Soil Classification

Dr. Attaullah Shah

1
 1. Purpose

Main soil types are; Clay, Silt, Sand, Gravels, Boulders

etc.

Above types seldom exist separately in nature

Natural soil deposits comprise mixture of above types

in varying proportions

Soil classification means to arrange soil in groups and
label them based on their properties and behaviour.

Soil Classification Systems have been developed by
different organizations

2
 Basis for Classification
• Classification is based on the following
physical properties

Grain Size Distribution (GSD)

Liquid limit (LL)

Plasticity Index (PI)

 Classification gives some idea about the general behaviour of soil

 However to predict true behaviour additional information based

on geotechnical properties are yet required

3
 Classifying soils into groups with similar
behavior, in terms of simple indices, can
provide geotechnical engineers a general
guidance about engineering properties of
the soils through the accumulated
experience.
Communicate
between
engineers

Simple indices Classification Estimate Achieve

system engineering engineering
GSD, LL, PI (Language) properties purposes
Use the
accumulated
experience 4
 Soil Classification Systems (SCS)
• Classification systems developed by different organizations

1. Unified soil classification system.

2. AASHTO (American Association of state Highway
and Transportation Officials) soil classification system.
3. FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) soil
classification system.
4. Textural soil classification system.
5. USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture) soil
classification system.

5
 2. Classification
Systems
 Two commonly used systems:

 Unified Soil Classification System

(USCS).
Most widely used to classify soil for use in foundation & dam
engineering.

 American Association of State

Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) System
Most widely and exclusively used for highways and airfields

6
 3. Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande
(1948) for the purpose of airfield construction during World
War II. Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande,
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams,
foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).

Four major divisions:

(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat

7
• Tests required for classification of soil are;

1. Liquid and plastic limit tests.

2. Particle size analysis test.

Broad Classification includes the following two types;

1. Coarse-grained soil
2. Fine-grained soil
• The soil is classified in to 15 groups.
• Each group is designated a symbol consisting of two capital
letters
• The first letter is based on main soil type
• The second letter is based on gradation and plasticity
8
 Symbols for main soil types
G - Gravel Coarse grained
S - Sand soil

M - Inorganic Silt Fine grained soil

C - Inorganic Clay
O - Organic Silt and Clay

Pt - Peat, Humus, Swamp

Coarse-grained soil is subdivided into two subgroups based on gradation,

W-- for well-graded soil
P -- for poorly-graded soil

Fine-grained soil is subdivided in two subgroups based on their plasticity

characteristics
L-- for low plasticity soil (liquid limit < 50)
H-- for high plasticity soil (liquid limit > 50)
9
 Classification Group
Symbols
Main Soil Symbols Subgroup Symbols Classification
Type Group symbols
Gravel G Well-graded W GW
Poorly-graded P GP
Silty M GM
Clayey C GC
Sand S Well-graded W SW
Poorly-graded P SP
Silty M SM
Clayey C SC
Silt M LL < 50% L ML
LL > 50% H MH
Clay C LL < 50% L CL
LL > 50% H CH
Organic O LL < 50% L OL
LL > 50% H OH
Peat Pt Pt
10
 Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are known as borderline soils and
designated by dual symbols e.g.,

GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-CG, SC-SM, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM,

SP-SC, CL-ML.

Total number of groups in USC system, therefore are twenty six (26),

The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the following:

1. Textural characteristics of coarse-grained soils with such small amount

of fines, that fines do not affect the behaviour.
2. Plasticity characteristics of fine-grained soils where the fines affect the
engineering behaviour.

Textural characteristics are evaluated by particle-size analysis.

Plasticity characteristics are evaluated by the plasticity chart.

11
 To classify a soil, following information based on particle size analysis and
Atterberg limits should be available.

1. %age of gravel, that is, the fraction passing 3-in. (76.2mm) sieve and
retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve.

2. %age of sand, that is, the fraction passing No.4 sieve (4.75mm) and
retained on the No.200 (0.074mm) sieve.

3. %age of silt and clay, that is, the fraction finer than the No.200
(0.075mm) sieve.

4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc), which

actually depend on the shape of particle-size-distribution curve.

5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the fraction of soil passing No.40
sieve, plotted on the plasticity chart

12
 3.1 Definition of Grain Size
No specific
grain size- use
Atterberg limits

Gravel Sand Silt and

Boulders Cobbles Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm

13
 3.2 General Guidance
50% 50 %
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
NO. 4 NO.200
4.75 mm 0.075 mm

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL LL>50

LL <50
•Cu •Plasticity chart
•Cc
Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit
14
 3.3 Symbols

 Soil symbols:  Liquid limit

 G: Gravel symbols:
 S: Sand  H: High LL
 M: Silt (LL>50)
 C: Clay  L: Low LL
(LL<50)
 O: Organic
 Gradation
Well − graded soil
 Pt: Peat symbols:
Example: SW, Well-graded Sand 1 < C c < 3 and C u ≥ 4
 W: Well-graded
(for gravels)
SC, Clayey Sand
 < C c < 3 and C u ≥ 6
P: 1Poorly-graded
SM, Silty Sand,
(for sands)
MH, Highly Plastic Silt
15
 3.4 Plasticity Chart
L H
• The A-line generally
separates the more
claylike materials
from silty materials,
PI
and the organics
from the inorganics.
• The U-line indicates
the upper bound for
general soils.

Note: If the measured

limits of soils are on
the left of U-line,
LL they should be
rechecked.
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
16
 3.5 Procedures for
Classification
Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

Highly

17
(Santamarina et al., 2001)
 3.7 Organic Soils
 Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)
− A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in
various stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to
amorphous texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an
organic odor should be designated as a highly organic
soil and shall be classified as peat, PT.

 Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

− “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than
75 % of its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above
statement is true, then the first symbol is O.
− The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of
PI and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
18
 3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
 For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be used.

Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
− About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the
coarse-grained media by orders of magnitude.
− The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or poorly
graded. The second symbol describe the contained fines. For
example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt.

Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI between 4 and
7 and LL between about 12 and 25).
− It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike materials.

− CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayey sand.

Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.
− possible dual symbols GM-ML

19
3.8 Borderline Cases
(Summary)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

20
 Group Symbols for Gravelly Soil
Major Division Laboratory Classification Group Typical Names
Criteria Symbol
1 2 3 4 5
- No.200 < 5%; Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc GW Well-graded gravels, gravel-
≤3 sand mixtures with little or no
fines.
- No.200 > 5%; and not meeting GP Poorly-graded gravels, gravel-
both criteria for GW. sand mixtures with little or no
fines.
Coarse Gravel-- - No.200 > 12%; Atterberg’s GM
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt
soil--More More than limits plot below “A” line and
mixtures.
than half half of plasticity index less than 4.
of soil is coarse soil
- No.200 > 12%; Atterberg’s GC
retained is retained Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-
limits plot above “A” line and
on No.200 on No.4 clay mixtures.
plasticity index greater than 7.
sieve. sieve
- No.200 > 12%; Atterberg’s GC-GM
Clayey-silty gravels, Gravel-
limits fall in hatched area
silt-clay mixtures.
marked CL-ML.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets the GW-GM Well-graded gravels with silt,
criteria for GW and GM. Gravel-sand-silt mixtures.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets the GW-GC Well-graded gravels with clay
criteria for GW and GC. binder, Gravel-sand silt clay
mixtures.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets the GP-GM Poorly-graded gravels with silt,
criteria for GP and GM. Gravel-silt mixtures
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets the GP-GC Poorly-graded gravels with
criteria for GP and GC. clay, Gravel-clay mixtures.
21
- No.200, means passing No.200 sieve
 Table: Group Symbols for Sandy Soil
Group
Major Division Criteria for Classification Typical Names
Symbol
1 2 3 4 5
Coarse soil-- Sand-- - No.200 < 5%; Cu ≥ 6,and 1 ≤ Well-graded sands, gravelly
SW
More than More than Cc ≤ 3 sands with little or no fines.
half of soil half of
- No.200 < 5%; and not Poorly-graded sands, gravelly
is retained coarse SP
meeting both criteria for SW. sands with little or no fines.
on No.200 soil
sieve. passes - No.200 > 12%; Atterberg’s
No.4 limits plot below “A” line in Silty sands, sand-silt
SM
sieve. the plasticity chart or mixtures.
plasticity index less than 4.
- No.200 > 12%; Atterberg’s
limits plot above “A” line in Clayey sands, sand-clay
SC
the plasticity chart or mixtures.
plasticity index greater than 7.
- No.200 > 12%; Atterberg’s
limits fall in hatched area Clayey-silty sand, sand-silt-
SC-SM
marked CL-ML on the clay mixtures.
plasticity chart.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets Well-graded sand with silt,
SW-SM
the criteria for SW and SM. sand-silt mixtures.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets Well-graded sand with clay,
SW-SC
the criteria for SW and SC. sand-silt-clay mixtures.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets Poorly-graded sand with silt,
SP-SM
the criteria for SP and SM. sand-silt mixtures.
- No.200 is 5-12%; and meets Poorly-graded sand with clay,
SP-SC
the criteria for SP and SC. sand-clay mixtures.
22
- No.200, means passing No.200 sieve.
 Table: Group Symbols for Silty and Clayey Soil
Group
Major Division Criteria for Classification Typical Names
Symbol
1 2 3 4 5
Inorganic clays of low to
Inorganic; LL < 50; PI> 7; and
medium plasticity, gravelly
plots on or above “A” line (see CL
clay, sandy clay, silty clay,
CL zone in plasticity chart)
lean clays.
Inorganic silts and very fine
Inorganic; LL < 50; PI < 4, or
sands, rock flour, silty or
Silt & plots below “A” line ML
clayey fine sands or clayey
Clay, LL (see ML zone in plasticity chart)
silts with slight plasticity.
<50
Inorganic; (LL for oven dried
sample)/(LL for non dried Organic silts and organic
OL
sample) < 0.75; and LL < 50 silty clays of low plasticity.
Fine grained soil--
(see OL zone in plasticity chart)
More than half of
the soil passes Inorganic; plot in the hatched
CL-ML Silty clay of low plasticity
No.200 sieve. zone in the plasticity chart.
Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; and PI plots
Inorganic clays of high
above “A” line CH
plasticity, fat clays.
(see CH zone in plasticity chart)
Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; and PI plots Inorganic silts, micaceous or
Silt &
below “A” line MH diatomaceous fine sandy or
Clay, LL
(see MH zone in plasticity chart) silty soils, elastic silts.
>50
Organic;(LL-oven-dried)/(LL-not
dried) < .75 Organic clays of medium to
OH
And LL ≥ 50 ( see OH zone in high plasticity, organic silts.
plasticity chart)
Peat, muck, and other highly Peat and other highly organic
23
Highly Organic Soils Pt
organic soils soils.
Range of material % for coarse grained soil (ASTM-1986)

Group Symbols % Limits Group Names

< 15% sand Well-graded gravel
GW
≥ 15% sand Well-graded gravel with sand
< 15% sand Poorly graded gravel
GP
≥ 15% sand Poorly graded gravel with sand
< 15% sand Well-graded gravel with silt
GW-GM
≥ 15% sand Well-graded gravel with silt and sand
<15% sand Well-graded gravel with clay (or silty clay)
GW-GC ≥ 15% sand Well-graded gravel with clay and sand
(or with silty clay and sand)
< 15% sand Poorly graded gravel with silt
GP-GM
≥ 15% sand Poorly graded gravel with silt and sand
< 15% sand Poorly graded gravel with clay (or silty clay)
GP-GC ≥ 15% sand Poorly graded gravel with clay and sand
(or with silty clay and sand)
< 15% sand Silty gravel
GM
≥ 15% sand Silty gravel with sand
< 15% sand Clayey gravel
GC
≥ 15% sand Clayey gravel with sand
< 15% sand Silty clayey gravel
GC-GM
≥ 15% sand Silty clayey gravel with sand 24
Range of material %-age for coarse grained soil (ASTM-1986)

Group Symbols % Limits Group Names

< 15% gravel Well-graded sand
SW
≥ 15% gravel Well-graded sand with gravel
< 15% gravel Poorly graded sand
SP
≥ 15% gravel Poorly graded sand with gravel
< 15% gravel Well-graded sand with silt
SW-SM
≥ 15% gravel Well-graded sand with silt and gravel
< 15% gravel Well-graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
SW-SC ≥ 15% gravel Well-graded sand with clay and gravel
(or with silty clay and gravel)
< 15% gravel Poorly graded sand with silt
SP-SM
≥ 15% gravel Poorly graded sand with silt and gravel
< 15% gravel Poorly graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
SP-SC ≥ 15% gravel Poorly graded sand with clay and gravel
(or with silty clay and gravel))
< 15% gravel Silty sand
SM
≥ 15% gravel Silty sand with gravel
< 15% gravel Clayey sand
SC
≥ 15% gravel Clayey sand with gravel
< 15% gravel Silty clayey sand
SC-SM
≥ 15% gravel Silty clayey sand with gravel 25
 Range of plasticity & material % for low plastic inorganic silty & clayey soil (ASTM-1986)
Range of Nature of Group
Range of plasticity Range of material %age Group Names
LL soil symbol

P1>7 and lies on or CL + No. 200<30% + No. 200<15% Lean clay

above
A-line + No. 200 15- %sand ≥%gravel Lean clay with sand
29%
%sand <%gravel Lean clay with gravel

≥30%
+ No. 200≥ ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy lean clay
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy lean clay with
gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly lean clay

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly lean clay with
sand

≤PI≤
4≤ ≤7 and lies on or CL-ML + No. 200<30% + No. 200<15% Silty clay
above
A-line + No. 200 15- %sand ≥%gravel Silty clay with sand
29%
%sand <%gravel Silty clay with gravel
Liquid
Limit < 50 INORGANIC ≥30%
+ No. 200≥ ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy Silty clay
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy Silty clay with
gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly Silty clay

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly Silty clay with
sand

PI<4 ML + No. 200<30% + No. 200<15% Silt

or lies below
A-Line + No. 200 15- %sand ≥%gravel Silt with sand
29%
%sand <%gravel Silt with gravel

≥30%
+ No. 200≥ ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy silt
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy Silt with gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly Silt

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly Silt with sand
LL(oven dried)
Organic < .75 OL Refer plasticity chart 26
LL ( notdried )
 Range of plasticity & material %-age for highly plastic silty & clayey soil (ASTM-1986)
Range of Nature of Group
Range of plasticity Range of material %age Group Names
LL soil symbol
P1lies on or above CH + No. + No.
Fat clay
A-line 200<30% 200<15%
+ No. 200 15- %sand
Fat clay with sand
29% ≥%gravel
%sand
Fat clay with gravel
<%gravel
+ No. ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy fat clay
200≥≥30% gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy fat clay with
gravel
%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly fat clay
gravel
iquid Limit Sand ≥15% Gravelly fat clay with
≥ 50 INORGANIC sand
PI lies below MH + No. + No.
Plastic silt
A-line 200<30% 200<15%
+ No. 200 15- %sand
Plastic silt with sand
29% ≥%gravel
%sand Plastic silt with
<%gravel gravel
+ No. ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy plastic silt
200≥≥30% gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy plastic silt
with gravel
%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly plastic silt
gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly plastic silt
with sand
LL(oven dried)
Organic < .75 OH Refer plasticity chart
LL (notdried )

27
 Range of plasticity & material %-age for organic soil (ASTM-1986)
Nature of Range of
Group symbol Range of material %age Group names
soil plasticity

ORGANIC P1<4 or lies ≥30%

+ No. 200≥ + No. 200<30% + No. 200<15% Organic clay
SOIL above
A-line + No. 200 15-29% %sand ≥%gravel Organic clay with sand

%sand <%gravel Organic clay with gravel

≥30%
+ No. 200≥ ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy organic clay
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy organic clay with gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly organic clay

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly organic clay with sand

P1<4 or lies %sand <%gravel + No. 200<15% Organic Silt

below
A-line %sand ≥%gravel Organic silt with sand

Organic silty with gravel

≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy Organic Silt
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy Organic Silt with gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly Organic Silt

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly Organic Silt with sand

Lies on or ≥30%
+ No. 200≥ + No. 200<30% + No. 200<15% Organic clay
above
A-Line + No. 200 15-29% %sand ≥%gravel Organic clay with sand

%sand <%gravel Organic clay with gravel

≥30%
+ No. 200≥ ≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy Organic clay
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy Organic clay with gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly Organic clay

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly Organic clay with sand

Lies below %sand <%gravel + No. 200<15% Organic Silt

A-Line
%sand ≥%gravel Organic Silt with sand

Organic Silt with gravel

≥%
%sand≥ Gravel <15% Sandy Organic silt
gravel
Gravel ≥15% Sandy Organic Silt with gravel

%sand<% Sand <15% Gravelly Organic Silt 28

gravel
Sand ≥15% Gravelly Organic Silt with sand
 Group symbols & their characteristics related to Roads & Airfields

Value as
Value as Value as Base
Subbase
Subgrade When When Not Potential Compressibility and Drainage
Symbol When Not
Not Subject to Subject to Frost Action Expansion Characteristics
Subject to
Frost Action Frost Action
Frost Action
None to very
GW Excellent Excellent Good Almost none Excellent
slight
Good to None to very
GP Good Fair to good Almost none Excellent
excellent slight
Good to Slight to
D Good Fair to good Very slight Fair to poor
excellent medium
GM
Poor to not Slight to Poor to practically
U Good Fair Slight
suitable medium impervious

Poor to not Slight to Poor to practically

GC Good Fair Slight
suitable medium impervious

None to very
SW Good Fair to good Poor Almost none Excellent
slight
Poor to not None to very
SP Fair to good Fair Almost none Excellent
suitable slight

29
 Group symbols & their characteristics related to Roads & Airfields

Value as Value as Value as

Subgrade Subbase Base When Potential Compressibility
Drainage
Symbol When Not When Not Not Subject Frost and
Characteristics
Subject to Subject to to Frost Action Expansion
Frost Action Frost Action Action

Fair to Slight to
D Fair to good Poor Very slight Fair to poor
good high
SM
Slight to Poor to practically
U Fair Poor to fair Not suitable Slight to medium
high impervious

Slight to Poor to practically

SC Poor to fair Poor Not suitable Slight to medium
high impervious

Medium to
ML Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Slight to medium Fair to poor
very high

Medium to Practically
CL Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Medium
high impervious
Medium to
OL Poor Not suitable Not suitable Medium to high Poor
high
Medium to
MH Poor Not suitable Not suitable High Fair to poor
very high
Practically
CH Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Medium High
impervious

Poor to very Practically

OH Not suitable Not suitable Medium High
poor impervious

Pt Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Slight Very high Fair to poor

30
DESCRIPTION OF USC-GROUPS
COARSE GRAINED SOIL
1. GW and SW groups:
• Well-graded gravelly and sandy soils with little or no fines (≤ 5%).
• Fines must not change the strength & free-draining characteristics
• In areas prone to frost action, they should not contain > 3% of grains smaller
than 0.02 mm.
2. GP and SP groups:
• Poorly graded gravels and sands with little or no fines.
• Poorly or Gap-graded materials are non-uniform mixtures of very
coarse material and very fine sands with intermediate sizes lacking.
3. GM and SM groups:
>12%) of low or no plasticity.
• Silty gravel & silty sand with fines (>
• These lie below the “A” line on the plasticity chart.
• Both well and poorly-graded materials are included in these groups.
GMd and SMu groups:
Suffices “d” and “u” mean desirable and undesirable base materials
• This subdivision applies to roads and airfields only
• Subdivision is based on the liquid limit and plasticity index
• Suffix “d” is used when LL is 25 or less and the PI is 5 or less;
• Suffix “u” is used otherwise. 31
4. GC and SC groups:
> 12 %) that are more clay-like.
• Gravelly or sandy soils with fines (>
• The fines range in plasticity from low to high.
• The LL and PI of these groups plot above “A” line on plasticity chart.
• Both, well and poorly-graded soils are included in these groups.
FINE-GRAINED SOIL
1. ML and MH groups:
• Sandy silts, clayey silts, or inorganic silts with relatively low plasticity.
• Loess-type soils, rock flours, micaceous and diatomaceous soils are also
included.
• Some types of kaolinite and illite clays also fall under these groups.
• Suffices L & M means low and high
• Micaceous and diatomaceous soils generally fall within the MH group but may
extend into the ML group when their LL is less than 50.
2. CL and CH groups:
• The CL and CH groups include clays with low and high liquid limits
• They are primarily inorganic clays.
• The medium and high plasticity clays are classified as CH and include fat clays,
gumbo clays, bentonite, and some volcanic clays.
• The low plasticity clays are classified as CL and usually include lean clays,
sandy clays, or silty clays. 32
3. OL and OH groups:
• These groups are characterized by the presence of organic matter.
• Organic silts and clays are included in these two groups, and they
have a plasticity range corresponding to the ML, and MH groups.

Highly Organic Soils

• These soils are designated by group symbol (Pt).

• They are usually very compressible and have undesirable engineering
characteristics.
• These includes peat, humus, and swamp soils with a high organic texture.
• Common components of these soils are particles of leaves, grass, branches, or
other fibrous vegetable matter.

33
 Table: Engineering use chart

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES

TYPICAL NAMES OF SOIL GROUP SHEARING COMPRESS-IBILITY

PERME-ABILITY
GROUPS SYMBOLS STRENGTH WHEN WHEN COMPACTED WORKABILITY AS A
WHEN
COMPACTED AND AND CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
COMPACTED
SATURATED SATURATED

WELL-GRADED GRAVELS, GW PERVIOUS EXCELLENT NEGLIGIBLE EXCELLENT

GRAVEL-SAND MIXTURES,
LITTLE OR NO FINES

POORLY GRADED GRAVELS, GP VERY PERVIOUS GOOD NEGLIGIBLE GOOD

GRAVEL-SAND MIXTURES,
LITTLE OR NO FINES

SILTY GRAVELS, POORLY GM SEMIPERVIOUS TO GOOD NEGLIGIBLE GOOD

GRADED GRAVEL-SAND-SILT IMPERVIOUS
MIXTURES

CLAYEY GRAVELS, POORLY GC IMPERVIOUS GOOD TO FAIR VERY LOW GOOD

GRADED GRAVEL-SAND- CLAY
MIXTURES

WELL-GRADED SANDS, SW PERVIOUS EXCELLENT NEGLIGIBLE EXCELLENT

GRAVELLY SANDS, LITTLE OR
NO FINES

POORLY GRADED SANDS, SP PERVIOUS GOOD VERY LOW FAIR

GRAVELLY SANDS, LITTLE OR
NO FINES.

SILTY SANDS, POORLY SM SEMIPERVIOUS TO GOOD LOW FAIR

GRADED SAND-SILT MIXTURES IMPERVIOUS

34
 Table: Engineering use chart
CLAYEY SANDS, SC IMPERVIOUS GOOD TO FAIR LOW GOOD
POORLY GRADED
SAND-CLAY MIXTURES
INORGANIC SILTS AND ML SEMIPERVIOU FAIR MEDIUM FAIR
VERY FINE SANDS, S TO
ROCK FLOUR, SILTY OR IMPERVIOUS
CLAYEY FINE SANDS
WITH SLIGHT
PLASTICITY
INORGANIC CLAYS OF CL IMPERVIOUS FAIR MEDIUM GOOD TO FAIR
LOW TO MEDIUM
CLAYS, SANDY CLAYS
SILTY CLAYS, LEAN
CLAYS
ORGANIC SILTS AND OL SEMIPERVIOU POOR MEDIUM FAIR
ORGANIC SILT-CLAY OF S TO
LOW PLASTICITY IMPERVIOUS
INORGANIC SILTS, MH SEMPERVIOU FAIR TO POOR HIGH POOR
MICACEOUS OR S TO
DIATOMACEOUS FINE IMPERVIOUS
SANDY OR SILTY SOILS,
ELASTIC SILTS
INORGANIC CLAYS OF CH IMPERVIOUS POOR HIGH POOR
HIGH PLASTICITY, FAT
CLAYS
ORGANIC CLAYS OF OH IMPERVIOUS POOR HIGH POOR
MEDIUM TO HIGH
PLASTICITY
PEAT AND OTHER PT -- -- -- --
HIGHLY ORGANIC
SOILS
35
 Table: Engineering use chart

RELATIVE DESIRABILITY FOR VARIOUS USES

GROUP
SYMBOL ROLLED EARTH DAMS CANAL SECTIONS FOUNDATIONS ROADWAYS
S
HOMOGE CORE SHELL EROSION COMPAC SEEP SEEPAG FROS FROST SURF
NEOUS RESISTA TED AGE E NOT T HEAVE ACING
EMBANK NCE EARTH IMPO IMPORT HEAVE POSSIBL
MENT LINING RTAN ANT NOT E
T POSSI
BLE
GW -- -- 1 1 -- -- 1 1 1 3
GP -- -- 2 2 -- -- 3 3 3 --
GM 2 4 -- 4 4 1 4 4 9 5
GC 1 1 -- 3 1 2 6 5 5 1
SW -- -- 3 6 -- -- 2 2 2 4
IF
GRAVEL
LY
SP -- -- 4 7 -- -- 5 6 4 --
IF IF
GRAVEL
LY GRAVELL
Y

36
 Table: Engineering use chart

SM 4 5 -- 8 5 3 7 8 10 6
IF EROSION
GRAVELL CRITICAL
Y
SC 3 2 -- 5 2 4 8 7 6 2
ML 6 6 -- -- 6 6 9 10 11 --
EROSION
CRITICAL
CL 5 3 -- 9 3 5 10 9 7 7
OL 8 8 -- -- 7 7 11 11 12 --
EROSION
CRITICAL
MH 9 9 -- -- -- 8 12 12 13 --
CH 7 7 -- 10 8 9 13 13 8 --
VOLUME
CHANGE
CRITICAL
OH 10 10 -- -- -- 10 14 14 14 --
PT -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

37
4. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials system
(AASHTO)

Origin of AASHTO: (For road construction)

This system was originally developed by Hogentogler and
Terzaghi in 1929 as the Public Roads Classification System.
Afterwards, there are several revisions. The present AASHTO
(1978) system is primarily based on the version in 1945. (Holtz and
Kovacs, 1981)

38
 4.1 Definition of Grain
Size
No specific
grain size
use Atterberg
limits
Boulders Gravel Sand Silt-Clay

Coarse Fine

75 mm No.10 No.200
2.00 mm 0.075
No.40 mm
0.425 mm

39
 4.2 General Guidance

8 major groups: A1~ A7 (with several subgroups) and
organic soils A8

The required tests are sieve analysis and Atterberg limits.

The group index, an empirical formula, is used to further
evaluate soils within a group (subgroups).

A1 ~ A3 A4 ~ A7

Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials

≤ 35% pass No. 200 sieve ≥ 36% pass No. 200 sieve
Using LL and PI separates silty materials Using LL and PI separates silty materials
from clayey materials (only for A2 group) from clayey materials

The original purpose of this classification system is used for 40

road construction (subgrade rating).
Following are some rules for determination of group index:

a. If the equation for group index gives a negative value for GI, it is
taken as zero.

b. The group index calculated from the equation is rounded off to the
nearest whole number (for example, GI = 4.4 is rounded off to 4;
and GI = 4.5 is rounded off to 5).

c. There is no upper limit for the group index.

d. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-

2-5, and A-3 will always be zero.

e. When calculating the group index for soils belonging to groups A-2-
6, and A-2-7, the partial group index equation related to plasticity
index (as given below) should be used.
GI = 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10)
41
 4.4 Classification
Table: Classification of Soil-Aggregate Mixtures (with Suggested Subgroups)
General
Granular Materials Silt-Clay Materials
Classificatio
(35% or less passing No. 200) (More than 35% passing No. 200)
n

Group A-1 A-3 A-2 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7

Classificatio A-7-5;
n A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve
Analysis:
% Passing:
No. 10 50 Max.
No. 40 30 Max. 50 Max. 51 Min.
No.200 15 Max. 25 Max. 10 Max. 35 Max. 35 Max. 35 Max. 35 Max. 36 Min. 36 Min. 36 Min. 36 Min.

Fraction
passing
No.40:
41 Min.
Liquid Limit 40 Max. 41 Min. 40 Max. 41 Min. 40 Max. 40 Max. 41 Min.
Plasticity
6 Max N.P. 10
Index 10 Max. 10 Max. 11 Min. 11 Min. 10 Max. 10 Min. 11 Min.
Max.
12 20
Group Index 0 0 0 4 Max. 8 Max. 16 Max.
Max. Max.
Usual Types
of Stone
Fine Silty or Clayey Silty Clayey
Significant Fragments
Sand Gravel Sand Soils Soils
Constituent Gravel and Sand
Materials
General 42
Rating Excellent to Good Fair to Poor
as Subgrade
4.4 Classification

43
 4.4 Classification (Cont.)

Note:
Das, 1998
The first group from the left to fit the test data is the
correct AASHTO classification. 44
Fig: Liquid limit and plasticity index ranges for silt-clay material
45
4.4 Example Passing No.200 86%
LL=70, PI=32
LL-30=40 > PI=32
Passing No.200 86% GI = (F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)]
LL=70, PI=32 + 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10)
LL-30=40 > PI=32 = 33.47 ≅ 33 Round off A-7-5(33)

46
 Table: Comparison of the AASHTO and unified soil classification systems

AASHTO system Unified system

1.It is based on texture and plasticity of soil. 1-It is also based on texture and plasticity of soil.
2-The soil is divided into two major categories i.e.,
2. The soil is divided into two major categories i.e., coarse
coarse grained and fine grained, as separated by
grained and fine grained, as separated by the No. 200 sieve.
the No. 200 sieve.
3- A soil is considered fine grained when more than 35% 3- A soil is considered fine grained when more
passes the No. 200 sieve. than 50% passes the No. 200 sieve.
(A coarse-grained soil having about 35% fines behaves like a
fine-grained material, since there are enough fines to fill the
voids between the coarse grains and hold them apart. In this
respect AASHTO system appears to be more appropriate.)
AASHTO system Unified system
4- No. 10 sieve is used to separate gravels from sand. The 4- No. 4 sieve is used to separate gravels from
No.10 sieve is more accepted as upper limit for sand. sand
(Therefore AASHTO system is more appropriate.)
5- Gravelly and sandy soils are not clearly separated. The A-2 5- Gravelly and sandy soils are clearly separated.
group in particular, contains a large variety of soils 6- The symbols such as GW, SM, CH, and others
6- The symbols A-1, A-2, etc., of this group are not well are more descriptive of the soil properties
descriptive of the soil properties. 7- The classification of organic soils such as OL,
7- Organic soils are not well discussed in this system. OH, & Pt has been provided in this system.

47
COMPARISON OF THE AASHTO AND UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION GROUPS

Table Comparison of the systems

Soil group in Most Probable
AASHTO system Group in USCS
A-1-a GW, GP
A-1-b SW, SP, GM,SM
A-3 SP
A-2-4 GM, SM
A-2-5 GM, SM
A-2-6 GC, SC
A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC
A-4 ML, OL
A-5 OH, MH, ML, OL
A-6 CL
A-7-5 OH, MH
A-7-6 CH, CL

48
 Table Comparison of the systems
Soil group in Most Probable groups in
Unified system AASHTO system
GW A-1-a
GP A-1-a
GM A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-7
GC A-2-6, A-2-7
SW A-1-b
SP A-3, A-1-b
SM A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-7 A-2-6, A-2-7
SC A-2-6, A-2-7
ML A-4, A-5
CL A-6, A-7-6
OL A-4, A-5
MH A-7-5, A-5
CH A-7-6
OH A-7-5, A-5
Pt --

49
 Example 1:

 The porosity of a soil sample is 35% and the specific

gravity of its particles is 2.7. Calculate its voids ratio,
dry density, saturated density and submerged density.
 Solution:

50
 Example 2:
 The mass specific gravity of a soil sample is 1.7. If the
specific gravity of soil solids is 2.72, determine the voids
ratio with assumption that the sample is perfectly dry.
What would be the voids ratio if the sample is assumed to
have a water content of 10%.
 Solution:

51
 Example 3:
 The in-situ percentage voids of a sand deposit are
40%. If the maximum and minimum dry densities of
sand as determined from laboratory tests are 2.2 and
1.45 g/cubic cm respectively, determine the density
index. Assume specific gravity of sand particles as
2.65.
 Solution:

For maximum dry density

For minimum density

52
 Example 4:
 A compacted sample of soil with a bulk density of 2 g/cubic
cm has a water content of 15%. What are its dry density and
degree of saturation? Assume G=2.65. If the sample is
allowed to get fully saturated without an increase in its
volume, what would be its bulk density?

When fully saturated

53
Alternatively;

NOTE: Whenever degree of saturation is required, calculate in

the following order: w, ρd , e and Sr

54
 Example 5:
 The volume of a clay sample having a natural water
content of 40% is 25.6 cubic cm and its wet mass is
43.50g. Calculate the degree of saturation of the
sample, if G=2.75?

55
 Example 6:
 The in-situ mass of an unsaturated soil sample of 60 cubic cm is found
to be 100g. On oven-dry, the mass got reduced to 85.5g. If the particle
specific gravity is 2.7, what were the water content and degree of
saturation of the undistributed sample?
 Solution:

Alternatively;

56
 Group No.1 Reg-01 to 20
Q# Statements Answer
01. A saturated soil sample having a volume of 300cm3 presents a mass of W=32%,e=0.85
423g. After being fully dried in an oven at 105 0C, its mass decreased yd=14.3kN/m3
to 320g.considering Gs=2.65, obtain the water content w, the initial ysat=18.9kN/m3
void ratio and the total dry and submerged unit weight? ysub=8.9 kN/m3
02. W=32%,e=1.6
Repeat previous exercise considering that soil sample is obtained from
y =19.2kN/m3
an iron ore mining region and has a high percentage of hematite, in d
ysat=25.4kN/m3
which Gs=5. ?
ysub=15.4kN/m3
03. A rock fill is being constructed with granite rock blocks (Gs=2.7), yd=18kN/m3
presenting a void ratio of 0.5 after placement. Evaluate the apparent ysub=11.3kN/m3
total, dry and submerged unit weight?
04.
Considering that the Rio de Janeiro clay presents 55% of particles with
diameter under 2*10-6m, obtain a plot of activity of this clay against
depth. Classify the results according to skempton.?
05.
A sand embankment is to be constructed and design specifications
y =14.6kN/m3
require a minimum relative density of 70%. If emin=0.565 and d
e=0.84
emax=0.878 for the sand, what should the void ratio be after placement?
06. A sample of saturated clay weighed 1526g in its natural state, and W=44.9%
1053g after drying. Determine the natural eater content. If the specific e=1.21
gravity of the solid constituents was 2.70.what was the void ratio? The N=0.55
porosity? The total unit weight? Y=17.36kN/m3

57
 Group-21 Reg. 40
07. A sample of hardpan had a weight of 129.1g and a volume of 56.4cm3 in its
W=6.3%
natural state. Its dry weight was 121.5g. The specific gravity of the solid
e=0.25
constituents was 2.70.compute the water content, the void ratio, and degree
Sr=67%
of saturation.
08.
The density of sand backfill was determined by field measurement to be
1.75Mg/m3.the water content at the time of test was 8.6%, and the specific
e=0.616
gravity of solid constituents was 2.60. In the laboratory void ratios in the
Dr=14%
loosest and densest states were found to be 0.642 and 0.462 respectively.
What were the void ratio and relative density if the fill?
09.
A dry quartz and sample weighs 1.54Mg/m3.what is its density when
P=1.96 Mg/m3
saturated?
10. A sample of silty clay had a volume of 14.88 cm3. its weight at natural
water content was 28.81g and after oven drying was 24.83g. The specific e=0.617
gravity of solid constituents was 2.70. Calculate the void ratio and degree Sr=70%
of saturation of the sample. ?

11. e=1.224,
The natural water content of soft saturated clay is 45%. If the specific
n=55%,
gravity of soil solids is 2.72, find e,n and psat.?
psat.=1.774g/cm3
12. p =1.655g/cm3
The in-situ voids ratio of a bed of sand is 0.6.if the density of sand particles d
p .=2.03 g/cm3
is 2.65G/cm3, calculate pd and psat. Of sand. If sand gets completely sat
Peff.=1.03
submerged, what would be effective density?
g/cm3

58
 Group-3 Reg. 41 and onwards
13. pd=1.421g/cm3
A saturated sample of soil has a water content of 33%. If G=2.68,
/ psat.=1.892 g/cm3
find pd, psat. And p . ?
p/ =0.892 g/cm3
14. e=1.182,
A soil sample weighing 1.6g/cm3 has a water content of 32%.the
n=54.1%,
specific gravity of soil particles is 2.65. Determine e, n and S.?
S=71.7%
15.
The natural water content and in situ density of a sample of sand
above water table are 14% and 1.9g/cm3 respectively. The emax and
S =62.8%
emin corresponding to the loosest and densest states as determined r
I .=0.656
by laboratory tests on dried samples are respectively 0.80 and D
0.48.if the particles specific gravity is 2.65, calculate Sr and ID. ?

16.
An earth embankment is compacted at w=18% to a bulk density of E=0.66
1.92g/cm3. if G=2.7, find e and Sr of compacted embankment.? Sr=73.6%
17.
The wet mass of a soil sample having a volume of 44.8cm3 is 85.4g.
S =56%,
after oven-drying, the mass reduces to 76.4g. find Sr, if G=2.66. r
21%
what will be the water content as full saturation.?

18. Yd=1.39g/cm3,
A saturated sample of soil has a water content of 35%. Adopting
/ Ysat=1.88g/cm3
G=2.70, calculate Yd , Ysat. and Y ?
Y/ =0.88 g/cm3
59