of discovering the polarity of an unmarked magnet involves
attaching the magnet to a piece of string with the help of a paper sling. You will also need
a compass for this task. If you hold the end of the string and allow the magnet to move
freely, it will align itself with the north and south magnetic poles, which can be identified by
a compass.

(b) Another way of testing the polarity of an unmarked magnet is to use an already
marked magnet to highlight the North and South Poles. The marked magnet attracts itself
to the opposite pole of the unmarked magnet. For example, the marked magnet’s South
Pole will attach itself to the North Pole of the unmarked magnet as shown in the figure
below.

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 (c) The use of a compass can also aid in the identification of the North and South Pole of a
magnet. When you place a compass next to a magnet, the North Pole of the magnet will
follow the line of the North Pole of the compass.

Types of Magnets
Temporary magnets
 Temporary magnets can be magnetized in the presence of a magnetic field. When the
magnetic field is removed, these materials lose their magnetic property.
 Iron nails and paper clips are examples of the temporary magnet.
 It is possible to magnetize temporary magnets, such as iron nails and paper clips, in the
presence of a magnetic field. However, these magnets will only maintain their magnetic
property as long as the magnetic field is present. Once the field is removed, the magnetic
property of these temporary magnets will be lost.

 For example; You must have seen how paper clips get attached to each other when a
permanent magnet is nearby. Every paper clip becomes a temporary magnet attracting
other paper clips in the presence of a magnetic field. Once the permanent magnet is taken
away, the paper clips lose their magnetic properties
Permanent magnets
 Permanent magnets are materials where the magnetic field is generated by the internal
structure of the material itself. That is, Permanent magnets are those types of magnets that
maintain their magnetic properties even after the magnetizing force is removed.
 Permanent magnets produce a magnetic field due to their internal structure. They do not lose
their magnetism easily. Permanent magnets are made of ferromagnetic materials that do not
stop producing their magnetic field regardless of external influence. Thus, they are stable
against demagnetising forces.

Electromagnets
 Electromagnets are magnets in which an electric current causes the magnetic field. Usually
they consist of a wire that is wound into a coil. The current creates a magnetic field through
the wire. When the current is turned off the magnetic field disappears.

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  Electromagnets consist of wire turns which are usually wound around a magnetic core that is
made from a ferromagnetic field. The magnetic flux is concentrated by the magnetic core,
producing a more powerful magnets
 An advantage of electromagnets compared to permanent magnets is that; a change can
be applied quickly to the magnetic field by regulating the electric current in the winding.
However, a major drawback of electromagnets is that; there is a need for a continuous
supply of current to maintain the magnetic field. Other drawbacks are that they heat up very
fast and consume a lot of energy. They also discharge huge amounts of energy in their
magnetic field if there is an interruption on the electric current.
 These magnets are often used as components of various electrical devices, such as
generators, relays, electro-mechanical solenoids, motors, electric bells and buzzers, MRI
machines, loudspeakers, and magnetic separation equipment. Another great use in industry
is for moving heavy objects and picking up iron and steel crap.
 Some few properties of electromagnets are that; magnets attract ferromagnetic materials
like nickel, cobalt, and iron and like most magnets like poles move away from each other
while unlike poles attract each other
 There are three ways to increase the strength of an electromagnet
(i) Increasing the current flowing through it – the greater the current, the greater the
strength of the field
(ii) Increasing the number of turns of wire on the coil - this does not mean making the
coil longer, but packing more turns into the same space to concentrate the field
(iii) Add a soft iron core – an iron core becomes strongly magnetised by the field and this
makes the whole magnetic field much stronger

Class Activity – 3:1

1. Few iron nails and screws got mixed with the wooden shavings while a carpenter was
working with them. How can you help him in getting the nails and screws back from the
scrap without wasting his time in searching with his hands?
2. What do you suppose would happen if you cut the bar magnet along the line between the
north and south poles?
ANS: Both halves of the magnet would also have north and south poles. If you cut each of
the halves in half, all those pieces would have north and south poles as well. Pieces of a
magnet always have both north and south poles no matter how many times you cut the
magnet.
3. You are given a piece of thread and three bars, one of which is a magnet, the second of
which is a magnetic material that is not magnetised, and the third of which is a non-
magnetic material. Explain how you would distinguish between the three bars.
4. Why repulsion is the surest test for magnetism than attraction? Describe one application of
the attractive property of magnets.
 This is because, Repulsion takes place only between two likes poles of a
magnet whereas attraction takes place between two unlike poles of a magnet and
also between a magnet and a magnetic material. So by attraction it cannot be surely
identified the substance is a magnet or not. Therefore, repulsion is the surest test of
magnetism
 Magnet is used to separate the useful magnetic substances like steel and iron from waste
by the method known as magnetic separation.

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Properties of Magnets
 Magnet possesses two poles northern pole (N) and southern pole (S).
 The magnetic force is strongest near the poles of a magnet. When iron filings are spread
evenly on a magnet, most of the filings get attracted to the poles. This shows that the poles
have the strongest magnetic strength in a magnet.
 Like magnetic poles repel but unlike magnetic poles attract. When two magnets are
placed with their like poles facing each other, the lines of force are in opposite directions and
hence like poles repel each other. When the unlike poles of a bar magnet face each other the
magnetic lines of force are in the same direction and hence unlike poles attract each other .
 The magnetic force is an action – at – a distance force. This because magnetic force
comes into play even when the magnet and other object like iron are kept at a distance and
not in direct contact with each other.
 A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north-south direction. The
earth acts like a giant magnet. The geographical North Pole is the magnetic South Pole,
whereas the geographical South Pole is the magnetic north pole. The North Pole of a freely
suspended magnet is attracted by the magnetic South Pole of the earth. Hence, a freely
suspended bar magnet always points in the North-South direction.
 A magnet attracts another magnet or magnetic substances towards itself. The attractive force
is maximum near the end of the bar magnet. When a bar magnet is dipped into iron filling,
they cling to the ends of the magnet.
 When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet with poles at
its ends. Magnets cannot have isolated poles. A new North Pole and South Pole will be
formed at the edges where the bar magnet is cut as shown in the figure below. Therefore, the
two halves will attract each other.

 Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another.

 The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length and the length between two
magnetic poles in a bar magnet is called magnetic length. Magnetic length is always slightly
smaller than geometrical length.

Shapes of Magnets
Magnets are made in different shapes and size so that they can be used for different purposes .
Magnets are available in a variety of materials, sizes, and shapes including discs, bars, rings, and
several other shapes. The following are some of them
(a) A Rectangular bar magnet: Magnetic strength and magnetic field of a rectangular bar
magnet are more significant than other magnets. Rectangular bar magnets are in the
manufacturing as well as engineering industries.
(b) Cylindrical bar magnet: Cylindrical bar magnets are also known as rod magnets. The
magnetism property of this magnet is higher than other magnets as its thickness is more
significant than its diameter. Cylindrical bar magnets are popular in research, experimental,
education and other industries.
(c) Horseshoe magnets. The magnet shape of a horseshoe magnet is U-shaped or shaped like
a horseshoe. The most significant advantage of a horseshoe magnet is its stronger magnetic
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 field than many others. This is because the magnetic poles of a horseshoe magnet are much
closer to each other. Horseshoe magnets pick up large pieces of metals that are heavy.
(d) A disc magnet is a circular magnet that is thin and flat. Disc magnets are round in shape
and defined by their diameter being greater than their thickness. They have a wide, flat
surface as well as a large magnetic pole area, making them the ideal choice for all types of
strong and effective magnetic solutions.
(e) Spherical magnets are also known as ball magnets. The configuration of the polarity of
these magnets is similar to that of earth. The concentration of magnetic fields is higher at the
north pole as well as the south pole. Spherical magnets can attach like beads when two or
more spherical magnets are together. Spherical or ball-shaped magnets are widely used in
consumer products, magic hobbies, electronics, etc.
(f) Other types of magnets are Needle Magnetic, ball ended magnet and Ring magnets.

Magnet also varies in size include (size of magnet)

 Tiny discs used in speaker
 Giant magnets used in power generating plant
 Largest magnets is perhaps the earth itself
Application of Magnets
Magnets are used in:-
 Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes, audio cassettes, floppy and hard disc recording
data on a thin magnetic coating
 Magnets are used in computer in its storing devices such as hard disks.
 Common television and computer monitors
 Transformers :Are used in power transmission and many electronic devices
 Some countries are using powerful electromagnets to develop high-speed trains, called
maglev (magnetic levitation) trains. These trains use the repulsive force of magnets to float
over a guide way, removing the friction of steel wheels and train tracks. Reducing this friction
allows the trains to travel at much higher speeds. It is the fastest train in the world. The speed
attained by this train is around 500 km/hr.

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  Credit, Debit and ATM cards: it uses magnetic ink to store information to contact and
individual’s financial institution and connect with their account. The strip on the back of a
credit card/debit card is a magnetic strip, often called a magstripe. The magstripe is made up
of tiny iron-based magnetic particles in a thin plastic film. Each particle is really a very tiny bar
magnet about 20 millionth of an inch long.
 Speaker and microphones: They use permanent magnets and current-carrying coils to
convert electric energy into sound energy
 Electric generator: It uses permanent magnets convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy
 They are used in electric bells and electric motors.
 At hospitals, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is used to scan the specified internal organ.
An extremely from electromagnet is used in it.
NB;
How does the Electromagnetic train work?
 Electromagnets are used in Electromagnetic train (suspension train or flying train).
Electromagnets are magnetised only when current flows through them. When the direction of
current is changed the poles of the electromagnets are also changed. Like poles of the
magnets which are attached at the bottom of the train and rail track repel each other. So, the
train is lifted from the track up to a height of 10 cm.

 We know that we can move any magnetic object with the force of attraction or repulsion
properties of magnets. This train also moves with the help of the magnets attached on the
sides of track and the magnets fitted at the bottom sideway of the train. By controlling the
current we can control the magnets and movement of the train.
 As there are no moving parts, there is no friction. So, the train can easily attain a speed of
300 km per hour. These trains are capable of running up to 600 km/ hour. They do not make
any noise. They require less energy and they are eco-friendly.
 Even though, many countries have taken effort to use these trains, such trains are used for
public transport only in China, Japan and South Korea.
Difference between electromagnetic train and normal train
Electromagnetic train Normal train
Runs above the rails without touching them. Runs on iron rails.
Uses the attractive and repulsive forces of Uses fuels like coal, diesel and electricity.
magnets.
Runs without noise as it has no moving parts. Makes a lot of noise due to the presence of

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 moving parts.
Travels at high speed. Runs at moderate speed.
Eco-friendly in nature. Leaves out fumes that spoil the eco-system.

Magnetization and Demagnetization

Magnetization
 Magnetic domain is a small region within a magnetic material where the magnetic moments
are aligned in the same direction. The alignment of these domains is what gives ferromagnetic
materials their magnetic properties. When a ferromagnetic material is in its natural state, it
contains many randomly oriented magnetic domains, which results in a net magnetic field of
zero. However, when an external magnetic field is applied to the material, the magnetic
domains begin to align themselves with the external field. This alignment causes the magnetic
moments within each domain to add together, creating a net magnetic field in the direction of
the external field.
 The process of aligning the magnetic domains is reversible, which means that the material will
lose its magnetization once the external field is removed. However, if the material is
subjected to a sufficiently strong external magnetic field, the alignment of the magnetic
domains can become fixed, resulting in a permanent magnet.
 Therefore; Magnetization – Is the process of aligning the domains of atoms in material in one
direction so as to produce a net effect of attraction or repulsion
NB:
 Magnetic dipoles: Are the two poles on a magnet which are equal and opposite to each other
 Magnetic dipoles arrange themselves in groups called ‘’Magnetic Domains’’
 Magnetic domains are minute regions in ferromagnetic materials with millions of atomic
dipoles coupled together in a preferred direction.
 The strength of a magnet cannot be increased beyond a certain limit because when all
magnetic domains have oriented in the same direction, no further magnetization is possible and
material is said to be saturated
 Materials which are possible to cause this alignment or can be magnetized are either
ferromagnetic or paramagnetic
 Ferromagnetic material is the material which can form permanent magnet. E.g. steel, nickel
and cobalt while Paramagnetic material is the material which can be temporarily
magnetized. E.g. Aluminium and chromium
Methods used to magnetize materials
 By heating and Hammering method
 By stroking method
 By electric (solenoid) method
 By induction
Hammering
 If a steel bar is placed so that it lies in the direction of the magnetic field lines of a strong
magnet and then hammered gently, the domains will begin to line up in the direction of the
field.
 As they do, the steel bar itself becomes magnetised. The effect can be increased by slightly
heating the steel bar first.

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 This method makes the use of the earth’s magnetic field. A steel bar to be magnetized is
placed in the north-south position and the upper end is hammered. The end pointing
northward becomes a north pole and the one pointing southward the south Pole

Induction
 A magnetic material becomes a magnet by being in contact with a magnet. The end of
the material in contact with the magnet attains a polarity opposite to the pole of the magnet
in contact with it.

 The material now being a magnet attracts other magnetic materials

‘Stroke’ method
 A piece of magnetic material can be turned into a magnet if it is stroked by a magnet. As
the magnet moves along the magnetic material, it causes the magnetic dipoles in the
magnetic material to become aligned in one direction and give rise to a magnetic field.

NB:
 The steel bar is stroked with the same pole of the permanent magnet from one end to the
other end in one direction.
 When using two magnets, the stroking pole used in each magnet has to be opposite, and
they stroke the steel bar in opposite direction.
Electrical method using a direct current
 When a large direct current is passed through the solenoid, the unmagnetised steel bar will
become magnetized after a while. This is because when an electric current flows through
the solenoid, it produces a strong magnetic field which magnetizes the steel bar.

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  The poles of the magnet can be determined by a simple method known as Right-hand grip
rule.

Demagnetization
 Demagnetization is the process of destroying the magnetic property of a material
OR
 Is the process of disturbing the domains of an atom in a magnetized material
Methods used to Demagnetize a Magnet
Heating Method
 If a magnet is placed in the East – West direction and heated to a temperature above its curie
temperature, then the magnet loses it magnetism
 This is because, the increase in temperature results in greater atomic vibration which
consequently prevent the domain from being aligned in the same direction
Hammering
 Hammering a magnet repeatedly while placed in the east- west direction or dropping it
violently several times on the hard surface makes it lose most of the magnetism.
Electrical Method
 Placing a magnet in a solenoid placed in east west direction and passing an alternating
current demagnetizes it. This is because alternating current reverses many times per second,
disorienting the magnetic dipoles.

Storage of Magnets
 It is a common observation that science teachers get annoyed when students drop magnets
on the floor. This is because dropping magnets from a height on the floor can destroy the
magnetism of the magnets totally or partially and make them useless.
 All of us should take the following precautions while handling magnets so that they do not get
damaged and retain their magnetism for a much longer period.
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 (i) Store away from ferrous materials such as steel shelves and tools
(ii) Store magnets in pairs and using magnetic keeper to store them
(iii) Store away from heat. Do not overheat magnets. This may cause harmful structural
changes in the magnet.
(iv) Store away from strong electric and magnetic field
(v) Store away from strong vibration or mechanical impacts which may brittle it

How to store Magnets Properly

The magnets tend to lose their magnetism gradually and become weak over a period of time if they
are not stored properly. To prevent the loss of magnetism, the magnets should be stored properly
when not in use. This is done as follows.
 The bar magnets are stored in pairs (separated by a piece of wood) with their unlike poles on
the same side and bars of soft iron kept across their ends (as shown in figure below). Please
note that the first bar magnet has its N-pole on left side whereas the second bar magnet has
its S-pole (unlike pole) on the left side. The soft iron bars kept across the ends of two bar
magnets are called keepers (because they keep the magnetism of bar magnets safe). Thus,
the proper storing of bar magnets in pairs by separating them with a piece of wood and
keeping soft iron bars across their opposite ends prevents the loss of their magnetism.

 The horseshoe magnets (or U-shaped magnets) are stored properly just by keeping a bar of
soft iron across their ends (as shown in figure below). Since a horseshoe magnet has both its
poles (N-pole and S-pole) on the same side, so one horseshoe magnet requires only one soft
iron bar for its proper storage. Thus, horseshoe magnets are stored singly and not in pairs.

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Magnetic force and Magnetic field of a Magnet
 The concept of a magnetic field and magnetic force is fundamental to understanding the
behavior of magnets and their interaction with other magnetic materials.
 The force that a magnet exerts on certain materials, including other magnets, is
called magnetic force. The force is exerted over a distance and includes forces of attraction
and repulsion. North and South poles of two magnets attract each other, while two north
poles or two south poles repel each other.
 A magnet can exert force over a distance because the magnet is surrounded by a magnetic
field. The magnetic field is represented by field lines that start at a magnet’s North Pole and
end at the South Pole. When we draw magnetic field lines, it is essential that we include
arrows on our lines to show where the field lines go. The magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet is shown in the figure below.

 Magnets produce magnetic field, which is a region where another magnet or a magnetic
material will experience a non-contact Force.
 If you put the north pole of one magnet next to the south pole of the other, then the field lines
go straight from the north pole of the first magnet to the south pole of the second, and you
feel an attractive force between the two magnets.

 If you have two magnets next to each other and their north poles are facing each other or
their south poles are facing each other, you can see that the field lines move away from each
other, so you feel a repelling force between the two magnets.

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  This is why opposite Poles Attract and like Poles Repel.
 Magnetic field lines – Are the imaginary lines that cojoin the poles of a magnet indicating its
magnetic field.
 Magnetic field – Is the region around a magnet in which magnetic force can be experienced
by magnetic materials
Several ways of showing the presence of invisible magnetic flux
(i) Iron filings methods
 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings onto the paper. The
paper should then be gently tapped. When this is done, the iron filings which are
magnetized by induction arrange themselves in such a way as to show the magnetic field
lines as shown below.

 Therefore; when iron filings are spread on a piece of paper, they arrange themselves in a
pattern. The pattern is in accordance with the magnetic field lines around the bar magnet,
as shown above.
(ii) Plotting compass method
 Magnetic field lines can be plotted, and their direction determined, using a plotting compass.

Procedures;
 Place the plotting compass near the magnet on a piece of paper. Mark the direction the
compass needle points. Move the plotting compass to many different positions in the
magnetic field, marking the needle direction each time until the compass returns to the
other pole.

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  Join the points to show the field lines and then add arrows to show that the end points from
the N pole to the S pole. Repeat the procedure for another starting point.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of force
 Lines of force are continuous and will always form closed loops
 Lines of force from the bar magnet leave the North Pole and end and enter the South Pole and
back to the North Pole forming a closed loop.
 Magnetic force is stronger where the lines are closer together and weaker where they are far
apart
 Lines of force will Never cross one another
 Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials (magnetic and non-magnetic)
 Parallel magnetic lines of force travelling in the same directions repel each other while lines of
force travelling in opposite directions attract each other
 Magnetic lines of force always enter or leave a magnetic material at right angles (900) to the
surface

Neutral points in a magnetic field

 Neutral points are the points at which two magnetic fields are equal in magnitude, but opposite
in direction. The net magnetic field at a neutral point is zero.
 The two magnetic fields mentioned above, can be either due to two separate magnets or they
can be one due to a magnet and the other due to the earth's magnetic field
 A compass needle if placed at the neutral points will rest in any direction. Hence, we can find
the position of neutral points with the help of compass needle.

 In the diagram above the magnets are placed so that the poles repel. There will be a point
between the magnets where the magnetic fields cancel each other out; this is called
the neutral point.
 Therefore; A neutral point of Magnet is a point at which the resultant magnetic field is zero
 The Neutral point due to magnet and earth’s magnetic field is obtained when the horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field is balanced by the magnetic field produced by the
magnet

Magnetic Shielding
 Magnetic shielding – Is the process of limiting the flow of magnetic fields between two
locations by separating them with a barrier made of conductive ferromagnetic material.
OR
 Is the process of limiting the penetration of magnetic fields into a region by redirecting the
magnetic field lines through a material with a higher ability to be magnetized.

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  Shielding does not eliminate or destroy magnetic fields, nothing does. It does,
however, provide an easy path for the magnetic field to complete its path. You may think of
it as a magnetic field conductor. This leads to what type of material can provide the best
path for magnetic fields and thus create shielding. Since the field is attracted to the
shielding material it stands to reason that if a magnet is attracted to the material
(ferromagnetic material), that material can provide some amount of magnetic shielding .

Class Activity – 3:2

1. Sketch two bar magnets that are arranged so their magnetic fields attract each other. Label
the magnetic poles, and add arrows to represent lines of force between the two magnets.
2. Why are magnetic keepers used to store magnets?
ANS; A magnetic keeper is a piece of wood or soft iron which is used in storing magnets
because bar magnets get demagnetised when the poles are left free for a long time. In order
to preserve the magnetism of the magnets, a keeper is kept across a pair of bar magnets with
unlike poles beside each other. Through this way a continuous path is provided for the
magnetic field lines to form a loop around it.
3. A student is given two pieces of iron and told to determine if one or both of the pieces are
magnets. First, the student touches an end of one piece to one end of the other. The two
pieces of iron attract. Next, the student reverses one of the pieces and again touches the
ends together. The two pieces attract again. What does the student definitely know about the
initial magnetic properties of the two pieces of iron?
Answer: At least one of the pieces of iron is a magnet, but we cannot state with certainty that
both are magnets.
4. Draw a minimum of four field lines to show the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field
in the region surrounding a bar magnet.
ANS;

5. Match the following

Column A Column B
(i) Steel and its alloys A. Magnetic strip
(ii) Magnetite B. Artificial magnet

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 (iii) Magnetic pole C. Natural magnet
(iv) Bar magnet D. Permanent magnets
(v) ATM card E. Maximum magnetic force
6. Explain why hammering and heating tend to destroy magnetism.
7. Explain why it is not possible to magnetize an iron rod beyond a certain limit?
ANS; It is not possible to magnetize an iron rod beyond a certain limit because:
 When an iron piece is magnetized, the closed molecular chains break down and all
molecules begin to align themselves in the direction of the external magnetic field.
 As the magnetizing field is increased, more molecular magnets align in the given
orientation. Thus, the magnetic strength of the iron piece increases with the increase in the
strength of the external magnetic field.
 When all molecules of the iron piece have aligned themselves there is no further increase
in its magnetic strength even if the strength of the external magnetic field is increased and
hence it is not possible to magnetize an iron rod beyond a this limit..
8. The diagram below shows the lines of magnetic force between two north magnetic poles. At
which point is the magnetic field strength greatest?

ANS: (B) has the greatest magnetic field strength because it is located at the highest density
of magnetic field lines.
9. Why is repulsion a surest test of magnetism than attraction? Describe one application of the
attractive property of magnets.
 This is because, Repulsion takes place only between two likes poles of a magnet
whereas attraction takes place between two unlike poles of a magnet and also
between a magnet and a magnetic material. So by attraction it cannot be surely
identified the substance is a magnet or not. Therefore, repulsion is the surest test of
magnetism.
 Magnet is used to separate the useful magnetic substances like steel and iron from waste by
the method known as magnetic separation.
10. What is meant by magnetic induction? Describe one experiment to illustrate magnetic
induction.
11. A piece of watch spring is magnetised and then immersed in iron filings. Draw a diagram
showing the appearance when it is withdrawn. It is then broken in half and again immersed in
iron filings. Draw another diagram showing the appearance of each half.
12. A weak magnet is placed on a horizontal table with its N-pole pointing North. Explain how you
would plot the lines of force around the magnet and sketch the pattern you would expect to
find.

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Earth's Magnetism
 Earth's Magnetism is the behavior of the earth to act as a magnet
Causes of Earth's Magnetism
There is no concrete reason for the cause of the earth’s magnetism. However, there are a few
theories that revolve around it. Some of the theories are mentioned below:
 The Dynamo Effect: The outer core of the earth has molten Iron and other heavy elements in
liquid form. The inner core solidifies under the influence of gravity. Therefore, the motion of
metallic fluids in the outer core of the earth causes an electric current. Thus, the earth gets its
own magnetic field lines.
 Ionization of the Outer Layers: This theory tells us that the rotation of the earth in its own axis
produces strong electric current due to the ionization of the outer layers of earth. This produces
magnetism due to the movement of the ions. However, the magnetic field will be very weak. The
Dynamo Effect is the more acceptable theory.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

 The Earth acts as if it contains a magnet due to the circular current inside the Earth’s core.
The Earth also produces a magnetic field, with the field lines being most concentrated at
the poles.
 A freely suspended magnet always points in the North-South direction even in the
absence of any other magnet. This suggests that the earth itself behaves as a magnet
which causes a freely suspended magnet (or magnetic needle) to point always in a
particular direction: north and south. The shape of earth’s magnetic field resembles that of
a bar magnet of length one-fifth of earth’s diameter buried at its centre.

 The south pole of earth’s magnet is towards Earth’s North Pole (Geographical North Pole),
while the North Pole of earth’s magnet is towards earth’s South Pole (Geographical South
Pole). Thus, there is a Magnetic South Pole near the Geographical North Pole, and a
Magnetic North Pole near the Geographical South Pole. The positions of the earth’s
magnetic poles are not well defined on the globe, they are spread over an area.

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Angle of declination
 At a given place, the acute angle between the magnetic meridian (magnetic axis) and the
geographical meridian (axis of rotation) is called the angle of declination (or magnetic
declination) (α) at that place. See the figure below

 Thus; Magnetic declination – is the angle which the magnetic meridian makes with the
true meridian
 It is positive when the angle derived is east of the true north, and it is considered negative
when the angle measured is west of the true north.
 Importance: Ships and other long-distance means of transport that rely on the compass for
navigation should do necessary corrections to account for magnetic declination at different
latitudes and longitudes to stay in the right course.
Whereby:
MNP = Magnetic North Pole
MSP = Magnetic South Pole
GNP = Geographic North Pole
GSP = Geographic South Pole

Geographical Equator
 Is the imaginary line which divides the earth into Northern and Southern Hemisphere
Magnetic Equator
 The magnetic equator is the irregular imaginary line, passing round the earth near the
equator, on which a magnetic needle has no dip (because magnetic field lines are parallel
to the horizontal at the equator).
Magnetic Meridian
 Is the imaginary line joining the earth magnetic North Pole and South Pole

Geographic Meridian
 Is the imaginary line joining the earth North Pole and South Pole

Magnetic South Pole (MSP)

 Is the pole near the geographic south pole of magnet
Magnetic North Pole (MNP)
 Is the pole near the geographic north pole of magnet

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Angle of dip or angle of inclination (𝜽)
 Magnetic dip, dip angle, or magnetic inclination is the angle made with the horizontal by
the Earth’s magnetic field lines. OR;
 Dip angle – Is the angle between the earth surface and the earth’s magnetic field.
 OR; Dip angle – the angle between the axis of a free suspended magnetic needle and the
horizontal plane at a place. See the figure below

Alternatively

 Magnetic dip at the magnetic equator is 00, and at the magnetic poles, it is 900.
 The phenomenon of magnetic dip is important in aviation, as it causes the aeroplane’s
compass to give erroneous readings during banked turns and airspeed changes. Necessary
corrections need to be made to the compass reading to stay in the right course.
 The angle of inclination is measured by using Dip needle

How to locate the position of the north pole of a bar magnet

 If a bar magnet is suspended freely on a string, it will align itself in a North – South direction.
When this experiment is repeated, it is found that the same pole of the magnet will always
swing toward the north magnetic pole of the earth. Therefore, it is called the north-seeking
pole or simply the North Pole. The other pole of the magnet is the south-seeking pole or the
South Pole.

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  A practical use of the directional characteristic of the magnet is the compass, a device in
which a freely rotating magnetized needle indicator points toward the North Pole.

Application of the Earth’s Magnetic Field

 Used by map – readers for finding locations of different places
 Gives useful information in the search for minerals
 Satellites transmit information through earth’s magnetic field to the earth surface
 The earth’s external magnetic field (magnetosphere) protects the earth from harmful
emissions from the sun.
 The earth’s magnetic field enables the compass needle to operate.

Class Activity – 3:3

1. Lucy says 'N-poles attract because the N-pole of a magnet points towards the North Pole
of the Earth'. Explain why she is wrong.
2. The north pole of a magnet is attracted to the geographic North Pole of Earth, yet like poles
repel. Can you explain this?
ANS; The Geographic North Pole of Earth is actually a magnetic South Pole. That's why the
north pole of a magnet is attracted to the Geographic North Pole. Likewise, the Earth's
South Pole is a magnetic North Pole. This is based on the principles of magnetism where
unlike poles attract and similar poles repel.
3. Explain the terms 'magnetic meridian', 'angle of declination', and 'angle of dip'.
4. State two evidences of the existence of earth's magnetic field.
The evidences of the existence of earth's magnetic field are;-
(a) A freely suspended magnetic needle always rests in geographic north-south direction.
(b) An iron rod buried inside the earth along north-south direction becomes a magnet.

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Self Assessment – 3
1. Define the term magnet.
2. State three applications of a magnet
3. Differentiate forces due to magnetic force and the forces due to gravity on the earth
4. State the law of polarity and illustrate this law using large diagrams
5. What is:
(a) A magnetic field (b) A magnetic line of force
6. Draw a magnetic field around a bar magnet using magnetic lines of force.
7. Why do some watches have a case of iron?
8. State the applications of the earth’s magnetic field
9. Match the items in list A with the corresponding ones from list B
List A List B
(a) Magnetic materials (i) Like poles attract, unlike poles repel
(b) Law of polarity (ii) Magnetic field is zero
(c) Magnetic shielding (iii) Redirects magnetic lines of force
(d) Neutral point (iv) Strong magnet
(e) Aluminium (v) Iron nail
(vi) Paramagnetic
(vii) Direct neutral point

10. Draw the following diagrams:

(a) Arrangement of domains of atoms
11. Mention any three features of magnetic field lines
12. What is magnetic shielding?
13. Explain how magnetic shielding is done.
14. Why is magnetic shielding necessary?
15. Explain how a ferromagnetic materials get magnetized
16. Briefly explain how a bar magnet can be demagnetized using the electrical method.
17. Explain with illustration how one can locate the position of a north pole of a bar magnet.

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 Chapter: 4
Forces in Equilibrium
Moment of a Force
 Figure below shows how a spanner is used to turn a nut. The force (F) is not acting directly
on the nut but a distance (d) from the axis of the nut. This produces a turning effect called
the moment of the force about the axis of the nut. It is also called the turning moment

 Thus, the moment (or torque) of a force C

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 Chapter: 5
Simple Machines

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 Chapter: 06
Motion in a Straight Line
Motion:
 When an object moves from one place or point to another place or point, it is said that the
object is in motion. For example falling of leaves from a tree, blowing of air, running of a
dog, running of a boy, flying of a bee, running of a vehicle, etc.
 In the universe everything is moving whether it is a star or a meteor. Our earth is moving
around the sun, the moon is moving around the earth, and even the sun is moving in the
galaxy.
 Therefore; Motion is the process of continuously changing in position of an object with
time from one place to another.
 If an object does not change its position with time, with respect to its surrounding, then it is
said to be at Rest.
 The motion of an object along a straight line is known as Rectilinear Motion. For example;
motion of a cyclist along a straight road, motion of a train on track, freely falling body under
gravity etc.
Terms used to describe Motion
 Distance and displacement
 Speed and velocity
 Acceleration and Retardation
Distance and displacement
Distance
 The distance that an object travels is the length of the path that the object takes from the
starting point of its motion to the endpoint of its motion.
 Distance is represented by letter s
 The distance is a scalar quantity.
 The SI unit of distance is Metre (m). Other units are Centimeter (cm), and Kilometer (km)
 The figure below shows the distance between two points(AB)

Displacement
o Is the distance moved by an object in a specific direction.
o It is a vector quantity.
o The SI unit of displacement is metre (m). Other units are centimeter (cm), and kilometer (km)
o The diagram below shows the distance in a particular direction between the two pints.

NB;
 Although the distance traveled by an object and its displacement can be measured using the
same units, such as kilometres or metres, the displacement must always have its direction
specified too.

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  Furthermore, distances are always positive, while displacements involving motion in a
straight line (one-dimensional motion) can be positive or negative.
Worked examples
1. Halima runs twice round a field track of length 500m.
(a) What distance does she covers?
(b) What is her displacement from the starting point?
ANS;
(a) Total distance covered = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
(b) Total displacement = direct distance from initial position to final position = 0m
2. John travels 250 km to North but then back-tracks to South for 105 km to pick up a friend.
(a) What is John’s total distance?
(b) What is John’s total displacement?
(c) Total distance travelled by John = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒎 = 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝒌𝒎
(d) Total displacement = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 – 𝟏𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝒎
3. An object moves along the grid through points A, B, C, D, E, and F as shown below. The side
of square tiles measures 0.5 km.

(a) Calculate the distance covered by the moving object.

(b) Find the magnitude of the displacement of the object.
ANS;
a) Total distance covered = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑫 + 𝑫𝑬 + 𝑬𝑭
𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝒌𝒎
b) Magnitude of displacement of the object = distance between Initial point A to final point F
Then; the distance AF can be calculated by applying Pythagoras’s theorem to the
triangle AHF as shown in the figure below

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 ̅̅̅̅𝟐 = 𝑨𝑯
𝑨𝑭 ̅̅̅̅𝟐 
̅̅̅̅̅𝟐 + 𝑯𝑭 ̅̅̅̅𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟒)𝟐 + (𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟑)𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨𝑭
̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑭 = √𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝒎

Differences between Distance and Displacement

Distance Displacement
The complete length of the path between It is the shortest distance between the final
any two points is called distance. and initial position of the object’s motion.
Distance is a scalar quantity as it only Displacement is a vector quantity as it
depends upon the magnitude and not the depends upon both magnitude and
direction. direction.
Example; 10km Example; 10 km North
Distance can only have positive values. Displacement can be positive, negative
and even zero.
The distance travelled by the body can be Displacement can never be greater than
more than or equal to displacement. the distance travelled by the body.

Although they have many differences, they also have a few similarities. The following are
the most common similarities.
 Both distance and displacement have the same SI unit, the meter (m).
 Both require a reference point from which they can measure.
 They are equal if the body moves in a straight line and would be even better if they move
only in one direction.
 The dimensions of both are the same.
Class Activity – 6:1
1. A car moves 8km due South and then suddenly changes its direction and moves another
6km due west.
Determine;
(a) The total distance covered [ANS; 14 km]
(b) The displacement of the car [ANS; 10km]
2. What are the differences and similarities between displacement and distance
3. The displacement of an object for a round trip between two locations
A. Is always greater than zero. B. Is always less than zero
C. Is zero D. Is not zero E. Can have any value
Speed and Velocity
Speed
 Speed –Is the distance moved per unit time.
 OR Is the rate of change of distance.
 The speed is represented by letter v.
 It is a scalar quantity.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒔
Speed (v) = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕

 The SI unit of speed is Meter per Second (m/s). Other unit used is kilometer per hour
(km/h)

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Velocity
 Velocity – Is the rate of change of displacement
 It is a vector quantity.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔
 Velocity (v) = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕

 The SI unit of velocity is Meter per Second (m/s). Other units used is kilometer per hour
(km/h)
NB: 10 m/s = 36 km/h
NB:
 Initial velocity is the velocity of the body at the starting point of observation.
 Final velocity is the velocity of the body at the ending point of observation.
𝒖+𝒗
 Average velocity is the mean of initial and final velocities. → Va =
𝟐
 OR – Average velocity is the ratio of the total displacement to the total time.
𝒔
Average velocity, 𝑽𝑨 =
𝒕
 Uniform velocity – is the type of velocity in which the rate of change of displacement with
time is constant.
 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the body at an instant of time.
Worked Examples;
1. An object travelled 20 m to the right in 4 s and then 12 m to the left in 3s, for its total motion.
What was its average speed & its average velocity.
Data given
 Total distance traveled, s = 20 m + 12 m = 32 m
Total time, t = 4s + 3 s = 7 s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟑𝟐
𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟕
 When the object is moving to right its displacement is positive and when to the left its
displacement is negative
Total displacement (s) = 20 + -12 m = 8 m
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟖
𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟕
2. A truck travels a distance from A to B at a speed of 40km/h and returns to A at a speed
of 50 km/h, calculate the average velocity of the whole journey:
ANS;
From;
 Since the truck has returned to its original position, the total displacement = 0m
 Time taken, T = 2t
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒙+(−𝒙)
 Therefore; 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒗𝒂 = = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟐𝒕
Differences between Speed and Velocity
Speed Velocity
It is the rate of change of distance It is the rate of change of distance moved in a
specified direction
It is a scalar quantity. The speed does It is a vector quantity. The velocity tells us
not tell us the direction of motion. the speed as well as the direction of motion
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 81
 The speed is always positive since The velocity can be positive or
direction is not taken into consideration. negative depending upon the direction of
motion.
Example; 100km/s Example 100km/s East
After one round in a circular path, the After completing each round in a circular
average speed is not zero. path, the average velocity is zero.

Class Activity – 6:2

1. A ball is dropped from a height of 20m above the ground. It hits the ground in 2s and
bounces back up to a height of 12.7m in 1.6s .What are its average velocity
(ANS: 2.03 m/s)
2. A 100m runner finishes the race in 10s. What is her average speed? (ANS: 10 m/s)
3. A body covers a distance of 480 m in 6sec. Calculate its speed.(ANS: 80 m/s)
4. Give an example of motion in which average speed is not zero, but average velocity is
zero.
5. The speed of a car is 72 km/h. Express it in m/s. [ANS; 20m/s]
6. An object starts from rest and takes 2hours to cover a distance of 160 km. How fast is the
object moving? [ANS; 80km/h]
7. A train takes 2h to reach station B from station A, and then 3h to return from station B to
station A. The distance between the two stations is 200 km.
Find;
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟐𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟎𝟎
(i) The average speed [ANS; 𝒗 = = = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒎/h]
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐+𝟑
(ii) The average velocity of the train
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎
[ANS; 𝒗 = = = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h]
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐+𝟑 𝟓
8. A car moving on a straight path covers a distance of 1 km due east in 100 s.
What is
(i) The speed and [ANS; 10m/s]
(ii) The velocity of car ? [ANS; 10m/s due East]
NB;
 A body is said to be in a uniform motion if it travels in a straight line covering equal
distances in equal intervals of time. Here, the rate of change of its velocity remains constant.
 A body is said to have a non-uniform motion if its velocity changes by unequal amounts in
equal intervals of time. Here, the rate of change of its velocity changes at different points in
time.
Acceleration and Retardation
Acceleration
 Acceleration – Is the rate of change of velocity.
 It is denoted by small letter “a”
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚−𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗−𝒖
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕

𝒗−𝒖
∴ 𝒂=
𝒕

 Its SI unit is metre per second square (m/s2)

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  Uniform acceleration is the type of acceleration in which the rate of change of velocity is
CONSTANT. (that is; Uniform acceleration occurs when an object undergoes equal
changes in velocity at equal time intervals)
 When the change in the velocity of a body in equal interval of time is not constant, then the
acceleration is called non-uniform acceleration (Variable acceleration).
 Average acceleration. It is the change in the velocity divided by the time-interval during
which the change occurs.
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
 Where, 𝒗𝟐 is velocity at time 𝒕𝟐 and 𝒗𝟏 is velocity at time 𝒕𝟏 .

Retardation (Deceleration)
 Is the rate of decreasing of velocity.
 It is referred as negative acceleration.
 Uniform retardation is the one in which the rate of decreasing of velocity does not change
NB:
 When a body starts moving from rest its initial velocity become zero, u = 0m/s 2
 When a body is brought to rest by the application of brakes its final velocity, v = 0m/s2
 When a velocity of a moving object increases its acceleration become positive
 When the velocity of a moving object decreases its acceleration become negative
 When a body is moving with a uniform velocity its acceleration becomes zero, a = 0 m/s 2
Worked Examples
1. An object is moving at 15 m/s to the right after 8 sec later it is moving at 5 m/s to the left,
what was the acceleration of the object?
Solution
Initial velocity, u = +15 m/s
Final velocity, v = -5 m/s
Time taken, t = 8s
Acceleration, a =?
𝒗–𝒖 −𝟓 – 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
∴ 𝒂 = = = − = −𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 2
𝒕 𝟖 𝟖

2. A car is moving with a velocity 20 m/s. The brakes are applied to retard it at a rate of 2 m/s2.
What will be the velocity after 5s of applying the brakes?
Solution
Initial velocity, u = 20 m/s, Final velocity, v =?
Time taken, t = 5s Retardation, a = –2m/s2
𝒗–𝒖
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎; 𝒂 =  𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟓 × 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎/s
𝒕

Acceleration Retardation
If the velocity of a body increases with If the velocity of a body decreases with
time, it is called acceleration. time, it is called retardation.
As it is increase in velocity per second so it As it is decrease in velocity per second so
is positive acceleration. retardation is negative acceleration.

Class Activity – 6:3

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 1. A car brakes and slows down from 20 m/s to 5 m/s in 3 sec. find its acceleration
(ANS: a = - 5 m/s2 )
2. A car is moving in a straight line with speed 18 km/h. It is stopped in 5s by applying the
brakes. Find;
(i) The speed of car in m/s, [ANS; 5m/s]
(ii) The retardation and [ANS; −𝟏𝒎/s2]
(iii) The speed of car after 2s of applying the brakes. [ANS; 3m/s]
3. Starting from rest, a sports car accelerate to a velocity of 96 km/h in 16 sec. find its
acceleration (ANS: a = 1.67 m/s2)
4. A car travels at 10 m/s and increase its velocity to 30 m/s in 10 sec. find acceleration of the
car (ANS: a = 2 m/s2)
5. A car travels at 45 m/s and decreases its velocity uniformly to 20 m/s in 5 sec. find
acceleration (ANS: a = -5 m/s2)
6. A car with a velocity of 90km/h under uniform retardation and brought to rest after 10s.
Calculate its acceleration (ANS: a = -2.5m/s2)
7. A body starts from rest and acquires a velocity 10 m/s in 2s. Find its acceleration.
[ANS: 5m/s2]
8. A car starting from rest acquires a velocity of 180 m/s in 0.05 h. Find the acceleration.
ANS; 1m/s2
9. An object moves with constant speed in a straight line. Which of the following statements
must be true?
(a) No force acts on the object.
(b) A single constant force acts on the object in the direction of motion.
(c) The net force acting on the object depends on the value of the speed.
(d) The net force acting on the object is zero.
(e) The net force acting on the object cannot be determined.
10. A body is moving vertically upwards. Its velocity changes at a constant rate from 50 ms-
1 to 20 ms-1 in 3 s. What is its acceleration? [ANS; –10m/s]

11. Bus X travels a distance of 360km in 5 hours whereas bus Y travels a distance of 476km in
7 hours. Which bus is faster?
12. In a race, cars travelled 200 times a around a field track with a length of 1km.
(a) At the end of the race, what is the distance travelled by the winner? [ANS; 200km]
(b) What is the winner’s displacement? [ANS; 0km]
(c) If the winner completed the race in 3hours, what is his/her average speed
[A; 66.67km/h]
(d) What is his/her average velocity? [ANS; 0km/h]

Determination of velocity and acceleration of a body using a ticker Tape Time

 The ticker timer is simply a piece of apparatus that we use to measure time. When you work
out the speed of an object you need to know how far it goes in a certain time.
 A ticker tape timer consists of an electrical vibrator which vibrates 50 times per second.
 This enables it to make 50 dots per second on a ticker-tape being pulled through it.
 The time interval between two adjacent dots on the ticker-tape is called one tick. One tick is
equal to 1/50 s or 0.02 s. The distance between two adjacent dots on a ticker-tape represents
the displacement of the object in a tick
 We have to count the number of SPACES and not the number of dots themselves to
measure the time taken. The first dot at the direction of movement is the starting dot.

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  If the object moves quickly, the dots are far apart. If the object moves slowly, the dots
are close to each other. And if the tape is pulled through at a steady speed the dots remain
the same distance apart.

 Now let us assume, we give the trolley in figure above a push down the plane. This will give
us a tape of the trolley’s motion similar to the tape in the diagram below:
 A paper tape is driven through a ticker timer connected to a mains supply of known frequency
e.g 50Hz by a trolley running freely on an inclined plane as shown above.
 After the trolley has reached the end of the run way, the tape is removed and marked every
after 5dots.The first mark made is the zero time.

 The time t between n spaces is calculated from;

𝟏 𝒏
𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆  𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × =
𝒇 𝒇
 The speed or velocity at different intervals is determined by measuring the distance 𝒅𝟏 and
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒅𝟐 covered in those times , thus 𝒗𝟏 = and 𝒗𝟐 =
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐
 The acceleration of the body is therefore determined as follow;
𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟏
𝒂= , whereby; 𝒕𝟑 = total time taken to cover the distance d1 and d2
𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏

Worked examples;
1. Below is a tape printed by ticker- tape timer vibrating at 100Hz. Find the time taken to print
these dots.

ANS;
𝟏 𝒏
From; 𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆  𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × =
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝒏 𝟏
𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × = = 𝟏𝟎 × = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒔
𝒇 𝒇 𝟏𝟎𝟎

2. The figure below shows a series of dots which were printed at equal time intervals on a tape
pulled through a ticker timer operating at a frequency of 50 Hz. If the trolley pulling the tape
was initially at rest:
(i) In which direction is the tape moving?
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 85
 (ii) What sort of motion does the tape represent?
(iii) What is the time taken to make these dots?
ANSW:
(i) Towards A (the first dots are close together)
(ii) The first 5 dots are equally spaced. This indicates constant velocity. The dots are then
spaced out uniformly ie,. Constant acceleration. The motion is a constant velocity
followed by a constant acceleration.
𝒏 𝒏 𝟖
(iii) From: 𝒇 = → 𝒕 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 𝒔, where n = No. of spaces
𝒕 𝒇 𝟓𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
Alternatively: 𝒇 = → 𝑻 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔 (for one space)
𝑻 𝟓𝟎
Thus, for 8 spaces, time taken = 0.02 x 8 = 0.16s
3. A ticker – tape is moved through a ticker timer for 5 seconds. If the timer is operating at 25Hz
(a) How many dots would have been printed on the tape? [A:125 dots]
(b) What kind of motion does the tape represents.
ANS: the tape represents linear motion
4. A ticker tape timer makes 40 dots in 1 second. The results of an experiment to find the
average speed of a toy car is shown below

What is the average speed of the toy car?

1 0.6
Answer: total time = x 10 = 0.25 s, speed = = 2.4 m/s
40 0.25
5. Diagram below shows a strip of ticker tape that was pulled through a ticker tape timer that
vibrated at 50 times a second.

What is the
(a) Time taken from the first dot to the last dot?
(b) Average velocity of the object that is represented by the ticker tape?
[AN: (a) t =15x0.02=0.3s, (b) v = d/t =15/0.3 =50cm/s]

Class Activity – 6:4

1. The distance between the 15th dot and 18th dot is 10cm. If the ticker timer is vibrating at 20Hz.
Calculate the
𝒏 𝟑
(a) Time taken, [ANS; 𝒕 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒔]
𝒇 𝟐𝟎
𝒅 𝟎.𝟏
(b) Average speed; [ANS; 𝒗 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝒎/s]
𝒕 𝟎.𝟏𝟓
2. The tape shown in the diagram below was made by a trolley moving with a constant
acceleration. If the frequency of the ticker – timer is 100Hz, find the acceleration in m/s 2

ANS: 𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s

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Position – time graphs
Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be represented on a graph.
Distance (displacement) time graphs
 A distance – time graph is a graphical representation of how far a body has traveled in a
specified amount of time. It is used to depict the relationship between distance and time,
where distance is plotted on the 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and time is plotted on the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
 See the figure below;

 The graphs below show the distance (displacement) – time graphs for various types of body
motion.

The following are the points concluded from the distance-time graphs above.
 When a body is at rest, then the graph is parallel to the axis where time is plotted.
 When the motion of a body is uniform, then the distance-time graph is a straight line.
 The slope of the distance-time graph is equal to the speed of the body.
 The slope of the straight-line graph is constant regardless of the chosen interval. This implies
that an object moving uniformly will always move at the same speed.
 The speed increases as the graph become steeper.
 A negative gradient or slope means the body is returning to the starting point.

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Velocity – Time Graph
 The variation in velocity of an object with time can be represented by velocity – time graph. In
the graph, time is represented along the 𝒙 − axis and the velocity is represented along the
𝒚 −axis. If the object moves at uniform velocity, a straight line parallel to 𝒙 −axis is
obtained.
 Consider the graph shows the velocity – time graph for a car moving with uniform velocity of
40 m/s.

 We know that the product of velocity and time gives displacement of an object moving with
uniform velocity.
 The area under the velocity – time graph is equal to the magnitude of the displacement.
 So the distance (displacement) 𝒔 covered by the car in a time interval of 𝒕 can be expressed
as 𝒔 = 𝑨𝑪 × 𝑪𝑫 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 (shaded region)
NB;
 Consider a body starts moving from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity, 𝒗 after time,
𝒕𝟏 . It then moves with this velocity for time, 𝒕𝟐 and then comes to stop after another time, 𝒕𝟑 .
 The above information can be represented on the velocity time graph as shown.

Deduction from velocity time graph

(i) If the shape of the graph can be broken into simple geometric shapes, the total area under
the line can be calculated by adding the areas of those shapes.
(ii) The area under a speed-time graph is the distance. Speed cannot be negative, and neither
can the distance. This is because speed and distance are scalars.
(iii) The area under a velocity-time graph = Total displacement travelled by a body.

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 Velocity can be negative if an object is moving backwards. The displacement can also be
negative. An area beneath the 𝒙 −axis has a negative value. An area above the 𝒙 −axis
has a positive value. Be careful when calculating the total displacement, when summing the
displacements remember to include the + and − signs of the displacements
(iv) The slope of the velocity time graph represents acceleration whereby the negative slope is
the Retardation (deceleration)
The graphs below show the velocity – time graphs for various types of body motion.
(a) A body moving with uniform retardation.
(b) A body moving with variable velocity
(c) A body moving with uniform velocity
(d) A body moving with uniform acceleration

(e) A body moving with variable acceleration

(f) A body fall freely
(g) A body projected vertically upwards

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Worked Examples
1. A car travel with uniform velocity of 30m/s for 5 second and then comes to rest 10 second with
uniform deceleration.
i) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
ii) Find the total distance travelled.
iii) Find the average velocity.
Solution:
(i) velocity-time graph of the motion

(ii) Total distance travelled, s = Area under the graph = Area of fig. A + Area of fig.B
𝟏
𝑺 = (𝟑𝟎 × 𝟓) + × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟐
(iii) From velocity time graph
Total distance, s = 300 m
Total time taken, t = 15 s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒔 𝟑𝟎𝟎
∴ Average velocity = = = = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕 𝟏𝟓

2. (a) A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 8.0 m/s 2 for 30s after which the
acceleration is reduced to 5.0 m/s 2 for the next 20s. The body maintains the speed attained for
60s after which is brought to rest in 20s. Draw the velocity – time graph of the motion using
the information given above.
(b) Using the graph, calculate the;
(i) Maximum speed attained during the motion
(ii) Average retardation after the body being brought to rest
(iii) Total distance travelled during the first 50s

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 (iv) Average speed during the same interval as in (iii)
ANS;
(a) First find the velocity of a body attained in 30s
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
Then find the velocity when the body decelerates to 5m/s2
Here, 𝒖 = 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎m/s, thus; 𝒗′ = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + (−𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎) = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
Therefore, the following is the velocity – time graph of the whole motion of a body

(b)
(i) The maximum speed attained, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
(𝒗−𝒖) 𝟎−𝟏𝟒𝟎 −𝟏𝟒𝟎
(ii) Retardation, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒂 = = = = −𝟕𝒎/s2
𝒕 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
(iii) Total distance during first 50s = Area of figure OBCG = Area of OBH + Area of
𝟏
BCGH  Distance = × 𝑶𝑯 ̅̅̅̅̅ + 𝟏 (𝑪𝑮
̅̅̅̅̅ × 𝑩𝑯 ̅̅̅̅ × 𝑩𝑯
̅̅̅̅̅) × 𝑯𝑮
̅̅̅̅̅
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
Distance = × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + (𝟏𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎) × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟎𝒔 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎
(iv) Average velocity in 50s = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝒎/s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟓𝟎

Class Activity – 6:5

1. Draw a displacement -time graph for a particle in the following situations:
(a) A body projected vertically upwards
(b) A body at stationary
(c) Moving with variable velocity
(d) Moving with uniform velocity
(e) A body fall freely
(f) Moving with uniform acceleration
(g) Moving with uniform retardation.

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 2. A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at a rate of 4 m/s2 for 5 sec. it maintains a
constant speed for 20 sec, brakes applied and the car stops in the next 3 sec. find
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Maximum speed attained (ANS: v = 20 m/s)
(c) Find the total distance travelled. (ANS: s = 480 m)
3. Explain the importance of the position-time graph.
4. The displacement of a particle is shown in the displacement – time graph below.
Displacement is measured in meters from its starting point position and time is measured in
seconds.

(a) Find the displacement of the particle from its starting point position after 3seconds.
(b) For how long was the particle stationary? [ANS; (a) 15m (b) 4s (c) -5m/s]
(c) Find the velocity of the particle for the last 4 seconds of its motion
5. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a distance of 35.4 m.
Determine the acceleration of the bike. (ANS: a = 0.712 m/s2)
6. A body accelerates uniformly from velocity of 40 m/s to a velocity of 50 m/s in 4seconds
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Find acceleration of the body (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s2)
(c) Calculate the total distance travelled by the body in meter (ANS: s = 180 m)
7. Velocity time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for160 seconds.

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 Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey [ANS; 2325m]
8. A particle is set into motion with a constant velocity of 3m/s. After 5 seconds the particle
stops and remains stationary for 6 seconds. The particle then moves with a constant velocity
of – 6 m/s until returns to its initial position. Sketch the displacement – time graph for the
motion of the particle
9. This displacement—time graph shows the motion of a particle in a straight line. It travels
away from its starting point for 15 minutes and then returns in 30 minutes.

(a) Calculate the average speed for the whole journey in kilometres per hour.
(b) Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey in kilometres per hour.
ANS;
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 (𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐) 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝒎 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝒎
(a) Average speed = = = = = 𝟑𝟐𝒌𝒎/h
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒉𝒓
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝟏𝟐−𝟏𝟐) 𝟎𝒌𝒎 𝟎𝒌𝒎
(b) Average velocity = = = = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒉𝒓

Equations of uniformly accelerated Motion

(Equations of Linear Motion)

 First equation of motion

 Second equation of motion
 Third equation of motion
Consider a body moving with a constant acceleration 𝒂 from an initial velocity 𝒖, to a final
velocity 𝒗 .The body covers a displacement ,𝒔, after sometime 𝒕.

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Derivation of first equation
Now, find the acceleration of the body
∆𝒗 𝒗−𝒖
From: a = = , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒗 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝒕 𝒕
𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖 → 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

Derivation of the second equation

𝒗+𝒖 𝒔
 Find the average velocity of the body; 𝑽𝒂 = = 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝑡
𝟐 𝒕
𝒖+𝒂𝒕+𝒖 𝟐𝒖+𝒂𝒕 𝒔
 𝑽𝒂 = = =
𝒕 𝟐 𝒕
𝟐𝒖+𝒂𝒕 𝒔
 = -------------------- multiply by 𝒕 each side
𝟐 𝒕
𝟐𝒖𝒕+𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟏
 𝒔= = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

Derivation of third equation

 Consider the 1st equation: 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
 Then square the equation in each side:𝒊𝒆, .. (𝒗) = (𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕)
𝟏
 This gives: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒖𝒂𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 )
𝟐
𝟏
 But: 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 , Therefore 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝟐

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

Worked Examples
1. A body moving with a velocity of 30m/s is accelerated uniformly to a velocity of 50m/s in
5s.Calculate the acceleration and the distance traveled by the body.
Data given
Initial velocity (u) = 30m/s, Final velocity (v) = 50m/s, Time (t) = 5s Acceleration =?
𝒗−𝒖 𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟎
 Acceleration, 𝒂 = = = 𝟒 𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒕 𝟓
𝟏 𝟏
 Distance traveled, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝟒 × 𝟓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐

2. An object travelling at 10m/s accelerates at 4m/s 2 for 8 seconds.

i. Calculate the final velocity.
ii. How far does it travel for 8 seconds
ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎/s2 , 𝒕 = 𝟖𝒔
(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟒 × 𝟖 = 𝟒𝟐𝒎/s

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 𝟏 𝟏
(b) 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟖 + × 𝟒 × 𝟖𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
3. A body moves from rest with a uniform acceleration and travels 270m in 3s. Find the velocity
of the body at 10s after the start.
ANS;
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/𝒔 , 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒎, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟑𝒔, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟐𝟕𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐  𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝒂 × 𝟑 𝟐
 𝒂= = 𝟔𝟎𝒎/s2
𝟗
Also; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎/s
4. A body moving with a constant acceleration travels the distances 3m and 8m respectively in
1s and 2s. Calculate;
(a) The initial velocity, and
(b) The acceleration of body.
ANS;
Given; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑𝒎, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟖𝒎, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝒔, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟑 = 𝒖 × 𝟏 + × 𝒂 × 𝟏𝟐  𝟔 = 𝟐𝒖 + 𝒂 ------(i)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
Also; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕  𝟖 = 𝒖 × 𝟐 + × 𝒂 × 𝟐𝟐 
𝟐
𝟒 = 𝒖 + 𝒂 --------(ii)
𝟐 𝟐
Then; solve the two equations, simultaneously
(a) ∴ the initial velocity , 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒎/s
(b) ∴ Acceleration of the body, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s2
5. A car moves with a uniform velocity of 12m/s for 6s. It accelerates at 2.0m/s 2 for 4s. It then
travels for 2 more seconds with uniform velocity. The car finally decelerates to a stop in 15s.
Calculate;
(c) The distance travelled in 5s.
(d) Average velocity for the journey, assuming that the journey is in a straight line
ANS;
(a) 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟎m
(b) Total distance travelled, first calculate the distance at given different stages
Distance travelled in 6s, during this stage, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
Then, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟔 = 𝟕𝟐m
Distance traveled in 4s, during this stage, 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s2,
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟒 + × 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟔𝟒𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Distance traveled in 2 more seconds, during this stage, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s,
Then, 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕
But; before attaining this stage; its final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s
Thus; 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎m
Distance traveled in 15s, but during this stage, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟎−𝟐𝟎
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 → 𝒔 = = ,
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟎 −𝟒
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒂 = = = = −𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/s2
𝒕 𝟏𝟓 𝟑
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟎𝟐 −𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝒔= = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝒂 𝟐×−𝟏.𝟑𝟑
Thus, total distance travelled = 𝟕𝟐 + 𝟔𝟒 + 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝒎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟑𝟐𝟔
Therefore; Average velocity, 𝒗 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝒎/s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟔+𝟒+𝟐+𝟏𝟓

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 95

6. An object is constrained to move along a track as shown in the figure below

The acceleration of the object on both inclined planes is 6.9m/s 2 (down), zero along the flat
section and – 6.9m/s2 up the inclined planes. If the object is released from rest at the top of the
left inclined plane, how long will it take to reach the top of the right inclined plane?
ANS;
Consider a free body diagram;

𝒔𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎, 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒎

𝒂𝟏 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝒎/s2 , 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎/s2, 𝒂𝟑 = −𝟔. 𝟗𝒎/s2, 𝒖𝟏 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖𝟐 , 𝒗𝟐 =?
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎 × 𝒕𝟏 + × 𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝒕𝟏 𝟐  𝟐 = 𝟔𝟗𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒕𝟏 𝟐 =  𝒕𝟏 = √( ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝟔𝟗 𝟔𝟗
Also; when a body moves from A to B, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟏
Thus; 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝒎/s
Likewise; when a body moves from B to C, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒔 𝟎.𝟐
Thus; 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕  𝒔𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒕𝟐  𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝒗𝟏 𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟑
Lastly; when a body moves from C to D, 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝒎/𝒔, 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎
From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 → 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔𝟑
𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔𝟑  𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 + (𝟐 × −𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖))

𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 + (𝟐 × −𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖)) = √𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝒎/s

Also; from 1ST equation; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑  𝒕𝟑 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓
𝒂𝟑 −𝟔. 𝟗
Therefore; the total time taken to reach at the top from rest, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑
𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
7. A train travelling at 30km/h stops when its brakes are applied. The train suffers a deceleration
of 2m/s2.
(a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 96
 (b) What is its final velocity?
𝟑𝟎×𝟏𝟎
ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟑𝟎𝒌𝒎/h = = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/s, 𝒂 = −𝟐𝒎/s2, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝟑𝟔
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟖.𝟑𝟑
(a) From; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒕 = = = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝒂 −𝟐
(b) Since the train comes to stop therefore; its final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s,

Class Activity – 6:6

1. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds. What is the acceleration of
the car? (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s2)
2. John is driving his car with a constant speed of 8 ms−1. At 20 m away, suddenly a child comes
on his way, and he immediately applies the brakes to avoid the accident. What was the
deceleration with which the car came to rest? [ANS; −𝟏. 𝟖𝒎/s2 ]
3. A rally car takes 5 minutes to cover a displacement of 20 km. If the initial velocity of the car
is 40 m/s, Calculate the average acceleration of the car (ANS: a = 0.178 m/s2)
4. A rocket initially moving at a velocity of 5m/s accelerates uniformly at 1.5 m/s 2 .What will be
its velocity after covering 120 km? ( ANS: v= 600 m/s)
5. Starting from rest, a car accelerates uniformly at 2.5m/s 2 for 6sec. the constant speed is
maintained for one third of a minute. The brakes are then applied making the car to retard
uniformly to rest in 4sec. find
(a) Draw speed time graph
(b) Maximum speed in km/h (ANS: v = 54km/h)
(c) Displacement covered in km (ANS: S = 0.375 km)
6. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15km/h in 10s, Find:
a) The acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 0.42 m/s2)
b) Distance covered in meters (ANS: s = 21 m)
7. A train with a velocity of 40m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest after 5 seconds.
Determine its deceleration and draw the graph ( ANS: a = -8 m/s2 )
8. A train starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m s -2 for 10 s. It then
maintains a constant speed for 200s. The brakes are then applied and the train is uniformly
retarded and comes to rest in 50 s. Find;
(i) the maximum velocity reached, [ANS; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎m/s]
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟎
(ii) the retardation in the last 50 s, [ANS; 𝒂 = = = −𝟎. 𝟒m/s2]
𝒕 𝟓𝟎
(iii) the total distance travelled, and [ANS; 𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎]
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔𝟑  𝒔𝑻 = 𝒖𝒕𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒕𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒕𝟐 + 𝒖𝟏 𝒕𝟑 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔𝑻 = 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 + × 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 + × (−𝟎. 𝟒) × 𝟓𝟎𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Therefore; 𝒔𝑻 = 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝒔 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎
(iv) the average velocity of the train. [A; 𝒗𝑨𝒗𝒆 = 𝑻 = (𝟏𝟎+𝟐𝟎𝟎+𝟓𝟎) =17.69m/s]
𝒕𝑻
9. A car is travelling at 20m/s along a straight road. The brakes are applied for 5s causing a
retardation of 3m/s2. Find the car’s final velocity. [A; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 + (−𝟑 × 𝟓) = 𝟓m/s

Motion under Gravity

 All bodies on the earth will always fall down towards the earth’s surface when released from a
point. What makes these bodies falling downwards is the acceleration of free falling body called
acceleration due to gravity which is 9.8 or 10 N/kg.

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 97

 Acceleration of free falling body is denoted by ‘g’. Light bodies like feathers, paper etc are
observed to fall down more slowly than iron balls. This is because light bodies are very much
affected by air resistance.
 There are two important characteristics of free fall
(a) Free falling objects do not encounter air resistance
(b) All free falling objects on earth accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.8 m/s 2
(often approximated as 10 m/s2)
 For a body moving downwards the following formulae are applied
(Here; 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
1st equation is given by 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉

 When the body moves upwards ,the formulae will change to:
(Here 𝒂 = −𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
1st equation is given by 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐

𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉

Worked Examples;

3. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 30 m/s. find
(a) Maximum height reached
(b) Time taken for maximum height
(c) Time taken for reach ground again
(d) The velocity reached half-way to the maximum height
ANS;
(a) Maximum height reached, s = H =?
Data given:
Initial velocity, u = 30 m/s
Final velocity, v = 0 m/s
Acceleration, a = -g = -10 m/s2
From: third equation of motion
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉 -------------------- make h the subject
𝒖𝟐 −𝒗𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟐 −𝟎𝟐 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = = = = 𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
(b) Time taken for maximum height, t =?
From: first equation of motion
𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 -------------------- make t the subject
𝒖−𝒗 𝟑𝟎−𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝒕= = = =𝟑𝒔
𝒈 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 98

 (c) Time taken for reach ground again,(T = 2t) ?
T = 2t = 2 x 3 = 6 sec
(d) Velocity reached half-way to the maximum height, v =?
When stone is halfway to maximum height, the height attained is
𝑯 𝟒𝟓
𝒉 = = = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Data given: u = 30 m/s and a = -10 m/s2
From: third equation of motion
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 – 𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝒗 = √𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉 = √𝟑𝟎𝟐 − 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 = √𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟓𝟎 = √𝟒𝟓𝟎
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎
4. A stone falling down a well takes 2s to reach the water surface. Calculate;
(a) The velocity with which the stone hits the surface of water
(b) The distance of the water surface from the top of the well shaft
ANS; 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔, 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s2, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 =?
(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s
(b) 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎m/s
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟐 −𝟎𝟐 𝟒𝟎𝟎
From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉  𝒉= = = = 𝟐𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐×𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎

5. An object thrown straight upward with an initial velocity of 88.2m/s will reach its maximum
height of 396.9m in 9s. If after 3s, the object is at an altitude of 220.5m moving upward, after
what time will it be at a height of 220.5m moving downwards.
ANS;
 𝟑𝒔 at 220.5m upwards, it means that an object 𝒊𝒔 𝟔𝒔 before reaching its maximum
height.
 Therefore the object will be at the same height when moving downwards 𝟔𝒔 after reaching
the maximum height, thus; 𝒕 = 𝟗𝒔 + 𝟔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓𝒔
6. Calculate the maximum height of a ball of mass 1.2kg will attain if projected vertically upward
with an initial velocity of 17m/s
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟎𝟐 −𝟏𝟕𝟐
ANS; From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 −𝟐𝒈𝒉  𝒉 = = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝒎
−𝟐𝒈 −𝟐×𝟏𝟎

NB;
 When an object is thrown upwards, its final velocity, at its maximum point, 𝒗 = 𝟎
 When an object falls downward or is released from a height, its initial velocity, 𝒖 = 𝟎
 The time it takes an object to travel upwards is the same time it takes to come down

Class Activity –6:7

1. Calculate the velocity of a paratrooper falling under gravity after 6 seconds (A: v = 58.8 m/s)
2. A ball is released from a cliff, 45 m high. Find the magnitude of the average velocity during its
motion till it reaches the ground ( g = 10 m/s2) (ANS: u=30 m/s)
3. An object is thrown straight up with an initial velocity of 50 m/s
(a) How long will take to reach its maximum height (ANS: t = 5 sec)
(b) To what height will it rise? (ANS: h =125 )
(c) What will be its velocity when it returns to its starting point? (AN: v = 50 m/s)
(d) How long will be in the air? (ANS: t = 10 se)
4. A ball initially at rest falls for 4 seconds at a constant acceleration. Calculate:
(a) Its velocity after 4 seconds (ANS: v = 39.2 m/s)
(b) Its distance from the rest position (ANS: h = 156.8 m)
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 99
5. A body moved vertically upwards to a distance of 20 m. Calculate
(a) The initial velocity (ANS: v = 20 m/s)
(b) The time taken to reach the maximum height (ANS: t = 2 sec )
6. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 29.4m/s from the top of a tower
34.3m high. Find
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height
(b) The total time that elapses just before it reaches the ground
ANS; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟗.𝟒
(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 → 𝒕 = −𝒈
=
−𝟏𝟎
=2.94s
𝟏
(b) Height from the top of a tower to maximum point above the tower, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒 × 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 − × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Thus; total distance to reach the ground, 𝒔 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑 + 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝒎
𝟏
Then, time taken from maximum height to ground, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝒖𝟏 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟕𝟕.𝟓
𝒔𝟐 = 𝒖𝟏 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐𝟐 → 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓 = 𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐 + × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐 𝟐  𝒕𝟐 = √ = 3.94s
𝟐 𝟐 𝟓

Therefore, the total time that elapses just before it reaches the ground, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐
𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 + 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝒔
7. A stone was dropped from the top of a building and hit the ground 4s later.
𝟏 𝟏
(a) How tall is the building? [ANS; 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎]
(b) What was the stone’s velocity when it hits the ground [ANS; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 = 𝟒𝟎m/s]

Simple Pendulum
 The motion of pendulum was first studied by Galileo. Galileo discovered the important
principle of pendulum according to which: A pendulum completes every swing (or every
oscillation) in exactly the same time, provided its length is kept constant. In other words, the
time-period of oscillation of a given pendulum is constant.
 A simple pendulum can be made by tying about one meter long thread to a small metal ball
(called bob) and suspending it from a rigid support as shown in Figure (a), so that the bob is
free to swing. When the pendulum is at rest, then its bob is at the mean position A

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 100
  If the bob of this pendulum is pulled to one side and then released, it will begin to oscillate to-
and-fro (back and forth) like a swing [see Figure (b)]. For example, in Figure (b), initially the
bob is at the mean position A. Now, suppose the bob is pulled a little to the right side to
position B and then released.
 it will be seen to come back and move on to position C, at an equal distance on the other side
of the mean position A, and then go on repeating this back and forth motion between the two
extreme positions B and C. And we say that the simple pendulum is oscillating (or vibrating).
 When the length of string change while the mass of pendulum bob is constant, the period is
always constant and that constant time is given by
𝑳
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√𝒈
Whereby:
 Length (L): Is the distance between the point of suspension to the center of the bob. The
time-period of a pendulum depends on its length. As the length of a pendulum is increased, its
time-period also increases. The time-period of a pendulum of given length is constant.
 Time Period (T): Time taken by the pendulum to finish one full oscillation. For example, in
Figure (b), the time taken by bob to travel from position B to C and back to B is the time-period
of pendulum. The time taken by bob in going from position A to B, then from B to C, and back
to A is also equal to time-period.
 Linear Displacement (x): Distance traveled by the pendulum bob from the equilibrium
position to one side.
 Angular Displacement (𝜽): The angle described by the pendulum with an imaginary axis at
the equilibrium position is called the angular displacement.
 Amplitude; As the pendulum oscillates to-and-fro, the maximum displacement of the bob from
its mean position on either side is called the amplitude of pendulum. In Figure (b), the distance
AB is the amplitude of pendulum. The distance AC is also equal to amplitude of pendulum.
Please note that whether the amplitude of oscillations of a pendulum is large or small, the time
taken for one complete oscillation (or time-period) remains the same.
 g = Acceleration due to gravity

Application of gravitational force

 Used to launch satellites and space vehicle into space requires overcoming the gravitational
attraction forces for take off
 Used to keep satellite rotating on the earth’s orbit
 It causes everybody to be attracted towards the earth’s surface
 It is used to calculate the time taken by object to reach to ground for all objects near the
earth’s surface. E.g. army aircraft when firing bombs, parachutist move under free fall,(a = g)
etc

Class Activity – 6:8

1. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.2 seconds in a place where g= 9.8m/s2.
How long is the bob below the rigid
𝑳 𝑻𝟐 𝒈 𝟏.𝟐𝟐 ×𝟗.𝟖
ANS; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ → 𝒍 =( )=( ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒎
𝒈 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐

2. When the length of a simple pendulum is decreased by 20 cm, the period changes by 10%.
Find the original length and period of pendulum. g = 9.8 m/s2
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 101
 ANS; 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒍, 𝒍𝟐 = (𝒍 − 𝟐𝟎)𝒄𝒎, 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻, 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝑻
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏 √𝒍𝟏 𝑻 √𝒍
Since; 𝑻 ∝ √𝒍 → = → = → =
√𝒍𝟏 √𝒍𝟐 𝑻𝟐 √𝒍𝟐 𝟎.𝟗𝑻 √𝒍−𝟐𝟎
𝟏 𝒍
= → 𝒍 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒍 → 𝒍 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎 → 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟎.𝟖𝟏 𝒍−𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎
 Therefore, the original length, 𝒍 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟎.𝟏𝟗
𝑳 𝟏.𝟎𝟓
 Therefore, the original period, 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√𝒈 = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝟗.𝟖 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝒔

3. At exactly 2hr: 00min: 00sec a pendulum bob is thrown vertically upwards from the ground
with an initial velocity of 75m/s. At what time will the bob return to the ground? (Take g =10m/s2)
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟕𝟓
ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟕𝟓𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 → 𝒈 = = = 𝟕. 𝟓𝒔
−𝒈 −𝟏𝟎
Therefore; the total time of return, 2hr: 00min: 15sec
4. The diagram shows the velocity-time graph for a vertically bouncing ball, which is released
above the ground at A and strikes the floor at B. The effects of air resistance have been
neglected.

(a) What does the gradient of a velocity-time graph represent?

(b) Explain why the gradient of the line CD is the same as line AB.
(c) What does the area between the line AB and the time axis represent?
(d) State why the velocity at C is negative.
(e) State why the speed at C is less than the speed at B.
(f) The ball has a mass of 0.15 kg and is dropped from an initial height of 1.2m. After
impact the ball rebounds to a height of 0.75m. Calculate;
(i) the speed of the ball immediately before impact,
𝟏
[A; 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 → 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉 = √𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = √𝟐𝟒 =4.9m/s]
𝟐
(ii) the speed of the ball immediately after impact,
𝟏
[A; 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉′ → 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉′ = √𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = √𝟏𝟓 =3.9m/s]
ANS; (a, b, c, d, e,)
(a) Acceleration
(b) They both represent the acceleration of free fall [or the same acceleration]
(c) The height/distance ball is dropped from above the ground [or the displacement of
the ball from when it is dropped until it hits the ground]
(d) It is moving in the opposite direction to when it was at B
(e) Because the Ball dos not bounce as high as initial position or some kinetic energy is
lost (as heat/internal energy) during the bouncing

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 102
Self Assessment– 6
1. Calculate the distance in metres covered by a body moving with a uniform speed of 180 km/hr
in 30 seconds. (ANS: d = 1 500 m)
2. Calculate the time in seconds taken by a body moving with uniform speed of 360 km/h to
cover a distance of 3000 km. (ANS: t = 30,000 s)
3. What is the speed of a racing car in metres per second if the car covers 360 k/h in 2 hours?
(ANS: V = 50 m/s)
4. The average speed of a car is 25 m/s .Calculate the distance travelled by the car in 30
minutes.(ANS: d = 45 000 m or 45 km)
5. Which of the following quantities are scalar?
Displacement, speed, acceleration, velocity and distance.
6. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47s. Determine the
acceleration of the car and the distance traveled (a = 11.2m/s2 , d = 79.8 m)
7. State the difference between distance and displacement
8. A man runs 800 m due North in 100 seconds , followed by 400 m South in 80 seconds
.Calculate,
a) His average speed (ANS: V = 6.67 m/s)
b) His average velocity (ANS:V = 2.22 m/s due North)
c) His change in velocity for the whole journey (ANS:V = 3 m/s due North)
9. Define speed and explain what is meant by average speed. A motorist travels from a town A
to town B , 145 km distant in 3 h 45 minutes. Find his average speed:
(a) In km/h (ANS: V = 38.7 km/h)
(b) In m/s (ANS: V = 10.7 m/s)
10. A car initially moving at a velocity of 2 m/s takes 2 minutes to reach a velocity of 20 m/s. What
is the average acceleration of the car? (ANS: a = 0.15 m/s2)
11. How long does it take a truck initially at rest to accelerate to 20 m/s if the acceleration is 2 m/s.
(ANS: t = 10 s)
12. A kangaroo is capable of jumping to a height of 2.62 m. Determine the takeoff speed of the
kangaroo. (ANS: v = 7.17 m/s)
13. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15 km/hr in 10 seconds. Find
(a) The acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 0.42 m/s2)
(b) Distance covered during this period in meters . (ANS: s = 21 m)
14. A dragster accelerates to a speed of 112 m/s over a distance of 398 m. Determine the
acceleration of the dragster. (ANS: a = 15.8 m/s2)
15. The maximum retardation with which the breaks of a locomotive can reduce its speed is 1.8
m/s2. Calculate the time in which the locomotive can be brought to rest . (ANS: t = u/1.8)
16. A bullet leaves a riffle with a muzzle velocity of 521 m/s. While accelerating through the barrel
of the riffle, the bullet moves a distance of 0.840 m. Determine the acceleration of the
bullet.(assume a uniform acceleration.)
(ANS: a = 1.62 x 105 m/s2)
17. A car moving along a straight road ABC as shown in the figure below.

It maintains an average speed of 90 km/h between point A and B and 36 km/h between
point B and C. Calculate the:

GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 103
 a) Time taken in seconds by the car between points A and C.
(ANS: t = 300 s)
b) The average speed in metres per second of the car between points
A and C. (ANS: V = 13 m/s)
18. A tennis ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m/s. Calculate the time taken for
the ball to return to its starting point. (ANS: t = 4 s)
19. (a) Sketch a velocity – time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration from 5 m/s to 25
m/s in 15 seconds.
(b) Use the sketch graph to find the values for:-
(i) The acceleration. (ANS: a = 1.33 m/s2)
(ii) The total distance travelled during acceleration. (ANS: s = 225 m)
20. A car with a velocity 50 m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest after 10 seconds.
Calculate its acceleration. (ANS: a = - 5 m/s)
21. What is the mass of a body which when acted on by a force of 3 N accelerates at 7m/s 2 (ANS:
m = 0.428 kg)
22. A car travelled from town A to town B 200 km east of A in 3 hours. The car changed direction
and travelled a distance of 150 km due North from town B to town C in 2 hours. Calculate the
average
4. Speed for the whole journey (ANS: V = 70 km/h)
5. Velocity for the whole journey (ANS: V = 50 km/h)
23. A tennis ball hits a vertical wall at a velocity of 10 m/s and bounces off at the same velocity.
Determine the change in velocity. (ANS:V = 20 m/s)
24. A football kicked horizontally from a vertical cliff has a vertical velocity of 30 m/s when i t
reaches the sea below
(a) Calculate the time the ball takes to reach the sea. (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The initial horizontal velocity of the ball is 15 m/s. Calculate the horizontal distance
travelled by the ball. (ANS: s = 45 m)
25. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration. (ANS: a = 2 m/s2)
26. A car is brought to rest from 180 km/h in 20 seconds. What is its retardation?
(ANS: a = -2.5 m/s2)
27. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s 2 for 20 s.It then maintains a
constant velocity for 10 s. The brakes are then applied and the car is uniformly retarded and
comes to rest in 5 s. Draw the velocity – time graph for the motion and find:
(a) The maximum velocity. (ANS: v = 40 m/s)
(b) The retardation in the last 5 seconds. (ANS: a = -8 m/s2)
(c) Total distance travelled. (ANS: s = 900 m)
(d) Average velocity. (ANS: V = 25.71 m/s)
28. A car starts from rest and attains a velocity 20 m/s in 10 s. If it travels at this velocity for 5 s
and then decelerates to stop after another 6 s. Draw the velocity time graph for this motion.
From the graph:
a) Calculate the total distance moved by the car (ANS: s = 260 m)
b) Find the acceleration of the car at each stage
(ANS: a1 = 2 m/s2, a2 = 0 m/s2 and a3 = - 3.33 m/s2)
29. Define the term acceleration due to gravity
30. A stone is let to fall vertically down from a window on the 10 th floor of a building 40 m above
the ground. Find the time taken by the stone to reach the ground.
31. A ticker – tape is moved through a ticker – timer for 5.0 seconds. If the timer is operating at 25
Hz
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 104
 (i) How many dots would have been printed on the tape? (ANS: n=125 dots)
(ii) What kind of motion does the tape represents? (ANS: Linear motion)
32. A stone dropped down a well takes 3.0 s to reach the surface of the water .How far is the
water surface below the top of the well? (ANS: h = 45 m)
33. A car on a straight road accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in 5 s. It then travels at the
same speed for 5 minutes and then brakes for 10 s in order to stop. Calculate the:
(a) Acceleration of the car during the motion (ANS: a = 6 m/s2)
(b) Deceleration of the car (ANS: a = -3 m/s)
(c) Total distance travelled (ANS: d = 9 225 m)
34. A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 5 s. Thereafter it decelerates to a rest in 8
s. Calculate the acceleration of the car
(a) In the first 5 s (ANS: a = 4 m/s2)
(b) In the next 8 s (ANS: a = -2.5 m/s2)
35. A rocket fired vertically upward with a velocity of 60 m/s falls back to earth .Ignoring the effects
of air resistance ,Calculate the greatest height reached by the rocket (ANS: h = 180 m)
36. An electric train moving at 20 km/h accelerates to a speed of 30 km/h in 20 s. Find the
average acceleration in m/s 2 and the distance travelled in metres during the period of the
acceleration. (ANS: a = 0.14 m/s2 , s = 139 m)
37. A tennis ball is dropped on to the floor from a height of 10 m. It rebounds to a height of 2.5 m.
If the ball is in contact with the floor for 0.01 s. What is the average acceleration during the
contact? Take g = 10 m/s2 (AN: a = 2121 m/s2)
38. The speed of goods truck which has been shunted on to a level siding falls from 10 km/h to 5
km/h in moving a distance of 30 m. If the retardation is constant, how much further will the
truck travel before coming to rest? (ANS: s = 10 m)
39. A stone is dropped into a deep well and is heard to hit the water 3.41 s after being dropped.
Determine the depth of the well. (ANS: d = 57.0 m)
40. A car travelling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the skidding distance of the
car. (ANS: d = 28.6 m)
41. A train, 90 m long, stops in a station with its front buffers in line with a lamp – post on the
platform. Later it starts off with an average acceleration of 0.45 m/s 2. What will be its speed, in
km/h, when the tail buffers pass the lamp – post? (ANS: V = 32.4 km/h)
42. A car runs at a constant speed of 15 m/s for 300 s and then accelerates uniformly to a speed
of 25 m/s over a period of 20 s. This speed is maintained for 300 s before the car is brought to
rest with uniform deceleration in 30 s. Draw a velocity – time graph to represent the journey
described above. From the graph find:
(i) The acceleration while the velocity changes from 15 m/s to 25 m/s. (ANS: a = 0.5 m/s2)
(ii) The total distance travelled in the time described; (ANS: s = 12 775 m)
(iii) The average speed over the time described. (ANS: V = 19.7 m/s)
43. A bird flying horizontally at 4.8 m/s drops a stone from its beak. The stone hits the ground after
it has travelled a horizontal distance of 12 m
(a) After the bird dropped it , how long did it take the stone to fall to the ground
(ANS: t = 2.5 s)
(b) Calculate the vertical velocity of the stone when it hits the ground (ANS: v = 25 m/s)
44. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds. What is the acceleration of
the car? (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s)
45. A body moves with a uniform acceleration of 10 m/s 2 covers a distance of 320 m. If its initial
velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity (ANS: v = 100 m/s)
46. A body whose initial velocity is 30 m/s moves with a constant retardation of 3 m/s 2. Calculate
the time taken for the body to come to rest. (ANS: t = 30 s)
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 105
47. Two stones are thrown vertically upwards from the same point with the same velocity of 20
m/s but at an interval of 2 seconds. When they meet, the second stone rising at 10 m/s.
Calculate:
a) The time taken by the second stone in air before they meet. (ANS: t = 1 s)
b) The velocity of the first stone when they meet. (ANS: V = 10 m/s, downward)
48. Explain the difference between speed and velocity. Draw a graph of velocity against time for a
body which starts with an initial velocity of 4 m/s and continues to move with an acceleration of
1.5 m/s2 for 6 s. Show how you would find from the graph:
(a) The average velocity. (ANS: V = 8.5 m/s)
(b) The distance moved in the 6 s. (ANS: s = 51 m)
49. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final velocity of 100 m/s I 10 seconds. Calculate
the distance moved. (ANS: s = 500 m)
50. A stone is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s from the ground. Calculate
a) The time it takes to attain maximum height (ANS: t = 3 s)
b) The time of flight (ANS: T = 2t = 6 s)
c) The maximum height reached (ANS: h = 45 m)
d) The velocity with which it lands on the ground (ANS: V = 30 m/s)
51. Two cars A and B start moving at the same time along a straight line with uniform acceleration
of 5 m/s2 and 3 m/s2, respectively. If A is 60 km behind B, after how long will car overtake car
B? (ANS: t = 245 s)
52. Define the term uniform acceleration of a body
53. A small solid sphere falls freely from rest, in air, with an acceleration of 10 m/s 2.How far does it
fall in 5.0 s? (ANS: h = 125 m)
54. A motorcyclist accelerates from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 20 s. Calculate:
(a) The acceleration of the motorcyclist
(b) The displacement of the motorcyclist
55. An object is thrown vertically upward from the ground at 30 ms-1.
(a) What is the displacement after 4 s? (ANS: h = 42 m)
(b) What is the velocity after 4 s? (ANS: v = - 9 m/s)
(c) What is the maximum height it attains? (ANS: H = 46 m)
(d) What is the time of flight? (ANS: T = 6.1 s)
56. A small iron ball is dropped from the top of a vertical cliff and takes 2.5 s to reach the sandy
beach below. Find:
(a) The velocity with which it strikes the sand. (ANS: v = 25 m/s)
(b) The height of the cliff .If the ball penetrates the sand to a depth of 12.5 cm, calculate its
average retardation. (ANS: h = 31.25 m ,a = 2500 m/s2)
57. A balloon is ascending at the rate of 12 m/s. When it is at a height of 65 m from the ground, a
packet is dropped from it. After how much time and with what velocity does the packet reach
the ground? Take g = 10 m/s2 (t = 5 s, v = 38 m/s)
58. An object is seen to fall from an aeroplane and observed to take 15 seconds in reaching the
ground . Assuming that air resistance is negligible, calculate
(a) the height of the plane. (ANS: h = 1103 m)
(b) the velocity with which the object strikes the ground (ANS: v = 147 m/s)
59. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 400 m high and at the same time another stone is
projected upward vertically from the ground with a velocity of 100 m/s. Find when and where
the two will meet. (ANS: t = 4 s, h = 78.4 m)
60. A body is dropped from rest at a height of 150 m and simultaneously another body is dropped
from rest from a point 100 m above the ground .What is the difference of their heights after
they have fallen for 3 seconds? .(AN: ∆𝒉 = 50 m)
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 106
61. A car travels at a uniform velocity of 20 m/s for 5 s. The brakes are then applied and the car
comes to rest with uniform retardation in a further 8 s. Draw a sketch graph of velocity against
time. How far does the car travel after the brakes are applied. (ANS: s = 80 m)
62. A trolley starts from rest on an inclined plane and moves down it with uniform acceleration.
After having moved a distance of 40 cm its velocity is 20 cm/s. Find its acceleration: (a) in
cm/s2 (b) in m/s2 (AN: a = 5 cm/s2 ,a = 0.05 m/s2)
63. A motorist, travelling at 90 km/h, applies his brakes and comes to rest with uniform retardation
in 20 s. Calculate the retardation in m/s 2. (ANS: a = 1.25 m/s2)
64. Define speed, velocity and acceleration.
(a) A stone is released from rest at the top of a tall tower .Draw a distance – time graph of its
free fall under gravity during the first 6 s. Show your table of values.
(b) A bullet, fired vertically upwards from a gun held 2 m above the ground ,reaches its
maximum height in 4 s. Calculate:
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet. (ANS: v = 40 m/s)
(ii) The total distance the bullet travels by the time it hits the ground, given that g = 10
m/s2. (ANS: s = 162 m)
65. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 3 m/s 2, for 4 s. Its velocity remains constant at the
maximum value so reached for 7 s and it finally comes to rest with uniform retardation after
another 5 s. Find by a graphical method:
(a) The distance moved during each stage of the motion.(s =24 m, s= 30 m)
(b) The average velocity over the whole period. (ANS: V = 8.6 m/s)
66. An object travelling at 10 m/s decelerates at 2.0 m/s 2 .How long does the object take before
coming to rest? Calculate the distance travelled by the object before it comes to rest.
67. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/hr is uniformly retarded by an application of brakes and
comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg. Calculate
(a) The braking force (ANS: F = 3,125 N)
(b) The work done in bringing it to rest.(ANS: Wd = -2.5 x 105 J)
68. A bus starts to move with acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .A man who is 48 m behind the bus runs to
catch it with a constant velocity of 10 m/s. In how much time he will catch the bus? (ANS: t = 8
s or 12 s)
69. A ball is thrown straight up. What is its velocity and acceleration at the top? (ANS: V at top =
0 m/s, acceleration at top = 9.8 m/s2)
70. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s from the top of a tower 20
m high. Find:
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height. (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The total time which elapses before it reaches the ground. (A:t = 6.6 s)
71. A projectile is fired vertically upwards and reaches a height of 125 m. Find the velocity of
projection and the time it takes to reach its highest point. (ANS: V = 50 m/s, t = 5 s)
72. A cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1.0 m/s 2 for 30 s. The cyclist then travels at a
constant speed for 1 minute and then decelerates uniformly and comes to a stop in the next
30 s.
(a) Find the maximum speed attained in
i) Metres per second
ii) Kilometer per hour
(b) Calculate the total distance travelled
73. A racing car accelerates on a straight section of a road from rest to a velocity of 50 m/s in 10
s. Find:
(a) The acceleration of the car
(b) The distance travelled by the car in 10 s.
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 Chapter: 07
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Some examples of inertia in everyday life
 When a train suddenly starts moving forward, the passenger standing in the compartment
tends to fall backwards: This is because the lower part of body of the passenger is in close
contact with the train. As the train starts moving, the lower part of passenger’s body shares
the motion, but the upper part due to inertia of rest cannot share the motion simultaneously
and so it remains at rest. Consequently, the lower part of the body moves ahead and the
upper part is left behind due to the inertia of rest and the passenger tends to fall backwards.
 Traveling in a Bus: You would have felt like a jerk while traveling on a bus. The passengers
standing in a moving bus experience a sudden forward fall when the driver applies the
brakes, this sudden forward fall is due to inertia of motion. Similarly, when a speeding bus
stops suddenly, then the body moves forward because the lower part of the body is at rest
and the upper part of the body tends to remain in motion. Hence, this causes the passengers
to feel a forward push
 Marathoner running beyond finish line. A marathon runner is not able to stop himself right
after crossing the finish line. He/she tends to take time and cover a few meters of distance
running beyond the finish line. This is because the inertia of motion or Newton’s first law of
motion resists a sudden termination of motion and compels the body to maintain its state of
motion.
 When a passenger jumps out of a moving bus/train, he falls down: This is so because
inside the bus/train, his complete body was in a state of motion with the bus/train. On
jumping out of the moving bus/train as soon as his feet touch the ground, the lower part of his
body comes to rest, while the upper part still remains in motion due to the inertia of motion.
This makes him falls in the direction of motion of the bus/train. To avoid falling, the passenger
should run on the ground in the direction of motion of the bus/train for some distance as soon
as his feet touch the ground.
 A ball thrown vertically upwards by a person in a moving train comes back to his
hand: the reason is that, at the moment the ball was thrown, the ball was in motion along
with the person and the train, due to the inertia of motion. So during the time ball remains in
air, both the person and the ball move ahead by the same distance. This makes the ball to
come back to his hand on its return.
 Fruits and leaves fall off on shaking tree branches; Initially both the tree and the fruits
hanging to its branches are in a state of rest. When the branches of the tree are shaken, it is
set into motion while the fruits remain in a state of rest due to the inertia of rest. Thus, the
fruits get detached from the branches and fall down due to the pull of gravity.
 A ball rolling on the ground. As per Newton’s first law of motion, a ball rolling on the ground
tends to maintain its state of motion till infinity, if no external force acts on it; however, the force of
friction acting on the ball from the outside helps to break the motion of the ball and brings it to rest.

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  Dusting a Carpet. To remove the dust particles from a carpet, it is hanged on a wire and a
piece of the stick is used to hit the carpet repeatedly. This induces motion in the carpet,
whereas the dust particles continue to maintain their state of rest. When the carpet moves
back, the dust particles get carried away with air or fall to the ground due to gravity, thereby
demonstrating the law of inertia
 An object through in outer space. If an object is thrown in outer space, it tends to move in
a direction to infinity. This is because outer space lacks environment, air, and the force of
gravity. Hence, the object does not receive any resistance to the motion; therefore, it
continues to exhibit motion until it hits a celestial body, strikes a meteorite, or enters the
gravitational field of a planet, thereby demonstrating the first law of motion in real life.

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Chapter: 08 Temperature
 When your mother is cooking bread for you and you touch the bread, how does it feels? It
feels hot. Again when you are eating an ice cream, how do you feel the ice cream? It feels
cool
 To describe how much hot or cold a thing is, scientists use the term “Temperature". A hot
body is at high temperature and a cold body is at low temperature.
 For example, if you place one hand in hot water and the other in cold water, and then place
both hands in tepid water, the tepid water will feel cool to the hand that was in hot water, and
warm to the one that was in cold water. Therefore; temperature is defined as the degree of
coldness or hotness of a body.
 We can guess the temperature of a body by touching it. But this is not an accurate and safe
method for measuring temperature. In order to measure temperature accurately and safely at
home or at school laboratory, we use an instrument called Thermometer.
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin, K. Other unit is Celsius, (0C) or Fahrenheit,( 0F)
 Kelvin scale is also known as absolute or thermodynamic scale.

Temperature scale;
 There are three temperature scales in use today. The three most common temperature scales
are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.

(a) Fahrenheit Scale (0F)

 Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212
for the boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.
 The conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its
𝟗
Fahrenheit (F) representation is: 𝑭 = 𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐.
𝟓

(b) Celsius Scale (0C)

 Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based
on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water. It is sometimes
called the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree interval between the defined
points.
 The following formula can be used to convert a temperature from its representation on
𝟓
the Fahrenheit (F) scale to the Celsius (C) value : 𝑪 = (𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐).
𝟗
 The Celsius scale is in general use wherever metric units have become accepted, and it
is used in scientific work everywhere.

(c) Kelvin Scale (K).

 Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in
the International System (SI) of measurement.
 It was designed in order to set the absolute zero (0K) as the lowest temperature to which
matter can be cooled. The 0K is equivalent to –2730 C (the theoretical temperature at
which the molecules of a substance have the lowest energy).
 Therefore, on Kelvin Scale, water freezes at 273K (equivalent to 00C) and boils at 373K
(equivalent to 1000C)
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  The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale. The difference between the freezing and
boiling points of water is 100 degrees in each, so that the Kelvin has the same magnitude
as the degree Celsius, see the figure below.
 A mathematical equation that gives the relationship between the Celsius and Kelvin
scales is; 𝑲 = 0𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Difference between heat and temperature

Heat Temperature
Is a form of energy possessed by a body due to Is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
its temperature change
Its SI unit is Joule (J) Its SI unit is Kelvin (K)
It cannot be measured directly It can be measured by a thermometer
It can be transferred from one body to another It cannot be transferred
Similarities between Heat and temperature
 Heat and temperature all relate to the energy of a body
Convert temperatures between the Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales.
Worked Examples:
1. Convert 600 0F into the 0C scale
Solution:
𝟓
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎: 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 0 C = × ( 𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝜽 C=
0 × ( 𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐) = × (𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟐) = × 𝟓𝟔𝟖 = 𝟑𝟏𝟓. 𝟔 0C
𝟗 𝟗 𝟗

2. Convert 398 K to degree Celsius.

Solution:
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎: 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 0 C = Temperature in K – 273
∴ 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 0 C = 398 – 273 = 1250 C

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 3. Room temperature” is generally defined to be 25ºC.
(a) What is room temperature in ºF? (b) What is it in K?
ANS;
𝟗 𝟗
(a) 𝑭 = × 𝜽°𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐°𝑪  𝑭 = × 𝟐𝟓°𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐°𝑪 = 𝟕𝟕0F
𝟓 𝟓
(b) 𝑲 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 + 𝜽°𝑪  𝑲 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 + 𝟐𝟓°𝑪 = 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝑲
Class Activity – 8:1
1. After being mixed with impurities, the melting of ice was found to be -22 0 C. What is this
temperature in Kelvin? (ANS: 𝜽 0 C = 251 K)
2. The temperature of the liquid nitrogen is 77 K. What is this temperature on the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scale? (ANS: -196 0C and -320 0F)
3. Convert 385K to temperature in degree Fahrenheit. [ANS; 233.60F]
4. Two scientists are doing an experiment designed to identify the boiling point of an unknown
liquid. One scientist gets a result of 120 0C; the other gets a result of 250 0F. Which
temperature is higher and by how much?[ANS: 250 0F is the higher temperature by 2 0F]
5. The boiling point of water is 100°C. What temperature does water boil at in the Fahrenheit
scale? [ANS; 212 0F]
6. A cook puts a thermometer into a pot of water to see how hot it is. The thermometer reads
1320, but the water is not boiling yet. Which temperature scale is the thermometer
measuring? [ANS; Fahrenheit]
A temperature scale is built from:
(a) At least two fixed points which are:-
 Upper fixed point (steam point) – the temperature of the pure boiling water at normal
atmospheric pressure
 Lower fixed point (ice point) – the temperature of a pure melting ice at normal
atmospheric pressure
(b) Fundamental interval – the difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed
point on a temperature scale.
𝒊. 𝒆 Fundamental interval = Upper fixed point (U.F.P) – Lower fixed point (L.F.P)
 The figure below shows the fundamental interval (difference between the Steam point and
Ice point) for Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin Scale respectively

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NB:
 Upper fixed point (steam) is the maximum temperature a reference object can attain without
change of the desired state
 Lower fixed point is the minimum temperature a reference object can attain without change
of the desired state
 Fundamental interval refers to the span of numbers between the upper fixed point and the
lower fixed point

Calibration of a Thermometer
 Thermometers should be calibrated regularly to make sure the readings are correct. The ice-
point method is the most widely used method to calibrate a thermometer.
 To calibrate a thermometer means to put the correct mark of readings at the correct place so
that other temperatures can be deduced from these marks
 OR; Calibration refers to the process of graduating an instrument to give quantitative
measurements that allow scientists to produce accurate readings.
 An uncalibrated thermometer may not read 0 0C for the freezing point of water, or 100 0C for
its boiling point, but we know these values to be accurate
 To do this, two extreme points are chosen to mark its scale and these points must be able to
be reproduced accurately.
 The following steps are taken to calibrate a thermometer:
(i) Determine the lower fixed point of the thermometer. Mark the point on the thermometer.
(ii) Determine the upper fixed point of a thermometer. Mark the point on the thermometer
(iii) Divide the difference between the two points into 100 equal points. Mark the points as a
scale along the stem either in Celsius scale or Kelvin or both.
(iv) Measure the temperature of various objects using your thermometer

 If 𝒍𝟎 is the length of the mercury thread above the bulb at melting ice, 𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 is the length of
the mercury thread of steam at 760 mmHg and 𝒍𝜽 is the length of mercury thread for the
object being measured. Then the required temperature 𝑻 is given by
𝒍𝜽 −𝒍𝟎
𝑻= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪 OR;
𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝒍𝟎

𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑳.𝑭.𝑷

𝑻 = × 𝑼. 𝑭. 𝑷 𝒊𝒏 (0C)
𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍

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  Diagrammatically is shown in the figure below

Worked examples;
1. The length of the mercury column in a non-calibrated mercury thermometer is 2cm when its
bulb is immerse in melting ice and 20cm when the bulb is in steam above boiling water. What
would the temperature be is the length of the mercury column is 11cm?
ANS; 𝒍𝜽 = 𝟏𝟏𝒄𝒎, 𝒍𝟎 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
From;
𝒍𝜽 − 𝒍𝟎 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟗
𝑻= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪  𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑪
𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍𝟎 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐 𝟏𝟖
2. The length of the alcohol column in a thermometer is 2.5cm and 17.5cm when the
thermometer is dipped into a melting ice and a boiling water respectively. Find the distance
between every 10°C of the scale on the thermometer.
ANS; 𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍𝟎 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓 − 𝟐. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝒙 = 𝒍𝜽 − 𝒍𝟎 =?, 𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎0C
𝒍𝜽 −𝒍𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎×𝟏𝟓
From; 𝑻 = 𝒍 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪  𝟏𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪  𝒙 = = 𝟏. 𝟓 cm
𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝒍𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎

3. On a particular liquid – in – glass thermometer the distance between the 0 0C and 1000C
marks is 22.3cm. What could be the distance between 300C and 600C marks?
ANS; Let height of liquid above the lower fixed point be 𝒙
Fundamental Interval = 𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝒄𝒎, 𝑼. 𝑭. 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎0C
For; 𝑻 = 300C,
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑳.𝑭.𝑷
𝑻 = × 𝑼. 𝑭. 𝑷 𝒊𝒏 (0C)
𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍
𝒙 𝒙 𝟑𝟎×𝟐𝟐.𝟑
𝑻= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪  𝟑𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪  𝒙 = = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟗 cm
𝟐𝟐.𝟑 𝟐𝟐.𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎

For; 𝑻 = 600C
𝒍𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝒄𝒎, 𝒙 = 𝒍𝟑𝟎 − 𝒍𝟎 =?, 𝑻 = 𝟔𝟎0C
𝒍𝜽 −𝒍𝟎 𝒙 𝟔𝟎×𝟐𝟐.𝟑
From; 𝑻 = 𝒍 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑪  𝟔𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪  𝒙 = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟖 cm
𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝒍𝟎 𝟐𝟐.𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Therefore; the distance between 300C and 600C marks = 13.38 – 6.69 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟗 𝒄𝒎
Class Activity – 8:2
1. The length of the mercury column in a mercury thermometer was 15mm when it was placed
in melting ice, 200mm when it was placed in steam and 100mm when it was placed in a hot
liquid. What is the temperature of the liquid? [ANS; 45.950C]
2. The upper and lower fixed points of a thermometer are separated by 180mm. What is the
temperature in Celsius if the length of the mercury thread is 90mm above the lower fixed
point? [ANS; 500C]

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 3. Find the temperature in 0C if the length of mercury thread is 7cm from the point and
fundamental interval is 20cm. [ANS; 350C]
4. The upper fixed point of a thermometer is 23 cm above the lower fixed point .If the upper
fixed point is 90 0C while the lower fixed point is 25 0C ,What is the temperature when the
mercury thread is 14 cm above the lower fixed point? [ANS; 54.80C]
5. The top of a mercury thread of a given thermometer is 3cm from the ice point, if the
fundamental interval is 5cm, determine the unknown temperature 𝜽. [ANS; 600C]
6. Describe how you will calibrate a clinical thermometer
7. In an uncalibrated mercury thermometer, the length of the mercury thread above the bulb is
18mm at a temperature of melting ice and 138mm at a temperature of steam at 760mm Hg.
When placed in a hot liquid the length of the mercury thread is 118mm. calculate the
temperature of the liquid.(𝑨𝑵𝑺; 𝜽 = 𝟖𝟑℃)
8. Differentiate between upper fixed point and lower fixed point
9. The length of a mercury thread at a low fixed point and upper fixed point are 2cm and 8cm
respectively for a certain liquid X. Given that the length of mercury thread at unknown
temperature 𝜽 is 6cm determine the value of 𝜽. [ANS; 66.70C]

Thermometric liquids
 Liquids whose volumes vary continuously with temperature are called thermometric liquids
and they are used to make good liquid thermometers. Common examples of thermometric
liquids include mercury and alcohol
Characteristics of Thermometric Liquid
(a) The liquid must be a good thermal conductor
(b) The liquid must be easily visible
(c) The liquid must have a wide range of temperature
(d) The liquid should not stick on to the walls of the container
(e) The liquid should be sensitive to minute temperature changes
(f) It should have a small specific heat capacity
Advantages of alcohol as a thermometric liquid:
a) Has a low freezing point of -115 0C
b) Its expansion is uniform (It expands more than mercury)
c) It is cheap and easily available
d) It is clear visible through glass
e) It is less toxic and less hazardous
Disadvantages of alcohol as a thermometric liquid
a) It cannot measure a high temperature, because its boiling point is low
b) Less durable (alcohol evaporates)
c) It makes wet the wall of the glass
d) The liquid should be dyed before filling the bulb
Advantages of mercury as a thermometric liquid:
a) It has a high boiling point (357°C) and low melting point (-39°C).
b) It is visible, because its color silvery shining
c) It does not stick to the wall of its place
d) It is a good thermal conductor
e) Its expansion is regular
f) It is very sensitive to temperature changes.

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Disadvantages of Mercury as Thermometric Liquid
a) It is relatively expensive
b) It is toxic
c) Its freezing point is – 39 0C, hence is not suitable in reading very low temperature
Why water is not used as a thermometric liquid?
a) Its expansion is not linear
b) It has high freezing point and low boiling point
c) It has high specific heat capacity
d) It is transparent (colorless)
e) It is poor conductor of heat
f) It wets glass and sticks to the sides of the glass.
NB:
Thermometric property
 Is a physical property of matter on which a thermometer is based on
 OR Is the property of a material that varies with the temperature of it
 OR Is the property of a substance which changes uniformly with the uniform change in
temperature

Comparing thermometric liquids

Mercury Alcohol
It is opaque and makes reading easy. It is coulorless and makes reading difficult. It
needs to be colored.
It expands regularly It has a somewhat irregular expansion
It has a high boiling point, 357℃. It boils at 78℃ .
It freezes at -39℃. It freezes at -115℃ .
It has a lower expansivity than alcohol. It has a higher expansivity than that of
mercury.
It is a good conductor of heat It is a poor conductor of heat
It does not stick to the wall of the glass It sticks to the wall of glass
Class Activity – 8:3
1. State reasons why mercury is usually preferred to alcohol as a thermometric liquid.
2. What are the advantages of alcohol over mercury as a thermometric liquid?
3. Suggest reasons why water is never used as a thermometric liquid although it is fairly
abundant.

Liquid – in – Glass thermometers

 A thermometer is a device that is used to measure the temperature of a system in a
quantitative way. Liquid – in glass thermometer are the most often used for temperature
measurement
 A typical liquid in glass thermometer consists of a glass cylinder with a bulb at one end , a
capillary tube inside the glass cylinder
 When the thermometer is put in a warm or hot substance, the liquid in the bulb expands
forcing its way in the bore or narrow capillary to a length that corresponds with the
temperature of the substance.
 There are two major types of Liquid-in-glass thermometers which are mentioned below:

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 (i) Mercury – in – glass thermometers - Is a type of thermometer that uses a bulb filled
with mercury as the temperature sensor
(ii) Alcohol – in – glass thermometers – Is a type of thermometer that uses a bulb filled
with alcohol as the temperature sensor
 Examples of liquid in glass thermometers are clinical thermometer, six’s thermometer,
laboratory thermometer
 The figure below shows the structure of a liquid – in – glass thermometer

Parts and Functions of a liquid –in – glass thermometer

Part Function
Bulb It stores the liquid. The liquid stored in the bulb is typically filled with
either mercury or red-coloured alcohol
Narrow Capillary  It gives the liquid a route of travel as it expands and contracts
tube (Bore)  It is very narrow to make thermometer more sensitive and accurate
Stem This surrounds the bore in the thermometer. It is also a magnifying
glass to enable easy reading of temperature
Expansion chamber This provides space where gases and air inside the capillary collect as
the liquid rises
A temperature scale It is basically preset or imprinted on the stem for displaying temperature
readings.

A working liquid The working liquid is generally either mercury or alcohol. This liquid is
free to expand and rise up into the tube when the temperature
increases, and to contract and move down the tube when the
temperature decreases.

Clinical thermometer (medical/doctors –thermometer)

 Is typically a mercury in – glass thermometer used to measure human body temperature
 Most show both Celsius scale and Fahrenheit temperature scales, and run from 35 degree
Celsius to 42 degree Celsius.
 It consists of
(a) A thin walled bulb containing mercury which warms quickly and makes the
thermometer quick – acting
(b) A narrow capillary bore for providing sensitivity of thermometer
(c) Narrow constriction just above the bulb for maintaining the reading (Makes the
reading not to change). It prevents the mercury in the bore from returning to the bulb.

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Mode of Action
 A thermometer works on the principle that solids and liquids expand on heating.
 Consider the diagram below

 The thermometer is placed inside the mouth of the patient to measure the body temperature.
As the temperature of mercury in the glass bulb rises up due to the heat of the body, mercury
expands and it starts to flow through the thin capillary thread at a certain level. The new level
of mercury indicates the body temperature. The reading of the temperature does not change
even after removing the thermometer from the mouth because the kink in the capillary does
not allow the mercury to flow back. Therefore, the new level of mercury does not change.
 To bring the mercury back in the bulb, the thermometer needs to be jerk or swing sharply a
few times. This would allow the mercury back to the glass bulb.
NB:
 Constriction: is a bend on the capillary tube or a very thin bore found at the neck of a
clinical thermometer
 Short stem: is the glass cover of a liquid – in – glass thermometer where the scale is
calibrated
 Fine bore: is the space inside a capillary tube
 It is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water at normal atmospheric
pressure because the glass will crack (burst) due to excessive pressure created by
expansion of mercury

Limitation of Clinical Thermometer

 They do not reflect the core temperature of the body
 May spread infection if not properly sterilized
 They are delicate and can break easily

Precautions taken when using Clinical Thermometer

 Handle the thermometer with care. If it hits against some hard object, it may break.
 Do not bend it or bite the bulb
 Do not place the thermometer in a hot flame or in the hot sun.
 Do not use damaged or broken thermometer as it can cause injury
 Keep the mercury level along your line of sight and then take the reading.
 Keep it away from unsupervised children
 Sterilize it after use to avoid contamination
 Jerk the thermometer a few times to bring the level of the mercury down.
 Do not hold the thermometer by its bulb.

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Class Activity – 8:4
1. What is the range of a clinical thermometer in Fahrenheit scale in clinical thermometer?
2. We are advised not to use a clinical thermometer for measuring the temperature of any object
other than human body. Also we are advised to avoid keeping it in the sun or near a flame.
Why?
ANS; A clinical thermometer has a small temperature range, i.e. 350C to 420 C. Temperatures
under direct sun or near the flame are very high. The glass will crack/ burst due to excessive
expansion of mercury inside the capillary tube of a clinical thermometer.
That’s why we should avoid keeping a clinical thermometer in the sun or near a flame.
3. What is the function of a kink in a clinical thermometer?
4. Draw a diagram of a clinical thermometer and label its parts
5. Explain the working of a clinical thermometer
6. How a clinical thermometer retains its reading even after taken out from the mouth?
7. Why there is a kink in a clinical thermometer and not in laboratory thermometer?
8. Explain the limitations of the clinical thermometer and the precautions to be taken when using
it?
9. Explain how will you use the clinical thermometer to measure the body temperature of your
sister
10. Jackson wanted to measure the temperature of hot milk using a clinical thermometer. His
teacher stopped him from doing so. Then he told him that ‘We are advised not to use a
clinical thermometer for measuring the temperature of any object other than human body.
Also we are advised to avoid keeping it in the sun or near a flame”.
(a) Briefly explain why it is not a good idea to use clinical thermometer to measure the
temperature of any object other than human body
(b) Why we should avoid keeping the clinical thermometer in the sun or near a flame

Maximum and Minimum Thermometer (six’s thermometer)

 It is a mercury – in – glass and an alcohol – in – glass thermometer that is used to
measure the maximum and minimum temperature of a place during a day
 It consists of a U – shaped capillary tube with two separate temperature readings ,and a
small piece of steel called an index (marker)

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Working of Maximum and Minimum Thermometer (six’s thermometer
 A maximum and minimum thermometer works according to the expansion or contraction of
alcohol in a U-band-shaped tube.
 One side of the U-band-shaped tube measures the maximum temperature and the other
side measures the minimum temperature. On the rise of the temperature the alcohol
expands and pushes mercury upwards and on the decrease in temperature the alcohol
contracts and pulls the mercury in the minimum column resulting in the fall of mercury in a
maximum column. Mercury is in the bottom of the U-shaped tube in a maximum-minimum
temperature.
 The steel indexes are located on the surface of mercury. They move along with the flow of
mercury up and down.
 When the temperature reaches its maximum and minimum limits, the metal indexes remain
at that place. This helps in recording the maximum and minimum temperatures of the day.
 The indexes (markers) are reset by using a small magnet which can drag the markers
along the tube so that they again rest on the surface of the mercury.

NB;
 The maximum and minimum temperatures are read from the lower end of each marker
 It is important to note that the alcohol is used as the thermometric liquid, while the mercury
only serves as an indicator

Class Activity – 8:5

1. How to read Maximum and Minimum temperature in Six's Maximum and Minimum
Thermometer?
2. Explain how do we reset a maximum and minimum thermometer?

Laboratory thermometer
 Is a kind of thermometer designed mainly for scientific experiments which involve large
temperature changes
 It consists of a bulb filled with mercury , a capillary tube attached to the bulb ,a glass cover
(stem)

Precautions to be followed while using a Laboratory thermometer

 Do not tilt the thermometer while measuring the temperature. Place it upright.
 Note the reading only when the bulb has been surrounded by the substance from all sides.
Difference between clinical thermometer and laboratory thermometer
Clinical Thermometer Laboratory thermometer
Is the thermometer designed to measure Is the thermometer designed to measure
the body temperature of humans and the temperature of liquid and gas substance
animals
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 It is used at homes, hospitals and clinics It is used in laboratories
Its range of temperature is 35 0 C to 42 0C Its range of temperature is -10 0C to 110 0C
May be used by almost anybody Mainly used in the scientific filed
It is small in size It is large in size
Temperature can be read after removing the Temperature is read while keeping the
thermometer from body thermometer in the substance
(armpit or mouth)
Jerks are given to lower the mercury level. No need to jerk to lower the mercury level.

Similarities
 Both the thermometers are made of glass and consist of a long narrow glass tube.
 There is a bulb at one end of both of the thermometers.
 There is mercury in the bulbs of both thermometers.
 In both the thermometers, the temperature is measured on a Celsius scale.

Class Activity – 8:6

1. What happens if a clinical thermometer got break and the mercury comes out?
2. In what ways does a laboratory thermometer differ from a clinical thermometer?
3. State similarities and differences between the laboratory thermometer and the clinical
thermometer.

Self Assessment – 8
1. The temperature of a body is 47 0C. What would this temperature be in the Fahrenheit scale?
2. With reasons, explain why mercury is more preferred to alcohol in liquid – in – glass
thermometers.
3. Convert 212 0F into Kelvin scale
4. Using a clearly labeled diagram, describe a clinical thermometer
5. Define the following terms:-
a) Fundamental interval
b) Temperature
c) Thermometer
d) Constriction
e) Absolute zero temperature
f) Thermometric liquid
6. Water, though readily available, is not preferred for use as a thermometric liquid. Explain
7. A human body temperature is 37 0C. What is this temperature in Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale?
8. What is 172K in the Celsius scale?
9. Name three types of thermometer
10. Convert – 40 0C to 0F
11. The temperature of the surface of the sun is approximately 6000K .What is this temperature in
0C and 0 F?

12. Why is it not advisable to hold a thermometer by its bulb while noting the reading?
13. List advantages and disadvantages of mercury and alcohol as thermometric liquids
14. Explain the meaning of the following terms
(a) Lower fixed point.
(b) Upper fixed point.

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 (c) Fundamental interval.
15. List two advantages of mercury over alcohol as thermometric liquid.
16. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked 5 0C and 95 0C.What is the correct
temperature in 0C when this thermometer reads 59 0C
17. What are the advantages of alcohol(ethanol) over mercury
18. The ice and steam points on an ungraduated thermometer are found to be 192 mm apart.
What temperature is recorded in 0C when the length of the mercury thread is 67.2 mm above
the ice point mark? (ANS:𝜽 = 350 C)
19. Why should a clinical thermometer not be sterilized in boiling water?
20. If a faulty liquid-in-glass thermometer registers 1030C at 100 0C and has no zero error ,what
𝟏𝟎𝟑
will it register at 50 0C (ANS: 𝜽 = × 𝟓𝟎 = 51.50 C)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
21. State three desirable physical properties of a thermometric liquid
22. Explain why a clinical thermometer should never be put in hot water?
23. Explain why it is fairly easy to see the very thin mercury column in a clinical thermometer.
24. What special features ensure that a clinical thermometer
(i) Records the maximum temperature
(ii) Is sensitive
(iii) Is quick in action
25. Heat and temperature are closely related but they are different. State how they are related and
how they differ
26. What are the fixed points of a thermometer?
27. The temperature of the melting point of ice and that of steam above water boiling at 760
mmHg pressure are marked as 20 and 80 respectively on a certain thermometer .Calculate
the thermometer reading when the temperature is 60 0 C (ANS: thermometer reading = 36 →
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪)
𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
28. In a mercury centigrade thermometer ,the distance between 0 0C point and 200 C point is 4 cm.
What is the distance between 00 C point and 1000 C point? (L = 20 cm)
29. Mention four reasons why mercury is a better thermometric liquid than ethanol.
30. Why is ethanol used in minimum thermometers but not in maximum thermometers?
31. Why do we often feel cold after perspiring freely?
32. Explain why a swimmer coming out of water on a windy day usually feels cold.
33. A thermometer is directly dipped into the beaker containing boiling water.
(a) What does the thermometer measure?
(b) What is the liquid in the thermometer?
(c) What liquid would be used to measure a temperature of about – 800 C?
34. What does it mean by the term thermometric property?

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 Chapter: 09
Sustainable Energy Sources
Sustainable energy sources
 In recent years, the world has witnessed a growing concern about the impact of traditional
energy sources on our environment. As the effects of climate change become more
evident, the need for sustainable energy solutions has never been more critical.
 Sustainable energy, also known as renewable energy, offers a cleaner, greener
alternative that not only reduces carbon emissions but also ensures a brighter and
more sustainable future for generations to come.
 Thus; Sustainable energy includes any energy source that cannot be depleted and can
remain viable forever.
 All types of renewable energy sources like Hydropower, Solar, Wind, Geothermal, and
Ocean energy are sustainable as they are stable and they will continue to provide energy
to the coming generations.
 On the other hand there is a Non renewable Resource. The term
Nonrenewable Resource refers to a natural substance that is not replenished with the
speed at which it is consumed. As such, a nonrenewable resource is a finite resource.
Humans constantly draw on the reserves of these substances while the formation of new
supplies takes eons. There are four major types of Nonrenewable Resources includes:
Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, and Nuclear Energy. Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively
called Fossil Fuels. Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and
animals over millions of years

Types of Sources of Energy

 Non- renewable sources
 Renewable sources
Non- Renewable Sources
 These are the energy sources which cannot be turned into use again.
 For example oil, natural gas, charcoal, nuclear energy
 The following is a summary of non renewable energy resources:

Petroleum (Oil):
 Petroleum is a fossil fuel formed by heat and pressure from the Earth’s crust acting on the
fossilised remains of dead animals and plants. Petroleum reserves exist in the Earth’s crust
sandwiched between layers of impermeable rocks and porous rocks. The petroleum is
extracted from these reservoirs drilling oil wells and sinking pipes into the reservoirs to
pump the petroleum out.
Advantages;
 Easily converted to energy.
 Relatively easy to extract.
 Can be easily transported (pipelines, super-tankers)

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Disadvantages:
 Products of combustion (the gases given off when burnt) are atmospheric pollutants and
greenhouse gases.
 Accidents during transport, extraction and refining cause major environmental pollution.

Natural Gas
 Natural gas is a fossil fuel. Its formation is similar to that for petroleum; however the
conversion of the fossilized remains of the dead plants and animals to gas occurs at deeper
depths in the Earth’s crust where the pressure and heat is greater. Natural gas is extracted
in a similar way to petroleum by drilling holes and sinking pipes into the gas reservoirs, the
gas travels to its surface under its own pressure.

Advantages:
 Relatively easy to extract.
 Requires little processing (is extracted in a ready to use form)
 Is the cleanest of the fossil fuels.
Disadvantages:
 Produces greenhouse gases and atmospheric pollutants when burnt.

Coal
 Coal is a fossil fuel. Coal is formed from the fossilized remains of plants that once grew on
the earth. The action of the pressure and heat of the Earth’s crust over millions of years
converts the fossilised remains of these plants into coal. Coal is mined from coal seams in
the Earth’s crust. Where the coal is near the surface of the Earth, open cast mining is used
but in areas where the seam is deep underground mining is used to extract the coal.

Advantages:
 Of all the fossil fuels coal has the largest reserves.
 It is relatively easy and inexpensive to extract.

Disadvantages:
 Open cast mining damages the landscape and ecosystems.
 The burning of coal produces gases that are atmospheric pollutant and greenhouse gases.
 Due to the large amount of greenhouse gases coal produces power station require
expensive pollution control measures.

Nuclear energy;
 The most common form of nuclear fuel is Uranium. Uranium is a common metal found in
rocks all over the world. However, the particular form of Uranium best suited as a nuclear
fuel is Uranium – 235 and this is very rare. Uranium – 235 is extracted via mining and then
processed to make it usable as a fuel.

Advantages:
 Small amounts of fuel produce a large amount of energy.
 Does not produce atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases.
 Produces small amounts of waste.

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Disadvantages:
 Although small amounts of waste are produced, the waste is very dangerous.
 The waste needs to be disposed of carefully and responsibly.
 The risk of a nuclear accident can have catastrophic consequences as was the case of
Chernobyl.

Renewable Sources
 Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or
processes that are constantly replenished.
 Examples are sun, water, wind etc

Hydroelectric Energy (water energy)

 Hydroelectricity is a form of renewable energy that uses the water stored in dams as well as
flowing in rivers to create electricity in hydropower plants
OR
 Hydropower or hydroelectricity is the energy generated by the use of water. Dams and
reservoirs are constructed on flowing water which uses the kinetic energy of the water to
run turbines and in turn, generate electricity.

Generation of Hydroelectricity
 When water is collected and stored behind dams on large rivers, it can be used to provide a
source of energy for the generation of electricity. The enormous power of falling water is
capable of turning giant turbines which drive generators, to produce electricity.

 The amount of power in the water is determined by the volume of water and the distance it
falls. Hydroelectric power plants do not cause pollution, but there are fewer and fewer
places to build these large dams. Hydro energy is a renewable energy source.

Uses of water energy (Hydropower)

The following are some common uses of hydropower:
 Electricity Generation: Hydroelectric power plants convert the energy of flowing water into
electrical power. This electricity can be used for residential, commercial, and industrial
purposes.
 Water Supply: Hydropower is sometimes used to pump water for municipal water supply
systems. The energy generated can be used to ensure a consistent supply of clean drinking
water.

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 Irrigation: In agriculture, hydropower can be used to pump water for irrigation, providing a
reliable water source for crops.
 Industrial Processes: Hydropower can be used in various industrial applications, including
running machinery and equipment in factories.

Advantage of Using Water Energy

 It is a renewable form of energy. Hydroelectric energy is classified as a renewable energy
source because it is powered by water, and water is a naturally replenishing resource.
 It is Clean and safe energy. The production of electricity through the use of water does not
produce waste. This does not happen with other energies, such as nuclear or fossil fuel
energy, which is the main cause of climate change.
 It is reliable source of energy. Hydropower plants can be considered as a reliable energy
generation source because water is a natural resource that is available all year round. The
quality and quantity of it may get reduced due to seasonal change or other man-made reasons
but it can get replenished with time. Thus anyone setting hydropower plants will make sure
that water must be easily accessible in the areas where plants have been set up.
 It is operated at low cost.
 Electricity can be generated constantly due to constant flow of water

Disadvantage of using water energy

 It has an Environmental Impact. Perhaps the largest disadvantage of hydroelectric energy is

the impact it can have on the environment. Dams can damage or otherwise impact the
environment both upstream and downstream through their construction process during the
formation of the dam. To build a dam, new roads and power lines must be installed that
disrupt the environment. Dams also often form reservoirs that flood large areas and displace
natural habitats.
 It is expensive to construct (install). Another disadvantage of hydroelectric energy is the
expense required to build a dam in the first place. Although they don’t cost much to operate,
the time it takes for a dam to pay for itself can vary widely. Some dams take two to five years
to construct, while others like the Itaipu Dam in Brazil and Paraguay can take significantly
longer, leading to increased costs. For example the Itaipu Dam took more than 10 years and $
19 billion to build (more than Tsh. 40 trillion).
 The huge area is required hence can affect the ecology of the area
 Much of the energy produced is wasted in form of heat during transmission
 Hydropower production will depend on the amount of rainfall in the area: in periods of
drought, electricity production can drop considerably.
 If flooding happens due to natural calamities or the failure of dams, it would impact a large
area of land, which means that the natural environment can be destroyed.
 There are Limited Reservoirs. Although water is an unlimited resource, the conditions
necessary to build a dam are limited. This is another disadvantage of hydroelectric energy
because it means you cannot simply build a dam anywhere want. In fact, most locations that
are suitable for building hydroelectric dams have already been used for this purpose. Another
factor to consider is that even if a location could support a hydroelectric dam, it may not
generate enough profit to make the project worthwhile.

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Class Activity – 9:1
1. Explain the working of a hydroelectric power plant to produce electricity.
2. Differentiate between Renewable and No renewable energy
3. Give three disadvantages of hydroelectric power
4. What are advantages of using non renewable energy?
5. Give reason(s) why Non renewable energy is not the solution for climatic change
6. Why are many governments all over the world setting targets to reduce the use of Non –
renewable energy resources?
7. Explain why Renewable energy is called sustainable energy?

Solar Energy
 The sun is the primary source of all energy on Earth. Without the sun’s energy, fossil fuels
could never have existed. The sun’s energy creates the weather which produces the rains
and storms of the water cycle and the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface produces wind
energy.
 Solar energy can be used to cook food, heat water and generate electricity and remains the
cleanest renewable energy source on the planet.
 Solar energy is the radiant energy emitted by the sun.
 Solar energy converted by solar cells (photovoltaic or photoelectric cells).
 Photovoltaic cells, often referred to as solar cells or PV Cells, are devices that convert
sunlight directly into electricity. They are made of semiconductor materials like silicon,
which has unique properties that allow it to release electrons when exposed to sunlight.
These freed electrons create an electric current that can be captured and used to power
various devices

 The main surface of a solar panel (several thousand cells) is dull black to enhance the
absorption rate of the radiant energy from the sun.

How do Solar systems work to produce Electricity?

 Solar energy production begins when sunlight comes into contact with a solar panel. Sunlight
is a form of energy consisting of invisible particles called photons that have energy, but zero
rest mass. Solar panels collect photons and pass the photons through silicon cells to free up
the electrons contained therein and eventually processed them to form electricity.

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 The energy generated by a solar panel comes in a form of Direct Current (DC). The DC
current needs to be converted through an inverter to produce Alternating Current (AC) energy
which is the form of energy commonly used in homes and businesses.

Uses of solar energy

 It is used for lighting purposes
 It is used for provision of electricity that is used by electric appliances
 It is used for drying clothes
 It is used for heating of water
 It is used to power torches, cars and calculators
 It is used by spaceships and satellites to convert sunlight into electricity
Advantage of Solar Energy
 It is renewable and unlimited. Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important
thing is that solar energy is a truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas
of the world and is available every day. We cannot run out of the solar energy, unlike some of
the other sources of energy. Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun,
therefore sunlight will be available to us for at least 5 billion years when according to scientists
the sun is going to die.
 Environmentally Friendly. Solar energy is clean and produces no greenhouse gas emissions
during operation. By reducing reliance on fossil fuels, solar power helps combat air pollution
and climate change. It contributes to a greener and more sustainable future.
 It can be used for diverse purposes like producing electricity in areas without access to the
energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean water supplies and to power satellites
in space.
 Solar energy systems do not require a lot of maintenance. Solar panels are easy to
maintain, as they have no moving parts that wear out over time. Just keep them clean and in
good physical condition to keep them working properly.
 Offers energy security. Solar energy is a stable source of electricity. Once you have a solar
system set up, you will no longer be affected by power cut-outs
 Reduces electricity bills. Solar panels allow individuals and businesses to generate their
own electricity. By installing solar panels on your property, you become less dependent on
utility companies and can potentially reduce or eliminate your electricity bills.

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Disadvantage of Solar energy
 Solar panels are dependent on sunlight. It’s obvious that solar panels need sunlight to
generate electricity. They won’t produce electricity at night when you need it for light and
they can be inefficient during storms and gloomy days. Your solar energy system needs
batteries (to store extra power for use at night) if you plan to fully depend on solar energy to
power your home.
 It is cost for initial purchasing of a solar system. The initial installation and equipment
costs of solar panels can be quite high. This includes paying for solar panels, inverter,
batteries, wiring, and installation. This can be a significant barrier for many people who are
considering adopting solar energy. However, it's important to consider the long-term
savings and potential return on investment.
 Uses a lot of space (the more solar panel as you need). Generating significant amounts
of solar power requires a considerable amount of space for installing solar panels. For
residential properties with limited roof space or buildings in densely populated areas,
finding enough space for solar panels can be challenging.
Class Activity – 9:2
1. Explain any three advantages of using solar energy.
2. How is Tanzania in an advantageous position to harness solar energy?
ANS; Tanzania is in an advantageous position to harness solar energy because most
parts of the country have clear sunny days in a year with the horizontal solar radiation
being between 4 to 7 kWh per meter square. Therefore; Tanzania is naturally suited
advantageously for using solar power to generate high amounts of solar energy.
3. Explain briefly how the Sun's energy can be used to generate power.
ANS; Sun's energy can be transformed into electrical energy with the help of solar cells.
Solar cells are also known as photovoltaic cells (PV cells). They are made up of thin
wafers of semi conductor materials from silicon and gallium. When Sun's light falls on
them, the Sun's energy gets converted into electricity.
4. Giving three points, explain why solar cars are better than petrol cars
5. Explain how does a solar power works
ANS; Solar power works by harnessing energy from the sun's rays through photovoltaic
(PV) cells. These cells are typically made of semiconductor materials like silicon. When
sunlight hits these cells, it excites electrons, generating an electrical current. This direct
current (DC) is then converted into alternating current (AC) through an inverter, making it
suitable for powering homes and businesses.

Wind Energy
 Wind is simply air in motion
 Wind energy is the form of solar energy caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s
surface by the sun
 Wind energy can be converted into electricity by building a tall tower with a large propeller
on top called wind mill (wind turbine).
 Wind mill is a rotating machine that converts kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy

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Advantage of Using Wind Energy
 It is environmental friendly. Wind energy is a clean energy source, the electricity it
generates is free of greenhouse gas emissions. Once a turbine is built, it can entirely be
powered by the wind, meaning it doesn’t have any emissions.
 It is renewable source of energy. Another advantage of wind energy is that it is
renewable energy. It comes from wind, which is a naturally occurring resource that doesn’t
get used up.
 It has low running costs. Because wind power is a renewable energy source, there is no
ongoing expense to acquire fuel. Once the wind turbine is installed, the only real cost is
maintenance.
 It is a reliable source of energy. Wind is a virtually limitless resource. It is abundant in
many regions around the world, offering a consistent and reliable source of energy. Areas
with strong and constant winds, such as coastal regions and high-altitude locations, are
particularly well-suited for wind power generation.
 It can provide power to remote locations
 It is free (anyone can use it and never run out)

Disadvantage of wind energy

 Noise: some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be unpleasant. The
noise can affect wildlife but is generally not a factor unless you are standing nearby.
 Environmental Impact. While wind power is generally considered environmentally
friendly, the construction and operation of wind farms can have localized environmental
impacts. These may include habitat disruption, birds and bats collisions with turbines which
can be fatal to them. Proper site selection and mitigation measures are essential to
minimize these impacts.
 Installation is expensive. The initial capital costs of developing wind power projects,
including manufacturing and installing wind turbines, can be substantial. While long-term
operational costs are low, the upfront investment can be a barrier to entry for some regions
and investors.
 Wind power is limited by locations. Wind power won’t work everywhere. You need areas
where wind blows strong and steady to make the investment worthwhile.
 Land and Space Requirements. Wind turbines require significant land or offshore space
for installation. Large wind farms can occupy substantial land areas, potentially impacting
agriculture or other land uses. Additionally, offshore wind farms may face challenges
related to navigation and marine ecosystems.

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Class Activity – 9:3
1. How is wind energy utilised to produce electricity?
ANS; The wind energy is obtained by making use of windmills. The blades of the windmill
rotate due to the force of the wind. The rotational motion of the blades drives a number of
machines like water pumps, flour mills and electric generators. A number of windmills are
installed in a definite pattern in clusters called wind farms. They generate a large amount of
electricity.
2. Give two advantages of using wind energy.
3. What are wind farms? Where are they usually located?
ANS;
A number of windmills are installed in a definite pattern in clusters called wind farms.
They are usually installed in coastal regions, open grasslands or hilly regions.
4. Suppose your school has a plan to develop a min power plant project from either water or
wind sources and the school management is seeking for a scientific advice from you. What will
you advise them on this matter? Use two points
5. Wind energy can generate additional income for the land owners. Explain.
ANS;
Land owners can look for additional income by installing wind turbines on land that can even
be used for agricultural purposes. The electricity generated by wind power can be used for
domestic consumption and reduce monthly electricity bills, and the surplus power can be sold
back to the local grid which can result in more savings. Hence, wind energy can generate
additional income for the land owners.

Sea Wave Energy

 Sea water is the form of energy caused by disturbing water particles resulting progressive
propagation from one point to another
Causes of Sea Wave Energy
 Sea wave energy is as a result of wind blowing across the sea
Working of Sea wave to produce electricity
 Wave Energy is generated by movement of surface of the ocean waves back and forth and
up and down. This energy is captured and converted to electrical power. This wave energy
has capability to provide 10% of energy need of the entire world. Various technologies, such
as point absorbers, oscillating water columns, and attenuators, are used to capture the
energy from waves. These devices typically involve the movement of buoyant structures that
drive generators as they move with the waves.

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  As shown in the figure above, as the wind passes over ocean surface, its kinetic energy is
transferred to the water which forces water to pass through the turbine generator. The force
of water on blades rotates the rotor shafts of this turbine generator. As a result, generator
converts mechanical energy (i.e. kinetic energy) to the electrical energy.

Uses of sea wave energy

Wave energy is used for several purposes:
 Electricity generation: One of the most common uses of wave energy is to generate
electricity. Wave energy devices convert the kinetic energy of ocean waves into electrical
energy.
 Desalination: Wave energy can be used to power desalination systems, which can provide
clean drinking water in coastal communities.
 Pumping and irrigation: Wave energy can be used to pump water for irrigation and other
agricultural purposes, particularly in coastal areas.
 Industrial sector: Wave energy can be used to power industrial processes, such as the
extraction of minerals from seawater.
 Transport: Wave energy can be used to power ships and boats, reducing the need for fossil
fuels and reducing emissions in the maritime sector.
Advantages of sea wave energy
 It is abundant and widely available. One of the primary advantages of sea wave power lies
in its abundance. Oceans cover approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface, providing a vast
and consistent renewable energy source. Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and depletable,
wave energy is perpetually replenished by natural forces, making it an infinitely sustainable
resource.
 It is a renewable source of energy. Sea wave energy is generated by the movement of
ocean waves, which are driven by the wind and the gravitational pull of the moon. This
energy source is constantly replenished, making wave energy a renewable energy source.
Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and will eventually run out, wave energy is an unlimited
and sustainable energy source.
 It is an environmentally friendly. Wave energy generation produces minimal environmental
harm compared to conventional energy sources. Unlike fossil fuels, it does not emit
greenhouse gases or air pollutants, reducing the overall carbon footprint.
 It is easily predictable. The biggest advantage of wave power as against most of the other
alternative energy sources is that it is easily predictable and can be used to calculate the
amount that it can produce. The wave energy is consistent and proves much better than
other sources that are dependent on wind or sun exposure.
 Reliable. Wave energy is a very reliable source of energy. It is because waves are almost
always in motion. Although there are ebbs and tides, the average motion always remains.
Thus, energy can be harnessed continuously. It is a fact that the amount of energy that is
produced and transported through the waves varies from season to season and from year to
year. However, energy production is continuous.
 It is operated at low costs. Wave energy does not require any fuel. It is generated by the
movement of ocean waves, which are driven by the wind and the gravitational pull of the
moon. Unlike fossil fuels, which must be extracted, transported, and processed, wave
energy is a fuel-free energy source that provides 100 percent clean energy to communities
and countries.

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Disadvantages of sea wave energy
 It has effects on marine ecosystem. As clean as wave energy is, it still creates hazards for
some of the creatures near it. Large machines have to be put near and in the water to gather
energy from the waves. These machines disturb the seafloor, change the habitat of near-
shore creatures (like crabs and starfish) and create noise that disturbs the sea life around
them. There is also a danger of toxic chemicals that are used on wave energy platforms
spilling and polluting the water near them.
 It is a source of disturbance for private and commercial vessels. Another disadvantage is
that it disturbs commercial and private vessels. Power plants that gather wave energy have to
be placed by the coastline to do their job, and they have to be near cities and other populated
areas to be of much use to anybody. However, these are places that are major thoroughfares
for cargo ships, cruise ships, recreational vehicles, and beachgoers. All of these people and
vessels will be disrupted by the installation of a sea wave energy gathering source. This
means that government officials and private companies that want to invest in wave energy
sources have to take into account and consider the needs of those they may be disturbing.
 High cost of investment. Although ocean power plants and devices are cheap to run, they
often involve high costs to research and construct. Investors can be reluctant to fund such
projects as many don’t see a return for years.
 Suitable to certain Locations (Geographical limitations). Wave energy is only available in
specific areas of coastal regions and regions with strong waves. This makes them less
accessible to people who live further inland. The deployment of wave energy is limited not
only by the availability of suitable waves, but also by water depth, coastal accessibility,
environmental restrictions, and grid connectivity. The availability and quality of waves varies
greatly depending on location. Wave energy is most abundant in coastal areas with
consistent and strong waves, such as those found in the North Atlantic and Southern Ocean.
However, some locations may be too difficult to access to maintain the equipment,
particularly areas with harsh weather conditions.
Class Activity – 9:4
1. What is sea wave energy? Give an advantage of using sea wave energy.
2. How does sea wave energy impact marine ecosystems?
3. What are the main challenges in harnessing wave power?
4. How does wave power differ from other forms of renewable energy?
Tidal Energy
 A Tide refers to the rise and fall of the sea level surface
 Tidal power is a type of renewable energy that is generated by the movement of ocean
tides. This energy can be harnessed through the use of tidal turbines or barrages, which
capture the kinetic energy of the tides and convert it into electricity. It involves the use of
tidal turbines placed in areas with strong tidal currents. As the tides flow in and out, the
turbine spins to turn a generator that then produces electricity.
 The amount of energy that is produced is determined by how high or low the tide rises or
falls
Working of tidal turbines
 Tidal turbines are similar in design to wind turbines, but are installed underwater and are
driven by the movement of tidal currents. As the tide flows in and out, the blades of the
turbine spin and generate electricity, which is then transmitted to the grid.

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  Tidal barrages, on the other hand, work by using the power of the tide to move water
through a series of turbines. As the tide flows in and out, water is trapped behind a barrage,
which creates a difference in water levels. When the tide goes out, the water behind the
barrage is released, and as it flows through the turbines, it generates electricity.

Causes of Tides
 Tidal energy is a form of power produced by the natural rise and fall of tides caused by the
gravitational interaction between Earth, the sun, and the moon.

Advantages of tidal energy

 Tidal energy is a renewable source of energy, which means the energy doesn’t deplete
as it is used. So, as you are harnessing energy from the changing tides, you don’t decrease
the amount of energy the tides can produce in the future. The gravitational pull from the sun
and the moon, which controls the tides, will not stop
 It is an environmentally friendly energy source. Tidal power stations do not emit
greenhouse gasses or hazardous waste during electricity generation. Because greenhouse
gas emissions are a major contributor to global warming, thus; finding zero-emission
energy sources is more important than ever.
 Cost of running is cheap. It functions without fuel requirement ,only functions with natural
tidal energy
 A feature which gives tides an advantage over both wind and solar systems is that the tidal
currents are both Predictable and Reliable as tides are driven by the gravitational pull of
the moon and the sun, which are both predictable and constant. There are two high tides
and two low tides every day of the year, everywhere in the world, no matter what the
weather.
 Construction of large-scale offshore devices results in new areas of sheltered water,
attractive for fish, sea birds, seals and seaweed.

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

 It is expensive to construct. The construction of tidal energy plants requires very large
initial capital investments.
 Tidal power plants can only be built in locations where there are strong tides, meaning their
locations are limited.
 Equipment maintenance can be challenging

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  Weather effects: Bad weather and storm events along coastlines can damage tidal energy
equipment
 Tidal power plants can have a negative effect on the environment and marine life.

Class Activity – 9: 5
1. What is tidal energy? Give an advantage of using tidal energy.
2. What are some potential environmental impacts of tidal power?
ANS; While tidal power is generally considered a clean and sustainable source of energy,
there may be some environmental impacts associated with its construction and operation.
These impacts can include changes to water circulation patterns, sediment movement, and
the behavior of marine life in the area. However, researchers are working to mitigate these
impacts through careful site selection and the use of environmentally friendly technology.
3. What is the difference between tidal power and sea wave power?
ANS; Tidal power is generated by the movement of ocean tides, while wave power is
generated by the movement of waves on the surface of the ocean. While both are forms of
renewable energy, tidal power tends to be more predictable and reliable than sea wave
power, as tides are driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, which are both
predictable and constant.
Geothermal Energy
 Geothermal energy is the energy generated by the flow of heat within the surface of the earth
 it is associated with area of frequent earthquakes and high volcanic activities
 The heat from the inside of the earth is used to heat water into steam. The steam is used to
turn turbines and as the result this causes turbines to turn generator and produce electricity

 Geothermal energy exists in the form of :-

a) Volcanoes
b) Hot Springs
c) Geysers
Three main uses of geothermal energy
 Heating
 Electricity generation

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  Geothermal heat pumps
Advantages of geothermal energy
 It is renewable source of energy. Geothermal energy is a source of renewable energy
that will last until the Earth is destroyed by the sun in around 5 billion years. The hot
reservoirs within the Earth are naturally replenished, making it both renewable and
sustainable.
 It is environmentally friendly. Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than
conventional fuel sources such as coal and other fossil fuels. In addition, the carbon
footprint of a geothermal power plant is low. While there is some pollution associated with
geothermal energy, this is relatively minimal when compared to fossil fuels.
 It is reliable. Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as compared to other
renewable resources such as wind and solar power. This is because the resource is always
available to be tapped into, unlike with wind or solar energy.
 It reduces reliance on fossil fuels. Since geothermal energy is a naturally occurring
resource there is no fuel required, such as with fossil fuels that are a finite resource which
needs mining or otherwise extracting from the earth.
 It creates jobs and economic benefits. There is a great deal of exploration into
geothermal energy at the moment, meaning that new technologies are being created to
improve the energy process. There are an increasing number of projects to improve and
grow this area of industry. With this rapid evolution many of the current cons of geothermal
energy will be mitigated against.
Disadvantages of geothermal energy
 During construction it can cause earthquakes (surface instability). Geothermal energy
also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due to alterations in the Earth’s
structure as a result of digging. This problem is more prevalent with enhanced geothermal
power plants, which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up fissures to greater
exploitation of the resource. However, since most geothermal plants are away from
population centers, the implications of these earthquakes are relatively minor.
 Commercial geothermal power projects are expensive. Geothermal energy is an
expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from around $2 – $7 million for a
plant with a 1 megawatt capacity. However, where the upfront costs are high, the outlay
can be recouped as part of a long-term investment.
 It can sometime run out of steam. In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal
energy fluid needs to be pumped back into the underground reservoirs faster than it is
depleted. This means that geothermal energy needs to be properly managed to maintain its
sustainability.
 Suited to particular region (Location is restricted). The largest single disadvantage of
geothermal energy is that it is location specific. Geothermal plants need to be built in places
where the energy is accessible, which means that some areas are not able to exploit this
resource. Of course, this is not a problem if you live in a place where geothermal energy is
readily accessible, such as Iceland.
 It may release harmful gases through the holes drilled by constructors. Although
geothermal energy does not typically release greenhouse gases, there are many of these
gases stored under the Earth’s surface which are released into the atmosphere during
digging. While these gases are also released into the atmosphere naturally, the rate
increases near geothermal plants. However, these gas emissions are still far lower than
those associated with fossil fuels.
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 139
Class Activity – 9:6
1. (a) What is geothermal energy?
(b) How is geothermal energy used to produce electricity?
ANS;
(a) Geothermal energy is the heat energy contained in the rock and fluid that fills the
fractures and pores within the rock in the earth's crust.
(b)
 Resources of geothermal energy can be generated by using the shallow steam, hot
water and hot rock by drilling wells up to thousands of feet beneath the earth's surface.
The extremely high temperatures in the deeper geothermal reservoirs are used for the
generation of electricity. The high-pressure steam spins the turbine that rotates a
generator and produces electricity.
 Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.
When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water
to turn into steam. The steam spins the turbine, which is connected to a generator that
produces electricity. The steam cools off in the cooling tower and condenses back to
water. The cooled water is pumped back into the earth to begin the proc ess again.
2. People are warned by Geophysicists not to build houses near geothermal power plants.
Give two reasons for this warning
3. Compare natural gas and geothermal energy sources by considering the following
(a) Environmentally safety
(b) Sustainability

Energy Cycle
 The sun is the ultimate the source of much of the world’s energy.
 For instance, the solar cell generates electricity using light energy which has just arrived
from the sun.
 Energy from the sun also makes the water cycle work, It evaporates water from the sea
and this water later falls as rain which fills up rivers and lakes in which hydroelectric power
stations capture energy.
 Wind is caused by the unequal heating of the earth by the sun. Wind energy therefore is a
derivative of solar energy.
 All green plants use the energy from the sun during the process of photosynthesis. They
store chemical energy in form of starch. So the energy obtained from a wood fire originally
comes from the sun.
 This is similar to the fossil fuels formed hundreds of millions of years ago. Plants died and
became compressed to form coal.

Self Assessment – 9

1. What are the advantages of utilizing tidal energy over utilizing geothermal energy?
2. Describe how hydro – electric energy is generated
3. “Though fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal are widely used, they are not sustainable.”
Give reasons to support the statement above.
4. Nuclear energy is not sustainable energy. Explain.
5. What are the benefits and drawbacks of hydroelectric energy?
6. “The sun is the ultimate source of the earth’s energy”. Explain this statement showing how
the sun is the source of the other forms of energy
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 140
 7. What is the role of a wind turbine?
8. ----------------------- is a form of energy that can be persistently used without running out
9. Name five sources of sustainable energy
10. State application of water energy
11. Sea wave energy is as a result of ------------------------- the sea
12. What is geothermal energy?
13. A ------------ is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy.
(A)Wind mill (B) Inverter (C) Turbine (D) Solar cell
14. A form of energy that can be persistently used without running out is said to be:
(A)Efficient (B) Renewable (C) Environmental friendly (D) Non – Renewable
15. Which is false?
(a) Hydroelectric power stations are easy to set up?
(b) Windmills are noisy?
(c) Hydroelectric power plants degrade the environment
(d) Windmills cannot be set up near the seabed
16. The energy due to the rising and falling in the level of water in the oceans or seas is known as:
A. electric energy C. water energy
B. Tidal energy D. wind energy
17. The most available sustainable sources of energy is:
A. the sun B. wind C. Sea tides D. Water falls
18. Mention three sources of thermal energy in everyday life
19. State the energy conversion in a solar cell and give two practical uses of it.
20. Mention three renewable sources of energy
21. Explain how using nuclear energy in a controlled environment can be a boon for our
country.
ANS;
Using nuclear energy in a controlled environment can be a boon for our country for the
following reasons-
 Nuclear energy reduces the requirement of the amount of energy generated from fossil
fuels and therefore, reduces the use of fossil fuels and lowers Greenhouse Gas
emissions.
 Fission of one atom of uranium produces ten million times the energy released by
burning of one atom of carbon. In this way, nuclear energy not only saves on raw
materials but also in transport, handling and extraction of nuclear fuel. The cost of
nuclear fuel is 20% of the cost of energy generated.
 Nuclear energy is the most reliable source of energy as nuclear power plants can run
24 hours a day and seven days a week. Besides, a nuclear plant needs to refuel every
18 to 24 months. This shows that nuclear fuels are less affected by fluctuating fuel
prices than the more volatile industries like oil and natural gas.
 When compared to the fossil fuel waste, the nuclear waste which occurs due to the
production of nuclear power is small in quantity.
22. Sustainable energy sources are:
A. Biogas, kinetic energy and petrol
B. Biogas ,tidal energy and water energy
C. Firewood, petrol and tidal energy
D. Kerosene, nuclear energy and water energy
23. Which of these resources of energy is non renewable?
A. Wave energy
B. Bio fuels
GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255 688 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 141
 C. Radiant energy
D. Fossil fuel
24. Match the items in list A with the items in List B
List A List B
a) Geothermal energy (i) Energy from the sun
b) Solar energy (ii) Energy from firewood
c) Wind energy (iii) Energy from coal
d) Sea wave energy (iv) Hydroelectric energy
e) Water energy (v) Energy from the nuclear of the atom
(vi) Energy from hot rocks underground
(vii) Energy from fossils
(viii) Energy from charcoal
(ix) Air current energy
(x) Energy from batteries
(xi) Tidal energy

REFERENCES
 Cambridge IGCSE, Physics Second Edition
 Cambridge IGCSE, Physics Third Edition
 Edexcel International GCSE (9-1), Physics Student Book
 Mastering Physics 1st Edition, H.J.P.Keighley, F.R McKIM, A.Clarck, M.J.Harrison
 National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA),Past papers:1992 - 2022
 Physics for CSEE Volume – 2, Questions with answers, Geofrey M Idebe (2022)
 Physics for Cambridge IGCSE Revision Guide
 Physics form 2 Students’ Book (Tanzania Institute of Education)
 Principles of Physics
 Physics for Zanzibar Secondary Schools Book 2 (Oxford, University Press)
 Ordinary Level Physics: (A.F Abbott)
 Selina Concise Physics, I.C.S.E Part I for Class IX
 Selina Concise Physics, I.C.S.E Part II for Class X
 Work out Physics O level and GCSE
 https://www.britannica.com (Encyclopedia Britannica)
 https://www.wikipedia.org
 https://www. applustopper.com
 https://www.bbc.co.uk
 https.//starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
 https.//www.passmyexams.co.uk

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