Local Coordinate System

• In surveying and various fields of engineering, a local coordinate system is

a customized reference framework established for a specific project site or
object, facilitating precise measurements and analyses within that confined
area.
• This system is particularly useful when global coordinate systems, like
latitude and longitude, are either unnecessary or impractical for the
project's scope.
Key Characteristics of a Local Coordinate
System:
• Origin Point: The system is anchored at a designated origin point
within the project area, serving as the reference for all subsequent
measurements.
• Axes Orientation: Axes are oriented based on the project's
requirements, often aligning with specific features or directions
relevant to the site.
• Units of Measurement: The system employs units consistent with the
project's specifications, ensuring coherence in all measurements.
Advantages of Using a Local Coordinate System:

• Simplified Calculations: By focusing on a confined area, local systems

minimize the complexities associated with Earth's curvature, leading
to more straightforward computations.
• Enhanced Precision: Tailoring the coordinate system to the project's
specific needs allows for higher accuracy in measurements and data
representation.
• Consistency: A unified reference framework ensures that all
stakeholders interpret measurements uniformly, reducing potential
discrepancies.
• Ease of Modeling:
• In engineering and design, LCS makes it easier to model and manipulate
objects, especially when dealing with complex geometries.
• Flexibility:
• LCS allows for customization based on the specific needs of a project, such as
aligning axes with symmetry or key features.
• Reduced Computational Load:
• When working with large datasets or complex systems, using LCS can reduce
computational overhead by focusing on a smaller, relevant subset of data.
Limitations of Local Coordinate Systems

1.Limited Scope:
1. LCS is only valid within a specific context or region. It cannot be used universally,
unlike a global coordinate system.
2.Transformation Complexity:
1. Converting between local and global coordinate systems requires precise
transformations, which can introduce errors if not done correctly.
3.Potential for Misalignment:
1. If the LCS is not properly defined or aligned, it can lead to inaccuracies in
measurements or analyses.
4.Dependency on Reference:
1. The LCS relies on a well-defined origin and axes, which may not always be
straightforward to establish, especially in dynamic or unstructured environments.
5.Interoperability Issues:
1. When sharing data or collaborating across systems, differences in local coordinate
systems can cause confusion or errors if not properly documented.
Implementation Considerations:

• Project Scope: Local coordinate systems are best suited for small-
scale projects. For larger endeavors, integrating the local system with
broader frameworks may be necessary to maintain accuracy over
extended areas.
• Datum Selection: Choosing an appropriate reference datum is crucial,
as it defines the mathematical model of the Earth's shape for the
project area.
• Transformation Parameters: When integrating data from different
coordinate systems, accurate transformation parameters are essential
to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Local coordinate systems are invaluable tools in surveying and
engineering, offering tailored solutions that enhance precision and
efficiency for specific project sites.
• By understanding their characteristics and appropriate applications,
professionals can effectively implement these systems to meet
project requirements.
Plane Coordinate System
• A plane coordinate system is a two-dimensional (2D) reference system
used to define the position of points or objects on a flat surface.
• It is widely used in mathematics, engineering, geography, computer
graphics, and many other fields.
• Details of Plane Coordinate Systems
• 1. Definition
• A plane coordinate system consists of:
• Two perpendicular axes: Typically labeled as the X-axis (horizontal) and Y-
axis (vertical).
• Origin: The point where the two axes intersect, denoted as (0, 0).
• Coordinates: A pair of values (x, y) that define the position of a point
relative to the origin.
Types of Plane Coordinate Systems

1. Cartesian Coordinate System

• Description: The most common 2D coordinate system, where points
are defined by their perpendicular distances from the X and Y axes.
• Equations:
• Distance between two points: d=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2d=(x2​−x1​)2+(y2​−y1​)2​
• Slope of a line: m=y2−y1x2−x1m=x2​−x1​y2​−y1​​
• Applications: Used in mathematics, physics, engineering, and
computer graphics.
2. Polar Coordinate System

• Description: Represents points using a radius (distance from the

origin) and an angle (measured from a reference direction, usually
the positive X-axis).
• Equations:
• Conversion to Cartesian: x=rcos(θ)x=rcos(θ), y=rsin(θ)y=rsin(θ)
• Conversion to Polar: r=x2+y2r=x2+y2​, θ=tan−1(y/x)θ=tan−1(y/x)
• Applications: Useful for circular or rotational systems, such as in
navigation, robotics, and antenna design.
•
Advantages and Limitations
• Cartesian Coordinate System
• Advantages:
• Simple and intuitive.
• Easy to perform calculations and transformations.
• Widely used and understood.
• Limitations:
• Not ideal for circular or rotational problems.
• Polar Coordinate System
• Advantages:
• Ideal for circular, rotational, or radial problems.
• Simplifies equations for curves like circles and spirals.
• Limitations:
• Requires conversion for Cartesian-based calculations.
• Less intuitive for rectangular problems.
Global Coordinate System in Surveying

• A global coordinate system is a reference framework that provides a

standardized way to define positions on the Earth's surface. It ensures
that locations can be precisely measured and compared anywhere in
the world. These systems are crucial in mapping, navigation, geodesy,
and remote sensing
Earth-Centered Inertial Coordinate System

• For the purposes of measuring and determining the orbits of the GPS
satellites, it is convenient to use an Earth-centered inertial (ECI)
coordinate system, in which the origin is at the center of the mass of
the Earth and whose axes are pointing in fixed directions with respect
to the stars.
• In typical ECI coordinate systems, the xy-plane is taken to coincide
with the Earth’s equatorial plane, the +x-axis is permanently fixed in a
particular direction relative to the celestial sphere, the +z-axis is taken
normal to the xy-plane in the direction of the north pole, and the +y-
axis is chosen so as to form a right-handed coordinate system.
Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed Coordinate
System
• For the purpose of computing the position of a GPS receiver, it is
more convenient to use a coordinate system that rotates with the
Earth, known as an Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF) system.
• In such a coordinate system, it is easier to compute the latitude,
longitude, and height parameters that the receiver displays.
• As with the ECI coordinate system, the ECEF coordinate system used
for GPS has its xy-plane coincident with the Earth’s equatorial plane.
• However, in the ECEF system, the +x-axis points in the direction of 0°
longitude, and the +y-axis points in the direction of 90°E longitude.
• The x-, y-, and z-axes therefore rotate with the Earth and no longer
describe fixed directions in inertial space.
Coordinate systems
The following are two common types of coordinate systems used:
1. Geographical Coordinate System (GCS): A global or spherical coordinate
system such as latitude-longitude. These are often referred to as geographic
coordinate systems.
2. Projected Coordinate System (PCS): A projected coordinate system such as
universal transverse Mercator (UTM), Albers Equal Area, or Robinson, all of
which (along with numerous other map projection models) provide various
mechanisms to project maps of the earth's spherical surface onto a two-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate plane. Projected coordinate systems are
referred to as map projections.
Coordinate systems (both geographic and projected) provide a framework for
defining real-world locations.
Geographical Coordinate Syetem (GCS)
• A geographic coordinate system is a
system that uses a three-dimensional
spherical surface to determine locations
on the Earth.
• Any location on Earth can be referenced
by a point with longitude and latitude
coordinates.
• The geographic coordinate system is
appropriate for global data sets and
applications, such as satellite imagery
repositories.
Latitude and Longitude on a Sphere

Z Meridian of longitude
Greenwich
N
meridian Parallel of latitude
λ=0°
P
•
λ - Geographic longitude
φ - Geographic latitude
W O φ E
• Y
λ R
R - Mean earth radius
•
Equator =0°
• O - Geocenter
X

17
Example: What is the length of a 1º increment along
on a meridian and on a parallel at 30N, 90W?
Radius of the earth = 6370 km.

Solution:
• A 1º angle has first to be converted to radians
p radians = 180 º, so 1º = 1x3.1416/180 = 3.1416/180 =
0.0175 radians

• For the meridian, L= Re . ф= 6370 * 0.0175 = 111 km

• For the parallel, L= Re .λCos ф

= 6370 * 0.0175 * Cos 30
= 96.5 km
• Parallels converge as poles are approached 18
A geographic coordinate system has the following components:
1. Angular units: The unit of measure on the spherical reference system
(Latitude and Longitude).
2. Spheroid: The reference spheroid for the coordinate transformation.
3. Datum: Defines the relationship of the reference spheroid to the Earth's
surface.
4. Prime meridian: The longitude origin of the spherical reference system.
Latitude
• The lines that run east and west each have a
constant latitude value and are called parallels.
• They are equidistant and parallel to one another,
and form concentric circles around the Earth.
• The equator is the largest circle and divides the
Earth in half.
• It is equal in distance from each of the poles, and
the value of this latitude line is zero.
• Locations north of the equator have positive
latitudes that range from 0 to +90 degrees, while
locations south of the equator have negative
latitudes that range from 0 to -90 degrees.
Longitudes
• The lines that run north and south each have a constant longitude value and
are called meridians.
• They form circles of the same size around the Earth, and intersect at the poles.
• The prime meridian is the line of longitude that defines the origin (zero
degrees) for longitude coordinates.
• One of the most commonly used prime meridian locations is the line that
passes through Greenwich, England.
• However, other longitude lines, such as those that pass through Bern, Bogota,
and Paris, were also as the prime meridian.
• Locations east of the prime meridian up to its antipodal meridian (the
continuation of the prime meridian on the other side of the globe) have
positive longitudes that range from 0 to +180 degrees.
• Locations west of the prime meridian have negative longitudes that range
from 0 to -180 degrees.
• The latitude and longitude lines can cover the globe to form a grid, called a
graticule.
• The point of origin of the graticule is (0,0), where the equator and the prime
meridian intersect.
• The equator is the only place on the graticule where the linear distance
corresponding to one degree latitude is approximately equal the distance
corresponding to one degree longitude.
• At the equator, one degree of longitude is approximately 111.321 kilometers,
while at 60 degrees of latitude, one degree of longitude is only 55.802 km
(this approximation is based on the Clarke 1866 spheroid).
• Therefore, because there is no uniform length of degrees of latitude and
longitude, the distance between points cannot be measured accurately by
using angular units of measure.
Spheroid
• A coordinate system can be defined by
either a sphere or a spheroid
approximation of the Earth's shape.
• Because the Earth is not perfectly round, a
spheroid can help maintain accuracy for a
map, depending on the location on the
Earth.
• A spheroid is an ellipsoid that is based on
an ellipse, whereas a sphere is based on a
circle.
• An ellipsoid is a three-dimensional shape
that is formed by rotating an ellipse
around one of its axes.
 Globe

• Spherical Earth’s surface

-radius 6371 km
• Meridians (lines of longitude)
- passing through Greenwich,
England as prime meridian or 0º
longitude. True direction, shape,
distance, and area
• Parallels (lines of latitude)
- using equator as 0º latitude.
• degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS),
• decimal degrees (DD)
24
 Earth Shape Models
• Flat earth models are still used for plane surveying, over distances short enough so
that earth curvature is insignificant (less than 10 km).

• Spherical earth models (Earth centered model) represent the shape of the earth
with a sphere of a specified radius. Spherical earth models are often used for short
range navigation and for global distance approximations. Spherical models fail to
model the actual shape of the earth.

• Ellipsoidal earth models are required for accurate range and bearing calculations
over long distances. Ellipsoidal models define an ellipsoid with an equatorial radius
and a polar radius. The best of these models can represent the shape of the earth
over the smoothed, averaged sea-surface to within about one-hundred meters.

• Although the earth is an ellipsoid, its major and minor axes do not vary greatly. The
shape is so close to a sphere that it is often called a spheroid rather than an
ellipsoid.
25
The Earth is “almost” a sphere with a circumference ~40000 km

Better approximate by an oblate ellipsoid

Today accepted Value
Equatorial Radius 6378 km
Polar Radius 6357 km
Sphere of Equal Volume Radius 6371 km
Flattening 1/300 appx
The “real” shape of the planet is approximated by the Geoid:
THE EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE AT THE MEAN SEA LEVELS

26
 Earth Surface: Ellipsoid, Geoid, Topo

• The reference ellipsoid

surface.Everest,WGS 84
• The reference geoid
surface ( mean sea
level-MSL surface).
• The real surface of the
Earth (the ground)
called the topographic
surface.

27
Ellipsoidal Parameters

28
 Geocentric & Locally Best Fitting Ellipsoids
Zw

P(X,Y,Z) (ф,λ,h)

Geoid

Globally Fitting Yw
Ellipsoid CG

Locally Best
Fitting Ellipsoid

Translations - Qx, Qy, Qz

Xw Rotations - xx, xy, xz
Xe maj gen r c padhiScale - s 29
11
maj gen r c padhi 30
12
 Shape of the Earth

We think of the It is actually a spheroid,

earth as a sphere slightly larger in radius at
the equator than at the poles

31
• If the ellipse is rotated about its major axis, the result is a prolate (elongated)
spheroid, shaped like an American football or rugby ball.
• If the ellipse is rotated about its minor axis, the result is an oblate (flattened)
spheroid, shaped like a lentil. If the generating ellipse is a circle, the result is a
sphere.
• Due to the combined effects of gravity
and rotation, the figure of the Earth (and
of all planets) is not quite a sphere, but
instead is slightly flattened in the
direction of its axis of rotation.
• For that reason, in cartography and
geodesy the Earth is often approximated
by an oblate spheroid, known as the
reference ellipsoid, instead of a sphere.

Oblate Prolate
 GEODETIC SYSTEM
• Geodetic system serves as the framework to determine co-ordinates
of points with respect to the earth.

• Global Geodetic System such as WGS-84 is established using

techniques of satellite geodesy.

• A geodetic (horizontal) datum has an earth-fixed reference ellipsoid

that may have been fit, in some manner, to the surface of the earth in
the area of interest. Geodetic datum's have parameters that define
the size and shape of the ellipsoid.

• A vertical datum is a surface of zero elevation. Elevations are

measured (Positive upward) from the vertical datum.

• Ideally, a vertical datum would closely approximate the geoid. It is

impossible to access the geoid surface directly . Tide gauge
measurements averaged over many years used to establish the
34
13
local MSL.
 Horizontal Earth Datum

• An earth datum is defined by an ellipse and an axis

of rotation
• NAD27 (North American Datum of 1927) uses the
Clarke (1866) ellipsoid on a non geocentric axis of
rotation
• NAD83 (NAD,1983) uses the GRS80 ellipsoid on a
geocentric axis of rotation
• WGS84 (World Geodetic System of 1984) uses
GRS80, almost the same as NAD83

35
 GLOBAL DATUMS
• The system which is truly universal is satellite based such as Global
Positioning System (GPS).

• The ref system is a Geo-centric Ellipsoid.

36
Selected
Ellipsoids and
Datums

maj gen r c padhi 37

16
Source: http://maic.jmu.edu/sic/standards/datum.htm
 Vertical Earth Datum
• A vertical datum defines elevation, z
• EVEREST (Indian MSL based on average tidal observation of
Indian coast lines).
• NGVD29 (National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929)
• NAVD88 (North American Vertical Datum of 1988)
takes into account a map of gravity anomalies
between the ellipsoid and the geoid

38
Definition of Elevation

Elevation Z
P
z = zp
• Land Surface
z=0

Mean Sea level = Geoid

Elevation is measured from the Geoid

39
Datum
• A geodetic datum or geodetic system is a
coordinate system, and a set of reference
points, used for locating places on the Earth
(or similar objects).
• An approximate definition of sea level is the
datum WGS 84, an ellipsoid, whereas a more
accurate definition is Earth Gravitational
Model 2008 (EGM2008), using at least 2,159
spherical harmonics.
• Other datums are defined for other areas or
at other times; ED50 was defined in 1950 over
Europe and differs from WGS 84 by a few
hundred meters depending on where in
Europe you look.
• Datums are used in geodesy, navigation, and
surveying by cartographers and satellite
navigation systems to translate positions
indicated on maps (paper or digital) to their
real position on Earth.
Global Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z)

Z
Greenwich
Meridian

O
• Y

X
Equator

42
 Geographic Coordinates (ф, λ, z)

• Latitude (ф) and Longitude (λ) defined using an

ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about an axis
• Elevation (z) defined using geoid, a surface of
constant gravitational potential
• Earth datum define standard values of the ellipsoid
and geoid

43
 Projecting the earth flat

• Projections – transformation of curved earth to a flat map;

systematic rendering of the latitude & longitude graticules to
rectangular coordinate system.

Scale Scale Factor (for specific points)

1: 42,000,000 0.9996

Earth Globe Map

Peters
Globe distance Map distance
Projection
Earth distance Globe distance
44
 Earth to Globe to Map

Map Scale: Map Projection:

Representative Fraction Scale Factor

= Globe distance Map distance

=
Earth distance Globe distance
(e.g. 1:24,000) (e.g. 0.9996)45
 Map Projections: Basics
• A map projection is a mathematical model for conversion of locations from a three-
dimensional earth surface to a two-dimensional map representation.

• This conversion distorts some aspect of the earth's surface, area, shape, distance, or
direction.

• Every projection has its advantages and disadvantages. There is no "best"

projection. Some distortions of conformity (shape), scale, distance, direction,
and area .

• Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the

expense of maximizing errors in others. Some projection are attempts to
moderately distort all properties

• We select the one best suited to the needs, reducing distortion of the most
important features.
. maj gen r c padhi 46
33
 Projecting the earth flat

Projection types:
Orthographic Gnomonic Stereographic
a A’
A’ a A’ a

T T T
’
T ’ T ’ T

B’ b
b B’ b B’

47
 SCALE DISTORTION
• It is impossible to project the Earth on a piece of
paper without location distortions.

No scale distortion No scale distortion No scale distortion

Most distortion
Most distortion Most distortion

Most distortion
Earth surface Earth surface

Tangent map plane Secant map plane

• It is important to know the extent to which the scale

varies on map.
48
Geographic and Projected Coordinates

(ф, λ) (x, y)
Map Projection

49
 Types of Projections

• Conic (Albers Equal Area, Lambert Conformal Conic)

- good for East-West land areas.

• Cylindrical (Transverse Mercator) - good for North-

South land areas.

• Azimuthal (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area) - good

for global views

50
 Classes of Map projections

Physical models: Distortion properties:

• Cylindrical projections (cylinder) ■ Conformal (preserves local

- Tangent case angles and shape)
- Secant case
■ Equal area or equivalent (area)
• Conic Projections (cone)
- Tangent case ■ Equidistant (scale along a center
- Secant case line)
• Azimuthal or planar projections
(plane) ■ Azimuthal (directions)
- Tangent case
- Secant case
51
Cylindrical Transverse Cylindrica lOblique Secant Cylind
Cylindrical

39
52
Conical Secant Conical Planar Secant Plan
 Commonly Used Projections
• Mercator Projection (1569)
- Directions are true along straight line of any
two points, Distances are true only along
equator, and reasonable correct within 15 of
equator, in secant model, distance along two
parallels are correct in scale instead of the
Equator. Areas and shapes of large area are
distorted. Distortion increases away from
Equator and is extreme in polar regions.
However, map is conformal in that angles and
shapes within any small area is essentially true.
- Used for navigation or maps of equatorial
regions.

• Transverse Mercator Projection (Lambert 1772)

- Distances are true only along the central
meridian selected by the mapmaker or else along
two lines parallel to it, but all distances,
directions, shapes, and areas are reasonably
accurate within 15° of the central meridian.
Distortion of distances, directions, and size of
areas increases rapidly outside the 15° band.
Because the map is conformal, however, shapes
and angles within any small area (such as that
shown by a USGS topographic map) are
essentially true.
- Used for many USGS 1:24,000 to 1:250,000
map
53
 Commonly Used Projections
• Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection
- All areas on the map are
proportional to the same areas on the Earth.
Directions are reasonably accurate in
limited regions. Distances are true on both
standard parallels. Maximum scale error is
1 1/4% on map of conterminous States with
standard parallels of 29 1/2°N and 45
1/2°N. Scale true only along standard
parallels .

Lambert Conformal Conic/polyconic

Projection.
- Distances true only along
standard parallels; reasonably accurate
elsewhere in limited regions. Directions
reasonably accurate. Distortion of shapes
and areas minimal at, but increases away
from standard parallels. Shapes on large-
scale maps of small areas essentially true
Used for Indian TOPO maps, standard
parallels vary zone wise.
- Used for topographic maps.
54
Conic Projections
(Albers, Lambert)

55
 POLYCONIC
PROJECTION
• Class : Neither Conformal nor equal area.
• Projection principle : It consists of many (poly) cones
involved. The cones are tangent to each parallel, so
that meridians are curved & parallels are also curved.

Conic Polyconic
Projection Projection
Uses :- 1. All topographic maps in India are in Polyconic Projection.
2. Used for large scale mapping of USA till 1950 only.
3. Not a suitable projection for digital environment due to 43
 POLYCONIC PROJECTION FOR INDIAN MAPS

• All topographical maps on scale 1:25,000 ; 1:50,000 and 1:250,000

are prepared on Polyconic Projection.
• Projection Parameters of Polyconic Projection are :
• Longitude of Origin ……………….
• Latitude of Origin ……………….
• False Easting ……………….
• False Northing ……………….
• Scale Reduction Factor ……………….
• For each SOI map sheet, the center of map has been taken as
origin. It means each sheet is being projected individually and is
having identical coordinates of corner points.
• Hence these maps can not be joined seamlessly in digital
environment.

57
 Maps in Geographic Coordinates
• Digital map data can also be stored in ‘Geographic
coordinates i.e. Latitude and Longitude.

• Geographic coordinate system is popular in digital

environment where contiguous maps are displayed on
screen and measurements made in GIS environ.

• 1:250,000 (1° x 1°) or 1:50,000(15’x15’) scale maps get

displayed as perfect squares.

• Most popular GIS system has option for map viewing in

geographic system (un projected) or projected.

58
 Limitations of Polyconic Projection
• Since each topographical map sheet is projected independently with
origin at the center of the map, two or more digital map sheets
cannot be joined seamlessly, unless they are transformed to some
common coordinate systems.

• Shapes of the maps is trapezoidal therefore even the raster maps

cannot be joined in multiple directions.

• Distortions increases as the distance from central meridian

increases.

• Not suitable for digital environment. USGS used this projection for
their topo sheets till 1957 only.

59
 Limitations of Everest Ellipsoid
• The center of the Everest ellipsoid does not coincide with the center of
earth and is not the best fit for the globe.

• It fits well with earth for small area around India

• Even in some portions of India , it does not fit properly.

• WGS84 is the best fit system for the globe.

• GPS coordinate are in the WGS-84 system.

• At present, to use GPS coordinates with pre 2005 topographical maps,

these need to be transformed to Everest ellipsoid from WGS-84.

• For such transformation of coordinates, 7 transformation parameters are

needed. SOI has worked out these parameters.

60
 Cylindrical Projections
(Mercator)

Transverse

Oblique

61
62
 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Coordinate System
• UTM system is transverse-secant cylindrical projection, dividing the surface of the
Earth into 6 degree zones with a central meridian in the center of the zone.

• Each zone is a different Transverse Mercator projection that is slightly rotated to

use a different meridian. UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longitudinal
strips extending from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude.

• UTM is a conformal projection, so small features appear with the correct shape.
scale is same in all directions. ( distances, directions, shapes, and areas are
reasonably accurate ). Scale factor is 0.9996 at the central meridian and at most
1.0004 at the edges of the zones.

• UTM coordinates are in meters, making it easy to make accurate calculations of

short distances between points (error is less than 0.04%)

• Although the distortions of the UTM system are small, they are too great for some
accurate surveying. zone boundaries are also a problem in many applications,
because they follow arbitrary lines of longitude rather than boundaries between
maj gen r c padhi 63
51
jurisdictions.
UTM PROJECTION

64
65
UTM PROJECTION

66
Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS)
Coordinate System

• The UPS is defined above 84 degrees north

latitude and south of 80 degrees south latitude.
• The eastings and northings are computed using a
polar aspect stereographic projection.
• Zones are computed using a different character set
for south and north Polar regions.

67
LAYOUT OF SHEETS

68
LAY OUT OF SHEETS

69
LAY OUT OF SHEETS

70
 LAY OUT OF SHEETS
(as per national map policy)

71
Relationship between satellite and
conventional geodetic system

Methodology
•Conventional Geodetic Systems: Use ground-based
techniques like triangulation (angle measurements),
trilateration (distance measurements), and leveling (height
differences). These rely on physical tools—like theodolites,
chains, or leveling rods—and a network of fixed, surveyed
points (e.g., benchmarks). It’s hands-on and local.
•Satellite-Based Systems: Depend on signals from
orbiting satellites (e.g., GPS, GLONASS). Positions are
calculated via trilateration using signal travel times from
multiple satellites to a receiver. It’s remote and space-
driven, no direct ground measurements needed.

72
 Reference Frame

•Conventional: Tied to regional or local datums (e.g.,

NAD27, European Datum 1950), which are based on a
best-fit ellipsoid for a specific area. These frames often
vary between regions, leading to inconsistencies over
large distances.
•Satellite: Operate on a global datum (e.g., WGS84),
a unified ellipsoidal model centered on Earth’s mass.
This ensures consistency worldwide, aligning all
measurements to a single, Earth-centered system.

73
Accuracy and Precision
• Conventional: Achieves high precision locally
(centimeters to meters), but errors accumulate over
distance due to manual measurements and atmospheric
distortions. Limited by terrain and line-of-sight.
• Satellite: Offers consistent global accuracy (meters with
basic GPS, millimeters with advanced methods like RTK
or PPP). Unaffected by terrain, but signal interference
(e.g., multipath, ionospheric delays) can introduce
errors, mitigated by corrections.

74
Scope and Scale
• Conventional: Best suited for small to medium areas—
think a city or country. Scaling it globally was impractical
due to the effort required to connect distant points.
• Satellite: Inherently global, covering the entire planet with
a single system. It’s ideal for large-scale mapping,
navigation, and cross-border projects.
Technology and Effort
• Conventional: Labor-intensive, requiring teams to
physically measure angles, distances, and heights over
years. Think of surveyors trekking mountains with heavy
gear.
• Satellite: Automated and rapid, relying on satellites and
receivers. Once the infrastructure (satellites, ground
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stations) is in place, users just need a device to tap into it.
•Historical vs. Modern Role Conventional: Dominated pre-
1960s geodesy, forming the backbone of early maps and
infrastructure. It’s now mostly a reference for legacy data or
niche local surveys.

•Satellite: Took over post-1970s with the advent of GPS,

integrating and refining conventional data into modern
global frameworks like WGS84. It’s the standard now.

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Questions?

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