Module I: Introduction to Lifespan Development

Life Span Development:

Definition,
-​ our development, the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and
continues through the human life span.
-​ lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and
stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span.
-​ lifespan development takes a scientific approach. Like members of other scientific
disciplines, researchers in lifespan development test their assumptions about the nature
and course of human development by applying scientific methods
Issues
-​ Nature and Nurture: Why are you the way you are? As you consider some of your
features (height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc.), ask yourself whether these
features are a result of heredity or environmental factors, or both. Chances are, you can
see the ways in which both heredity and environmental factors (such as lifestyle, diet,
and so on) have contributed to these features. For decades, scholars have carried on
the "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of nature would
argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on
the side of nurture would argue that one's environment is most significant in shaping the
way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most
scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to
isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.
-​ Continuity versus Discontinuity: Is human development best characterized as a slow,
gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that
question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being
studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories.
Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often
occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set,
universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different
qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more
discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing
theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as
continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new
skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain
development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more
developed skills.
-​ Active versus Passive: How much do you play a role in your own developmental path?
Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you?
Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own
development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and
construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many
behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process.
-​ Stability versus Change: How similar are you to how you were as a child? Were you
always as out-going or reserved as you are now? Some theorists argue that the
 personality traits of adults are rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the
infant and young child. Others disagree, and believe that these initial tendencies are
modified by social and cultural forces over time.
-​
Principles of Development
-​ Paul Baltes identified several underlying principles of the lifespan perspective
-​ Development is lifelong. Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and
change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial,
characterizes, or dominates human development. Consequently, the term lifespan
development will be used throughout the textbook.
-​ Development is multidirectional. Humans change in many directions. We may show
gains in some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change,
whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both
growth and loss.
-​ Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions;
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. The physical domain includes changes in height
and weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for
disease and illness. The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence,
wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language. The psychosocial domain
focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception and interpersonal relationships with
families, peers, and friends. All three domains influence each other. It is also important to
note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other
domains. For instance, an infant who has started to crawl or walk will encounter more
objects and people, thus fostering developmental change in the child’s understanding of
the physical and social world.
-​ Development is multidisciplinary. As mentioned at the start of the chapter, human
development is such a vast topic of study that it requires the theories, research methods,
and knowledge base of many academic disciplines.
-​ Development is characterized by plasticity. Plasticity is all about our ability to change
and that many of our characteristics are malleable. For instance, plasticity is illustrated in
the brain’s ability to learn from experience and how it can recover from injury.
-​ Development is multicontextual. Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes (1987)
identified three specific contextual influences.
-​ Normative age-graded influences: An age-grade is a specific age group, such as
toddler, adolescent, or senior. Humans in a specific age-grade share particular
experiences and developmental changes.
-​ • Normative history-graded influences: The time period in which you are born
(see Table 1.1) shapes your experiences. A cohort is a group of people who are
born at roughly the same period in a particular society. These people travel
through life often experiencing similar circumstances.
-​ • Non-normative life influences: Despite sharing an age and history with our
peers, each of us also has unique experiences that may shape our development.
A child who loses his/her parent at a young age has experienced a life event that
is not typical of the age group.
 -​
-​
Influence of Culture and Diversity
-​ Different cultures and subcultures have their own views of appropriate and inappropriate
childrearing, just as they have different developmental goals for children
-​ Developmentalists must take into consideration broad cultural factors, such as an
orientation toward individualism or collectivism. They must also consider finer ethnic,
racial, socioeconomic, and gender differences if they are to achieve an understanding of
how people change and grow throughout the life span
-​ Culture and diversity play significant roles in lifespan development by shaping
individuals' experiences, behaviors, and perspectives over time. Here's how these
factors influence development across different stages of life:
-​
-​ ### 1. **Cultural Beliefs and Values**
-​ - **Influence on Early Development**: In early childhood, cultural beliefs about
child-rearing, education, and behavior significantly shape the way children are raised.
For instance, in collectivist cultures, children might be raised with an emphasis on family
loyalty and social harmony, while in individualistic cultures, independence and
self-expression may be prioritized.
-​ - **Norms and Expectations**: Cultural norms around milestones such as walking,
talking, and achieving academic success can impact the pace at which children are
expected to develop certain skills, influencing how they approach learning and
socialization.
-​
-​ ### 2. **Language and Communication**
-​ - **Cultural Impact on Language Development**: Children in different cultural
environments may learn different languages or dialects, which affects cognitive
development. Bilingual or multilingual children often develop enhanced cognitive
flexibility, while the linguistic structure of a given culture (e.g., emphasis on direct vs.
indirect communication) can shape their social skills and emotional intelligence.
-​ - **Non-verbal Communication**: Different cultures emphasize different forms of
non-verbal communication, such as gestures, eye contact, and physical space. This can
impact social interactions and relationships throughout life.
-​
-​ ### 3. **Educational Practices**
-​ - **Cultural Approaches to Education**: Diverse cultural traditions influence how
education is valued and structured. For example, in some cultures, rote memorization is
emphasized, while in others, critical thinking and creativity are prioritized. These
differences can affect cognitive and academic development, including problem-solving
skills and academic achievements.
-​ - **Access to Education**: Socioeconomic and cultural factors can also determine
access to education, influencing lifelong learning, career opportunities, and overall
well-being.
-​
-​ ### 4. **Socialization and Relationships**
-​ - **Family Dynamics**: Family structures and roles vary widely across cultures. In
some cultures, extended family plays a prominent role in child-rearing, while others may
emphasize nuclear family systems. These variations influence social development and
the emotional bonds individuals form throughout their lives.
-​ - **Peer Relationships**: Cultural expectations can also affect how children interact
with peers. For example, some cultures emphasize group cohesion and cooperation,
while others encourage individual competition and leadership.
-​
-​ ### 5. **Psychosocial Development**
-​ - **Identity Formation**: Culture influences how individuals perceive themselves and
their identities. For example, cultural practices and values can shape self-concept,
gender roles, and sexual identity. In multicultural societies, people may experience
identity conflict or a blending of cultural elements that impact their sense of self.
-​ - **Emotional Regulation**: Cultural norms dictate how emotions are expressed or
suppressed. In some cultures, emotional restraint is valued, while others might
encourage open emotional expression. These differences shape emotional regulation
across the lifespan.
-​
-​ ### 6. **Health and Well-being**
-​ - **Health Beliefs**: Cultural attitudes toward health, illness, and medical care influence
how individuals care for themselves and seek medical treatment. In some cultures,
alternative medicine or holistic health practices are preferred, while others rely more
heavily on Western medicine.
-​ - **Social Support**: The availability and types of social support systems can vary
culturally. Some cultures place a high value on community and familial support networks,
while others may encourage more individualistic approaches to coping with stress and
health challenges.
-​ - **Lifespan and Aging**: Attitudes toward aging and the elderly can differ across
cultures, with some cultures offering great respect for older adults and others tending to
prioritize youthfulness. These cultural differences affect the experiences of aging and the
roles of older adults in society.
-​
-​ ### 7. **Diversity and the Lifespan**
-​ - **Ethnic and Racial Identity**: The ethnic or racial identity of an individual, and how
they navigate that identity within broader society, significantly impacts their lifespan
development. Experiences of discrimination, racism, and microaggressions can have
long-term effects on mental and emotional health, as well as on physical health
outcomes.
-​ - **Intergenerational Influence**: The values and traditions passed down from previous
generations play a major role in shaping how individuals develop over time. These
intergenerational influences can include expectations for career choices, family roles,
and cultural practices.
-​
 -​### 8. **Life Transitions and Adaptation**
-​ - **Cultural Rituals and Rites of Passage**: Across cultures, there are different rites of
passage and life transitions (e.g., coming-of-age ceremonies, marriage, and retirement)
that mark key developmental stages. These transitions can influence self-perception,
social roles, and individual growth.
-​ - **Adaptation to Change**: As individuals encounter new cultural environments (e.g.,
through immigration or travel), their ability to adapt to cultural differences can impact
their psychological well-being and developmental outcomes.
Research and Anthropometric measures in Development
### Research and Anthropometric Measures in Development

Research in lifespan development often involves gathering data to understand how individuals
grow, change, and adapt across different stages of life. Several research methods and designs
are utilized to study development, as well as various anthropometric measures that track
physical growth and health. In this response, we’ll explore different research methods
(observational, case studies, surveys, standardized tests, etc.), anthropometric measures, and
research designs used in the field of lifespan development.

### Research Methods in Lifespan Development

1. **Observation** (Laboratory and Naturalistic)

- **Laboratory Observation**: Involves observing individuals in a controlled environment,
allowing the researcher to manipulate variables and ensure consistent conditions. This method
is often used to study specific behaviors (e.g., cognitive tasks, emotional reactions) in a setting
where external variables can be controlled. However, it may lack ecological validity as the
behavior observed may not reflect how individuals act in real-life situations.
- **Naturalistic Observation**: Researchers observe participants in their natural environment
without intervening or manipulating the environment. This type of observation provides high
ecological validity because it captures behaviors in real-world settings (e.g., children interacting
with peers in a playground). However, researchers have less control over variables, making it
harder to establish causal relationships.

2. **Case Study**
- A **case study** involves an in-depth, qualitative investigation of a single individual or a
small group. This method is useful for studying rare developmental conditions or unique life
experiences (e.g., a child with a developmental disorder or an individual who has undergone a
significant life transition). It offers detailed insights but lacks generalizability to larger populations
due to its focus on a small sample.

3. **Survey and Interview**

- **Surveys**: Surveys are a common quantitative research tool that can gather large amounts
of data from a wide sample. They typically include structured questionnaires that assess various
aspects of development, such as cognitive abilities, emotional responses, and social behavior.
Surveys can be distributed to large populations, providing insights into trends and patterns, but
they are limited by the participants' self-report biases and may lack depth.
- **Interviews**: Interviews, whether structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, provide a
more personal and in-depth understanding of individuals’ experiences and perspectives.
Interviews are often used in qualitative research and provide rich, detailed data, though they are
time-consuming and may suffer from interviewer bias or lack of consistency in responses.

4. **Standardized Tests**
- **Standardized tests** are widely used to measure specific developmental outcomes, such
as IQ, achievement, or personality traits. These tests have been rigorously tested for reliability
and validity, providing a reliable measure of individuals’ abilities, knowledge, or behaviors.
However, standardized tests can be limited by cultural biases, and they may not fully capture
the complexity of human development.

5. **Experiment**
- **Experiments** involve manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the
effects on a dependent variable. Experimental designs help establish cause-and-effect
relationships by randomly assigning participants to different conditions (e.g., experimental vs.
control group). However, experimental research can be artificial, as it may not always reflect
real-world conditions. In developmental psychology, experiments might be used to study the
effects of specific interventions (e.g., changes in parenting styles) on child behavior.

6. **Physiological Measures**
- Physiological measures include the use of biological markers to assess development, such
as heart rate, blood pressure, brain activity, and hormone levels. These measures are often
used to study emotional regulation, stress responses, or cognitive function. For example, using
neuroimaging (like fMRI) can provide insight into brain development and how it relates to
cognitive abilities or behavior.

7. **Anthropometry**
- **Anthropometry** refers to the measurement of the human body in terms of dimensions,
such as height, weight, body mass index (BMI), and head circumference. These measures are
often used in developmental studies to track physical growth over time, identify patterns, and
detect any deviations from typical development. Anthropometric data can be useful in assessing
the effects of nutrition, health, and socio-economic status on physical development.

### Research Designs in Lifespan Development

1. **Descriptive Design**
- A **descriptive design** aims to describe characteristics or behaviors as they naturally occur,
without manipulating variables. It involves observing and measuring without intervention. It is
useful for identifying patterns and trends but does not provide insight into causality. Examples
include case studies, surveys, and observational studies.
2. **Experimental Design**
- An **experimental design** involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its
effects on a dependent variable. This design is used to determine causal relationships between
variables. Researchers typically use control groups and random assignment to ensure that
findings are not influenced by extraneous variables. For example, an experimental study might
examine the effect of a specific educational intervention on child cognitive development.

3. **Correlational Design**
- A **correlational design** examines the relationship between two or more variables without
manipulating them. It helps identify associations, such as whether higher levels of parental
education are linked to improved academic performance in children. However, correlation does
not imply causation, meaning that it’s not possible to conclude that one variable causes the
other.

4. **Cross-Sectional Design**
- A **cross-sectional design** involves collecting data from different age groups at one point in
time. It allows researchers to compare developmental stages, such as cognitive or social
differences between children, adolescents, and adults. This design is efficient and cost-effective
but does not provide information about how development unfolds over time or the direction of
causality.

5. **Longitudinal Design**
- A **longitudinal design** involves studying the same individuals over an extended period.
This design is ideal for observing developmental changes and patterns over time, making it
highly valuable in lifespan development research. It can be used to track cognitive, social, and
emotional development across various life stages. However, longitudinal studies are
resource-intensive, and participant attrition can be a significant issue.

6. **Cohort Effects**
- **Cohort effects** refer to differences that arise due to the historical or social contexts in
which people from different age groups (cohorts) grow up. For example, people born during a
time of economic recession may develop different life outcomes than those born in times of
prosperity. Cohort effects can be a limitation in cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, as the
developmental changes observed may be influenced by generational or cultural factors rather
than age alone.

Module II: Pre Natal Development and Birth

Pre Natal-Development Stages

Prenatal Development Stages

Prenatal development refers to the changes that occur in the human body from conception to
birth. It is typically divided into three major stages: the germinal period, the embryonic period,
and the fetal period. These stages represent critical phases in the formation of the human body
and the development of vital organs and systems.

The Germinal Period (First Two Weeks)

The germinal period begins at conception and lasts for approximately two weeks. It is the
earliest stage of prenatal development, marked by rapid cell division and the formation of the
fertilized egg, or zygote. The zygote undergoes a process of mitosis, which results in numerous
cells that continue to divide and specialize.

Within a week after fertilization, the group of cells form a structure called the blastocyst, which
consists of two layers: the inner mass of cells (which will become the embryo) and the outer
layer of cells known as the trophoblast (which will later develop into the placenta and other
support systems for the embryo). The blastocyst travels down the fallopian tube and reaches
the uterine wall, where it implants itself. This process of implantation, which occurs about 11 to
15 days after conception, is critical for the continuation of the pregnancy.

The Embryonic Period (Two to Eight Weeks)

The embryonic period is one of the most critical stages of prenatal development, lasting from
two to eight weeks.Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from
head to tail called cephalocaudal development and from the midline outward referred to as
proximodistal development. During this period, the rapid differentiation of cells leads to the
formation of the embryo's three primary germ layers, which will develop into all of the body's
organs and tissues:

1.​ Endoderm (inner layer): This layer will form the digestive and respiratory systems.
2.​ Mesoderm (middle layer): This layer will develop into the circulatory system, bones,
muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system.
3.​ Ectoderm (outer layer): The ectoderm will give rise to the nervous system (including
the brain and spinal cord), sensory receptors (such as the eyes, ears, and nose), and
skin (including hair and nails).

As the embryo’s three layers form, life-support systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These
life-support systems include the amnion, the umbilical cord (both of which develop from the
fertilized egg, not the mother’s body), and the placenta.

1.​ The amnion is like a bag or an envelope and contains a clear fluid in which the
developing embryo floats. The amniotic fluid provides an environment that is
temperature and humidity controlled, as well as shock proof.
2.​ the chorion develops into placenta and umbilical cord.
a.​ The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein, and connects the baby to
the placenta.
b.​ The placenta consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood
vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. Very small
molecules—oxygen, water, salt, food from the mother’s blood, as well as carbon
 dioxide and digestive wastes from the offspring’s blood—pass back and forth
between the mother and embryo or fetus. Large molecules cannot pass through
the placental wall; these include red blood cells and harmful substances, such as
most bacteria and maternal waste.

During this period, organogenesis occurs, the process by which the organs of the body begin
to form. The embryo is particularly vulnerable to external influences, such as teratogens
(harmful substances), as its organs and systems are still developing. At around three weeks
after conception, the neural tube forms, eventually developing into the spinal cord.

During the fourth week, the urogenital system becomes apparent, and arm and leg buds
emerge. Four chambers of the heart take shape, and blood vessels appear.

From the fi fth to the eighth week, arms and legs differentiate further; at this time, the face starts
to form but still is not very recognizable. The intestinal tract develops and the facial structures
fuse.

At eight weeks, the developing organism weighs about 1/30 ounce and is just over 1 inch long.
It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic
period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if
exposed to harmful substances. Potential mothers are not often aware of the risks they
introduce to the developing embryo during this time.

The Fetal Period (Two Months After Conception to Birth)

The fetal period spans the time from two months after conception to birth and is characterized
by continued growth and development of structures that were formed during the embryonic
period. This period lasts for about seven months.

●​ First Trimester (Months 3-4): By the third month, the fetus measures around 3 inches
and weighs approximately 3 ounces. It begins to show more activity, such as moving its
arms and legs, opening and closing its mouth, and moving its head.The face, forehead,
eyelids, nose, and chin are distinguishable, as are the upper arms, lower arms, hands,
and lower limbs. In most cases, the genitals can be identified as male or female. By the
end of the fourth month, the fetus grows to about 6 inches and weighs between 4-7
ounces. It undergoes a growth spurt, with noticeable development in the limbs and
torso. Mothers often begin to feel fetal movements during this period.​

●​ Second Trimester (Months 5-6): By the end of the fifth month, the fetus has grown to
about 12 inches and weighs around 1 pound.Structures of the skin have
formed—toenails and fi ngernails, for example. The fetus is more active, showing a
preference for a particular position in the womb. By the end of the sixth month, the fetus
is approximately 14 inches long and weighs between 1-1.5 pounds. At this stage, skin
structures (like toenails and fingernails) form, and the fetus exhibits increased
movement, such as grabbing reflexes and irregular breathing movements. The eyes and
 eyelids are fully formed, and a fine layer of hair (called lanugo) begins to cover the
head.​

At 24-25 weeks, the fetus reaches viability—the point at which it may survive outside the
womb with medical support, although the lungs and other systems are still immature. Babies
born prematurely at this stage often require intensive care, particularly for breathing assistance.

●​ Third Trimester (Months 7-9): During the seventh month, the fetus measures around
16 inches and weighs about 3 pounds. This period is marked by rapid weight gain and
continued growth in length. Fatty tissues develop under the skin, providing insulation and
energy reserves for birth. By the eighth and ninth months, the fetus reaches full term,
growing to about 18-22 inches long and weighing 6-9 pounds at birth.

Organ systems continue to mature during this stage, especially the lungs, heart, and kidneys.
The fetus now moves more actively, and most of the internal systems are functioning well
enough to support life outside the womb. By the end of the fetal period, the fetus is fully
prepared for birth, having developed all of the necessary organs and physiological processes to
survive independently.

Conception to Birth Genetics vs Environmental Interactions

### Heredity and Environment Interaction in Development

The interaction between **heredity** (genetic influences) and **environment** (external,

experiential factors) is a central theme in understanding human development. These two forces
work together to shape individual differences across various domains of human functioning,
such as cognition, behavior, physical growth, and emotional development. This dynamic
interaction plays a fundamental role in determining individual trajectories and is explored in
fields like **behavior genetics** and **epigenetics**.

### Birth Genetics vs. Environmental Interactions

At birth, a child’s genetic code provides the foundation for potential physical, cognitive, and
emotional characteristics. However, the way these genetic predispositions are expressed is
influenced by environmental factors, such as family dynamics, cultural context, education, and
socio-economic status. The field of **behavior genetics** focuses on understanding the
contributions of both heredity and environment in shaping these individual differences.

Behavior geneticists explore the **extent** to which genetics and environment contribute to
individual traits, often through twin studies and adoption studies. These approaches help
researchers assess whether similarities between individuals are due more to **genetic
inheritance** or to the **shared environment** in which they were raised.
- **Twin Studies**: These compare the behavioral similarities of identical twins (who share 100%
of their genetic material) to fraternal twins (who share about 50% of their genetic material).
Identical twins provide a natural experiment to assess how much behavior can be attributed to
genetic factors versus environmental influences.

- **Adoption Studies**: By examining children who have been adopted, researchers can
compare the children’s behavior and psychological characteristics to those of their biological
parents (genetic influence) and adoptive parents (environmental influence). These studies offer
insight into the role of inherited traits versus the impact of the rearing environment.

### Behavior Genetics: The Influence of Heredity and Environment

**Behavior genetics** seeks to understand the balance between heredity and environmental
factors in shaping human development. It doesn't aim to identify the specific extent to which
each factor influences individual traits, but rather seeks to discern the role each plays in human
variation. The study of **behavior genetics** helps untangle complex questions about the origins
of traits, such as intelligence, personality, and mental health.

### Heredity-Environment Correlations

One of the key concepts in behavior genetics is the idea of **heredity-environment

correlations**, which refer to the ways in which a person’s genetic traits can influence the
environments they are exposed to. These correlations imply that people are not simply passive
recipients of environmental influences, but rather that their genetic predispositions can lead
them to seek or create environments that enhance or magnify certain traits.

**Sandra Scarr (1993)** identified three main types of heredity-environment correlations:

1. **Passive Genotype-Environment Correlations**: These occur when children inherit genetic

predispositions from their parents, and their parents provide environments that nurture these
traits. For instance, a child who inherits intelligence from their parents may be provided with
books and a stimulating educational environment, further enhancing their cognitive
development. This type of correlation is most prevalent in early childhood when parents have
significant control over the child’s environment.

2. **Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlations**: These occur when a child’s inherited traits

evoke certain responses from their environment. For example, a child who is cheerful and
sociable may elicit more positive social interactions, leading to greater opportunities for social
learning. In contrast, a more withdrawn child may receive less social stimulation, affecting their
social development.

3. **Active (Niche-Picking) Genotype-Environment Correlations**: As children grow older, they

begin to seek out environments that match their genetic predispositions, a process known as
**niche-picking**. For instance, a genetically athletic child may choose to participate in sports,
while a musically inclined child might gravitate toward music-related activities. In this way,
children actively shape their own environments based on their genetic traits.

Thus, heredity-environment correlations underscore the complex interplay between nature and
nurture, highlighting that individuals are not passive recipients of their environments but rather
active participants in shaping their developmental experiences.

### Shared vs. Nonshared Environmental Experiences

In understanding the environmental factors influencing development, **shared** and

**nonshared environments** are critical distinctions:

- **Shared Environmental Experiences**: These are the experiences that children in the same
family have in common, such as living in the same household, having the same parents, and
experiencing similar socioeconomic conditions. Shared environments, while important, have
been found to account for relatively little of the variation in individual differences, especially as
children age. For example, siblings in the same family may have very different personalities
despite sharing many aspects of their upbringing.

- **Nonshared Environmental Experiences**: These are the unique experiences that are specific
to each child. Even within the same family, siblings may experience different relationships with
their parents, peers, or teachers, and they may have different educational opportunities or
health outcomes. These nonshared experiences can be more influential than shared
experiences in shaping personality and other individual differences. Research has shown that
nonshared environmental factors account for a significant portion of the differences in traits like
intelligence, temperament, and social behavior.

### The Epigenetic View: Gene-Environment Interaction

While **heredity-environment correlations** provide a valuable framework for understanding

how genetic and environmental factors interact, critics argue that this perspective gives too
much emphasis to heredity and does not adequately address the ways in which the
environment shapes genetic expression. This criticism is addressed by the **epigenetic view**,
which suggests that development is the result of a continuous, **bidirectional interaction**
between genes and the environment.

The **epigenetic view**, as proposed by **Gilbert Gottlieb (2007)**, posits that genetic
expression is not fixed at birth but is shaped by environmental influences throughout
development. This view acknowledges that environmental factors (such as nutrition, stress, and
social interactions) can influence how genes are expressed, potentially leading to long-term
changes in behavior, cognition, and health. Moreover, these gene-environment interactions are
**bidirectional**, meaning that environmental factors can affect genetic activity, and genetic
predispositions can influence the way individuals respond to environmental cues.
For example, early childhood experiences such as secure attachment or exposure to enriching
educational environments can activate specific genes related to cognitive development,
whereas negative experiences like chronic stress or abuse can lead to changes in gene
expression that impact emotional regulation and mental health outcomes.
Teratogens

Teratogens and Their Impact on Prenatal Development

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development: A Comprehensive Overview

Prenatal development is an intricate process that can be disrupted by various factors, including
medications, psychoactive substances, maternal health, environmental exposures, and more.
Understanding these potential hazards, both from prescription and nonprescription drugs as well
as other factors, is critical for ensuring the health and well-being of the developing embryo or
fetus.

Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs:

Prescription and nonprescription drugs can have profound effects on prenatal development that
many women might not anticipate. Certain medications, including antibiotics, antidepressants,
hormones, and others, can function as teratogens, substances that disrupt normal fetal
development and cause birth defects.

Prescription Drugs:

1.​ Antibiotics:​

○​ Streptomycin: Known for its use in treating tuberculosis, streptomycin can result
in auditory damage to the developing fetus, including hearing loss.
○​ Tetracycline: Commonly prescribed for bacterial infections, tetracycline can
impair bone growth and result in permanent tooth discoloration if taken during
pregnancy, especially in the second and third trimesters.
2.​ Antidepressants:​

○​ Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): Recent studies have

indicated that early pregnancy exposure to SSRIs may increase the risk of heart
defects in offspring. Taking multiple types of SSRIs may compound this risk,
highlighting the importance of careful consideration when prescribing these
medications during pregnancy.
3.​ Hormones:​

○​ Progestin and Synthetic Estrogen: These hormones, often used in hormone

replacement therapy and contraceptives, can disrupt fetal development,
particularly in the first trimester.
 4.​ Accutane (Isotretinoin): This powerful acne treatment is known for causing severe birth
defects, including craniofacial, cardiac, and neurological abnormalities. It is absolutely
contraindicated during pregnancy due to its teratogenic effects.​

5.​ Aspirin and Diet Pills: While aspirin is commonly used to treat pain and inflammation,
high dosages during pregnancy can increase the risk of bleeding complications for both
the mother and fetus. Nonprescription diet pills may contain stimulants or other harmful
ingredients that can impact fetal development.​

Psychoactive Drugs:

Psychoactive drugs, which alter mood, perception, and consciousness, are known to have
detrimental effects on pregnancy.

1.​ Caffeine: While moderate caffeine intake is generally considered safe during pregnancy,
excessive consumption (200 mg or more per day) has been linked to an increased risk of
miscarriage. The FDA advises pregnant women to limit or avoid caffeine intake.​

2.​ Alcohol: Heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to Fetal Alcohol
Spectrum Disorders (FASD), which include facial deformities, heart defects, and
developmental delays. FASD can also cause learning disabilities and intellectual
disabilities, and it can impair memory and behavior throughout life.​

3.​ Nicotine: Smoking during pregnancy can cause numerous adverse outcomes, such as
low birth weight, preterm birth, and an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS). It can also lead to respiratory and cardiovascular problems in the infant.​

4.​ Cocaine: Cocaine use during pregnancy is consistently linked to reduced birth weight
and abnormal fetal growth. It can cause long-term developmental problems, including
motor delays, cognitive deficits, language difficulties, and attention issues. Cocaine
exposure is also associated with behavioral self-regulation problems.​

5.​ Marijuana: Prenatal exposure to marijuana has been linked to lower intelligence,
learning difficulties, and an increased likelihood of adolescent marijuana use. It can also
affect cognitive and motor development in the child.​

6.​ Heroin: Babies born to mothers who use heroin may experience withdrawal symptoms,
such as tremors, irritability, and poor motor control. Long-term developmental problems
can also arise from heroin use during pregnancy.​

Incompatible Blood Types:

Blood type incompatibility between the mother and fetus, particularly involving the Rh factor, can
present risks to fetal development. If an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus, her
immune system may produce antibodies that attack the fetus’s red blood cells, leading to
serious complications, including anemia, jaundice, heart defects, or even fetal death. In such
cases, a vaccine called RhoGAM can be administered to prevent the mother from producing
antibodies, ensuring the health of subsequent pregnancies.

Environmental Hazards:

Environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation, toxic chemicals, and pollutants, can also
have harmful effects on prenatal development.

1.​ Radiation: X-ray radiation, especially during the first few weeks of pregnancy when
women may not yet know they are pregnant, can cause serious damage to the
developing embryo. Radiation exposure can lead to birth defects, developmental delays,
or miscarriage.​

2.​ Toxic Wastes and Pollutants: Chemical pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, mercury,
lead, and certain pesticides and fertilizers, can cross the placental barrier and adversely
affect fetal health. For example, prenatal mercury exposure is associated with preterm
birth, lower intelligence, and developmental delays.​

Maternal Diseases:

Certain maternal infections and diseases can cause birth defects, either by directly crossing the
placental barrier or by harming the fetus during birth.

1.​ Rubella (German Measles): If a mother contracts rubella during pregnancy, especially
in the first trimester, the virus can cause severe birth defects, including heart problems,
vision impairment, and hearing loss.​

2.​ Syphilis: This sexually transmitted infection can cross the placenta and cause
deformities, neurological damage, or even stillbirth if contracted later in pregnancy.​

3.​ Herpes: Infants born to mothers with genital herpes may contract the virus during
delivery, which can lead to brain damage, blindness, or death. Antiviral medications can
reduce the risk of transmission.​

4.​ HIV/AIDS: The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can be transmitted to the fetus
during pregnancy, labor, or breastfeeding. HIV-positive mothers can reduce the risk of
transmitting the virus through antiretroviral therapy.​
Other Parental Factors:

Maternal Diet and Nutrition:

A mother’s nutritional status directly affects the developing fetus. Inadequate nutrition can lead
to birth defects, low birth weight, and developmental problems. Essential nutrients like folic acid
are particularly important in preventing neural tube defects, such as spina bifida. On the other
hand, maternal obesity is linked to increased risks of miscarriage, stillbirth, and birth
complications.

Maternal Age:

The risk of birth defects, such as Down syndrome, increases significantly with maternal age.
Women over the age of 35 are also at a higher risk for complications, including preterm birth
and low birth weight.

Emotional States and Stress:

High levels of maternal stress and anxiety can negatively affect prenatal development.
Research has shown that maternal stress can lead to emotional and cognitive problems in
children, including ADHD, language delays, and behavioral issues. Furthermore, maternal
depression has been linked to preterm birth and slower fetal growth.

Conclusion:

The prenatal period is crucial for the development of the fetus, and a range of factors, from
medications and psychoactive substances to maternal health and environmental exposures, can
affect this delicate process. It is essential for pregnant women to be aware of these risks and to
consult with healthcare professionals to ensure they are taking the proper precautions to
safeguard their baby’s health. With careful management of environmental, medical, and lifestyle
factors, the chances of a healthy pregnancy and a healthy child can be greatly improved.

APGAR Scale

The APGAR Scale: A Detailed Academic Overview

The APGAR scale is a quick and standardized method used to assess the health of a newborn
immediately after birth. Developed by Dr. Virginia Apgar in 1952, the APGAR scale evaluates
five key criteria that reflect the newborn’s overall physiological state and ability to transition to
life outside the womb. The five criteria assessed are Appearance (skin color), Pulse (heart
rate), Grimace (reflex response), Activity (muscle tone), and Respiration (breathing effort).
The APGAR score is typically recorded at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth, and in some
cases, it may be assessed again at 10 minutes if the infant is in critical condition.
The primary purpose of the APGAR scale is to provide a rapid assessment of a newborn’s
immediate post-birth condition, identify any potential need for medical intervention, and guide
clinical decisions regarding further treatment or observation. It is important to note that while the
APGAR scale provides valuable information for assessing the newborn’s immediate condition, it
is not intended to predict long-term health outcomes.

The Five Criteria of the APGAR Scale

1.​ Appearance (Skin Color): The color of the infant’s skin is a key indicator of
oxygenation, which is essential for survival outside the womb. The color is scored as
follows:​

○​ 0 points: The baby’s body is pale or blue.

○​ 1 point: The baby’s body is pink, but the extremities (hands and feet) are blue.
○​ 2 points: The baby’s entire body is pink, indicating good circulation and
oxygenation.

Significance: Skin color reflects the oxygen level in the blood. A bluish or pale
appearance often indicates poor oxygenation and may suggest the need for immediate
respiratory intervention.​

2.​ Pulse (Heart Rate): Heart rate is a key indicator of cardiac function and overall
circulation. It is measured by palpating the umbilical cord or using a stethoscope to listen
to the heart. The score is assigned as follows:​

○​ 0 points: No pulse (heart rate absent).

○​ 1 point: Heart rate less than 100 beats per minute (bpm).
○​ 2 points: Heart rate greater than 100 bpm, which is considered normal for a
newborn.

Significance: A heart rate of less than 60 bpm in the immediate post-birth period is
considered critical and may necessitate resuscitation measures. A heart rate above 100
bpm suggests that the newborn’s heart is functioning adequately.​

3.​ Grimace (Reflex Response): This criterion evaluates the newborn’s reflexes in
response to stimuli. It reflects the function of the central nervous system and is an
important indicator of neurological function. The scoring for grimace is as follows:​

○​ 0 points: No response to any stimuli (e.g., no facial grimacing, no movement).

○​ 1 point: A weak grimace or slight movement in response to stimuli (e.g., touch or
suctioning).
○​ 2 points: Strong response, such as crying, coughing, or sneezing, in reaction to
the stimulus.
 Significance: A weak or absent response may suggest neurological impairment or
insufficient stimulation, which may require further evaluation or intervention.​

4.​ Activity (Muscle Tone): Muscle tone refers to the newborn’s ability to move and the
level of muscle contraction. It indicates the functioning of the neuromuscular system
and is scored as follows:​

○​ 0 points: Limp, no muscle tone.

○​ 1 point: Some flexion of the arms and legs, indicating minimal muscle tone.
○​ 2 points: Active motion, with good flexion and extension of the arms and legs.

Significance: Healthy muscle tone is a positive indicator of neurological function. Low

muscle tone may suggest issues such as hypotonia (low muscle tone), which can be
associated with conditions like hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy or neurological
disorders.​

5.​ Respiration (Breathing Effort): The newborn’s ability to breathe independently is a

critical component of the transition from intrauterine to extrauterine life. The score is
based on the strength and regularity of the newborn’s breathing:​

○​ 0 points: No breathing, or the baby is not breathing at all.

○​ 1 point: Slow, irregular breathing or weak cry.
○​ 2 points: Good, strong cry with regular, rhythmic breathing.

Significance: The presence of normal, strong breathing is essential for the newborn’s
survival. Newborns who do not begin breathing spontaneously may require immediate
resuscitation measures, including suctioning, ventilation, or administration of oxygen.​

Scoring System and Interpretation

Each of the five criteria is scored on a scale of 0 to 2, with a total possible score ranging from 0
to 10. The scores from each category are summed to generate the overall APGAR score.
Interpretation of the score is as follows:

●​ 9–10 points: The newborn is generally in good health and does not require immediate
medical intervention, though continued monitoring is essential.
●​ 4–8 points: The newborn may require some medical intervention, such as oxygen or
stimulation, to improve their condition.
●​ 0–3 points: The newborn is in critical condition and requires immediate resuscitation,
including support for breathing, circulation, and thermoregulation.

The 1-minute score reflects the newborn’s immediate condition after birth, and the 5-minute
score provides an indication of how the baby is adjusting to extrauterine life. If the 5-minute
score is still low, further medical intervention may be necessary. A score of 7 or higher at 5
minutes generally indicates that the newborn is recovering well.

Newborn Reflexes

Reflexes in Newborns: Rooting, Gripping, Toe Curling, Moro, Tonic Neck,

Sucking, and Babinski

Newborn reflexes are automatic responses to specific stimuli that are crucial for survival, motor
development, and sensory integration. These reflexes generally emerge during fetal
development and are observed immediately after birth. Over time, they gradually disappear as
the baby's brain matures and voluntary control over movements is gained. Below is a detailed
look at some of the key reflexes in newborns:

1. Rooting Reflex

●​ Description: The rooting reflex is an instinctive behavior in newborns that helps them
locate and latch onto the breast for feeding. When a newborn’s cheek or mouth is gently
stroked or touched, they will turn their head toward the stimulus, opening their mouth
and making sucking motions.
●​ Function: This reflex helps the baby find the breast to begin feeding.
●​ Timing: It appears at birth and typically disappears by 3–4 months of age as voluntary
feeding behavior begins to develop.
●​ Significance: The rooting reflex is an early sign of the baby’s ability to engage in feeding
behaviors, which is crucial for nutrition and survival.

2. Grasping (Palmar Grasp) Reflex

●​ Description: When an object is placed in the palm of a newborn’s hand, they will
automatically grasp it with a firm hold. This reflex can be quite strong and is often seen
when a caregiver places a finger in the baby's palm.
●​ Function: The grasping reflex is thought to be a survival mechanism, although its exact
evolutionary purpose is unclear. It may also be an early sign of motor development and
muscle tone.
●​ Timing: This reflex appears at birth and typically disappears by 5–6 months of age, at
which point babies start to develop more voluntary hand movements.
●​ Significance: The palmar grasp reflex is a sign of healthy neurological function and
muscle tone.

3. Toe Curling (Plantar Grasp) Reflex

●​ Description: When the sole of a newborn’s foot is touched or stroked, the toes
automatically curl downward. This reflex is similar to the palmar grasp but occurs in the
feet.
 ●​ Function: The plantar grasp reflex may serve as a precursor to the development of
walking and helps the infant to hold onto surfaces.
●​ Timing: This reflex appears at birth and disappears by 9–12 months as voluntary foot
movements become more controlled.
●​ Significance: It is an indicator of sensory development in the feet and the ability to
respond to external stimuli. It also signifies the baby’s development of lower body motor
skills.

4. Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex)

●​ Description: The Moro reflex is a startle response that occurs when a baby experiences
a sensation of falling or hears a loud sound. It is characterized by the baby spreading
their arms outward (abduction), then quickly bringing them back together (adduction),
often accompanied by crying.
●​ Function: This reflex is thought to be a protective mechanism. It may have evolved to
help the baby cling to the mother in response to a sudden movement or potential danger.
●​ Timing: The Moro reflex is present at birth and typically disappears by 3–6 months of
age as the infant’s nervous system matures.
●​ Significance: The Moro reflex is an important indicator of the development of the
infant’s sensory and motor systems. An absent or abnormal Moro reflex may indicate
neurological concerns.

5. Tonic Neck Reflex (Fencing Reflex)

●​ Description: When a newborn’s head is turned to one side, the arm and leg on the side
that the head is turned toward will extend, while the opposite arm and leg will bend. This
reflex is sometimes referred to as the "fencing reflex" because of the posture it creates,
resembling a fencing stance.
●​ Function: The tonic neck reflex helps promote hand-eye coordination and may serve as
a precursor to voluntary reaching and grasping.
●​ Timing: This reflex typically appears at around 2 months and disappears by 6 months.
●​ Significance: The tonic neck reflex is an important milestone in motor development, as
it contributes to the development of gross motor skills and coordination.

6. Sucking Reflex

●​ Description: The sucking reflex is activated when something is placed in the baby’s
mouth. The baby will automatically begin sucking, which is essential for feeding. It helps
the infant to latch onto the breast or bottle and begin drawing milk.
●​ Function: The sucking reflex is vital for ensuring that the baby can feed and receive the
necessary nutrition during the early months of life.
●​ Timing: This reflex is present at birth and continues until around 4–6 months, after
which sucking becomes more voluntary.
●​ Significance: The sucking reflex is critical for infant survival, allowing them to nourish
themselves and meet their caloric needs.
7. Babinski Reflex

●​ Description: The Babinski reflex occurs when the sole of a newborn’s foot is stroked
from heel to toe. Instead of curling downward, the infant's toes fan outward, and the big
toe may extend upward.
●​ Function: The Babinski reflex is thought to be a primitive reflex, related to the
maturation of the nervous system. It helps assess neurological function, particularly the
health of the spinal cord and brain.
●​ Timing: The Babinski reflex is present at birth and usually disappears by 12–24
months, after which voluntary control over the foot and toes is developed.
●​ Significance: A persistent Babinski reflex beyond 2 years of age may indicate
neurological problems, such as damage to the central nervous system.

INFANTS:
PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT,
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: SENSORIMOTOR STAGES
Piaget cognitive development
-​ Sensorimotor stage
-​ Reflexes
-​ Newborns exhibit reflex actions such as sucking (the famous suckling
reflex), grasping, and rooting.
-​ These are automatic responses we’re born with
-​ Primary Circular Reactions
-​ repetitive actions babies do while discovering their bodies, usually
occurring between 1 and 4 months.
-​ For example, a baby might accidentally suck their thumb and find it
pleasurable, so they repeat the action. These reactions help the baby
learn about their own body and control over it.
-​ The key development is that the reflex is now associated with intent. The
child discovers an action accidentally, then repeats it after considering it
pleasurable. Hence the term “circular”.
-​ Secondary Circular Reactions
-​ Occurring between 4 and 8 months, these involve repeated actions that
produce effects in the external environment. For example, a baby might
shake a rattle repeatedly because they enjoy the sound it makes.
-​ This behavior indicates the baby’s growing ability to engage with the
world around them and understand cause-and-effect relationships.
-​ By repeating actions that lead to interesting outcomes, babies learn that
they can influence their surroundings, a crucial step in cognitive
development.
-​ Coordination of Secondary Schemes
-​ ‘Between 8 and 12 months, babies begin to coordinate different actions to
achieve a specific goal.
-​ For instance, a baby might push one toy out of the way to reach another
toy that is partially hidden.
 -​ This shows an emerging understanding of intentionality and
problem-solving, as the baby plans and executes a series of actions to
get what they want.
-​ Object Permanence
-​ understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be
seen, heard, or touched. This skill develops between 4-7 months of age.
-​ For object permanence, a child may initially not look for a toy hidden
under a blanket because they think it has vanished. As they develop
object permanence, they begin to look for the toy, indicating they
understand it still exists even when out of sight. They may also enjoy
peek-a-boo and hide and seek.
-​ Tertiary Circular Reactions
-​ From 12 to 18 months, babies start to experiment with new actions to see
different outcomes. They might drop a ball from various heights to
observe how it bounces or throw different objects to see how each falls.
-​ This experimentation shows a curiosity about the world and an
understanding that different actions can produce different results.
-​ Through these activities, babies learn about the properties of objects and
the consequences of their actions, furthering their cognitive development.
-​ Mental Representation
-​ Around 18 to 24 months, children begin to develop the ability to hold
mental images of objects and events.
-​ This is evident when a child pretends to feed a doll or uses a block as a
phone. These actions show that the child can use symbols and engage in
pretend play, demonstrating an important cognitive leap.
-​ The ability to create mental representations allows children to think about
objects and events that are not immediately present, which is crucial for
the development of language and more complex thought processes.
-​ Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
-​ Substages
-​ Symbolic function
-​ rapid development of language skills and symbolic thought, the
ability to categorize objects based on similarities, and the
limitations of egocentrism.
-​ Language skills begin to develop rapidly during the preoperational
stage. At first, children will easily acquire new vocabulary by
listening to others and trying to verbalize their thoughts.
-​ Symbolic thought is the ability to represent people, objects and
events mentally. This leads to children engaging in symbolic play,
in which they use an object to signify something else. For
example, a shoe becomes a phone or a straw becomes a sword.
-​ Egocentrism refers to a child’s preoccupation with their internal
thinking. Their actions are heavily affected by their own
 perceptions, thoughts and wants. This is why when they want
something, they will just go get it.
-​ THE THREE MOUNTAINS TASK. View 1 shows the child’s
perspective from where he or she is sitting. View 2 is an
example of one of the photographs the child would be
shown, along with other photographs taken from diff erent
perspectives. It shows what the mountains look like to a
person sitting at spot B. When asked what a view of the
mountains looks like from position B, the preoperational
child selects a photograph taken from location A, the
child’s view at the time. A child who thinks in a
preoperational way cannot take the perspective of a
person sitting at another spot.
-​
-​ Animism refers to children’s belief that inanimate objects, such as
their puppets and teddy bears, are alive and have feelings as
people do
-​ Categorization is the ability to put objects into groups based on a
similar characteristic. For example, putting animals that swim in
one group and animals that fly into another
-​ Transductive reasoning refers to the flawed logic of seeing a
connection between events that are not related. A child will often
infer and cause-and-effect relationship between two events that
occur contiguously, even though there is no direct connection at
all.
-​ Intuitive thought (4-7 years)
-​ During the intuitive thought substage, children experience strong
growth in their logical thinking skills. They move beyond
perceptive thinking and toward intuitive thinking. It is an age of life
full of questions as they attempt to understand the logic of the
world around them.
-​ By the age of 5, children have just about exhausted the adults
around them with “why” questions. The child’s questions signal the
emergence of interest in reasoning and in fi guring out why things
are the way they are.
-​ Centration is the tendency for a child to only focus on one feature
of an object. Whichever feature attracts their attention will play a
dominant role in their judgement.
-​ Conservation is the ability to understand that the mass of an
object does not change as a function of its shape
-​ Reversibility refers to a child’s ability to mentally reverse the steps
of an event they have witnessed.
-​ Developmental examples
-​ Symbolic thought
 -​ Children in the preoperational stage use objects to represent other
things while playing.
-​ For example, a child might use a stick as a sword or a block as a
car (as shown in picture).
-​ Egocentrism
-​ During this stage, children have difficulty seeing things from any
perspective other than their own.
-​ For instance, when asked to show a picture to someone else, they
might hold it facing themselves, assuming the other person sees
what they see.
-​ Animism
-​ inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, and intentions.
-​ For example, a child might believe that a tree is sad because it’s
losing its leaves
-​ Conservation
-​ Conservation refers to the understanding that certain properties of
objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance
changes.
-​ In the preoperational stage, children might think that a taller,
narrower glass holds more water than a shorter, wider one, even if
both contain the same amount.
-​ Reversibility
-​ Children in the preoperational stage think that once an action is
done, it cannot be undone.
-​ For example, they might be unable to conceptualize that reversing
the order of steps in a process could restore the original state.
-​ Centration
-​ Centration is the tendency to focus on one noticeable aspect of an
object or situation and ignore others.
-​ For example, when judging amounts, a child might focus only on
the height of the water in a glass rather than considering its width
as well.
-​ Concrete operational stage (7-12)
-​ hildren begin to think logically about concrete events. They gain a better
understanding of the concept of conservation, realizing that quantity does not
change even when its shape does.
-​ Children also start to grasp the concepts of time, space, and quantity more
accurately.
-​ their thinking is still limited to concrete objects and events, and they struggle with
abstract or hypothetical concepts.
-​ Seriation
-​ Seriation refers to the child’s ability to arrange objects in sequence, such
as from smallest to largest or hardest to softest.
 -​ As long as the child can see the physical objects, then they can perform
this type of task without great difficulty, but will need to concentrate fully.
-​ Reversibility
-​ Children are able to mentally reverse a sequence of events that they have
observed.
-​ As the child’s ability to control their thinking becomes more advanced,
they are able to take their mind through simple sequences in reverse.
-​ Classification
-​ The ability of children to classify objects based on a shared characteristic
continues to advance during the concrete operational stage.
-​ This means that children can categorize objects based on one
characteristic, but then also create sub-categories within each.
-​ Conservation
-​ children will develop the understanding of conservation; that the mass of
an object doesn’t change as a function of its shape.
-​ Transivity
-​ Being able to recognize relationships that exist between two or more
concepts is called transitivity, or transitive inference.
-​ For instance, if A > B, and that B > C, then it is logical to conclude that A
> C.
-​ Overcoming egocentrism
-​ hildren become far less egocentric as they develop a theory of mind. They
are beginning to see situations from the perspective of others and
consider their point of view.
-​ This results in them being able to more easily identify why another person
may be upset.
-​ Formal operational stage (12-18)
-​ Abstract thinking
-​ can think abstractly. They can ponder hypothetical scenarios and
understand theoretical perspectives.
-​ They are capable of understanding different philosophical arguments and
consider abstract issues such as justice or the role of political systems in
society.
-​ Scientific reasoning
-​ understanding the basis of the scientific method.
-​ They can consider the causal factors that may lead to specific outcomes
and conduct a mental examination of how those various factors may
affect different situations.
-​ Moral reasoning
-​ examine moral dilemmas and various ethical issues.
-​
-​ These matters can be abstract and hypothetical because children are no
longer limited by the need to have physical representation of concepts.
 -​ They are able to see a given moral scenario from multiple perspectives
and analyze the different points of view from the different characters in
those scenarios.
-​ Critical analysis
-​ children can recognize bias and easily point out faults in reasoning.
-​ Children in this stage can question, analyze, interpret and make
judgements about what they read, hear, or even say themselves.
-​ Perspective taking
-​ Children are no longer bound by egocentrism. They are able to
understand the perspectives of others and feel empathy.
-​ They can identify the reasons behind the actions of others and remove
their own biases from that understanding.
-​ Continual langugae development
-​ Their vocabulary continues to expand and their ability to express
themselves both orally and in writing continues to progress.
-​ Children can engage in rationale and organized discourse regarding the
pros and cons of various issues.
-​ adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve
problems and systematically testing solutions. This type of problem solving
requires hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which involves creating a hypothesis
and deducing its implications, steps that provide ways to test the hypothesis

EARLY CHILDHOOD:
GROSS AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS,
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian developmentalist, proposed a sociocultural cognitive theory, which

contrasts with Piaget's theory by emphasizing the role of social interaction and culture in
cognitive development. Here are the key components of his theory:

1. Key Principles of Vygotsky’s Theory:

●​ Active Knowledge Construction:​

○​ Like Piaget, Vygotsky argued that children actively construct their knowledge.
○​ However, Vygotsky placed much more emphasis on the social and cultural
context in cognitive development than Piaget.
●​ Cultural and Social Contexts:​

○​ Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is inseparable from the cultural

and social activities in which children engage.
 ○​ Children learn cognitive skills through the use of tools created by society, such as
language, memory strategies, and mathematical systems.
■​ Example: In one culture, children might learn to count using a computer,
while in another culture, they might use beads.
●​ Role of Social Interaction:​

○​ Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions with more-skilled

individuals (adults or peers) in cognitive development.
○​ Children learn to use tools through interactions with these individuals, helping
them adapt and succeed within their specific cultural context.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

●​ Definition:
○​ The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the range of tasks a child
cannot perform independently but can accomplish with guidance from
more-skilled individuals.
●​ Components of ZPD:
○​ Lower limit of the ZPD: The level of skill that the child can achieve
independently.
○​ Upper limit of the ZPD: The level of skill that the child can achieve with
assistance from an adult or skilled peer.
●​ Buds vs. Fruits of Development:
○​ Vygotsky described cognitive skills that were in the process of maturing as the
“buds” or “flowers” of development.
○​ These are distinct from the "fruits" of development, which are skills the child can
already perform independently.
●​ Importance of Social Assistance:
○​ The ZPD captures cognitive abilities that are still developing and can only be
achieved through external support from more-skilled individuals (Alvarez & del
Rio, 2007).

3. Scaffolding:

●​ Definition:
○​ Scaffolding refers to the support provided by a more-skilled person (teacher or
advanced peer) to help a child complete tasks within their ZPD.
●​ Adjusting Support:
○​ Over time, the level of support is adjusted to match the child’s growing
competence.
 ○​ Initially, the teacher or peer may provide direct instruction, but as the child
improves, the guidance is gradually reduced.
○​ This process helps the child become more independent in completing tasks.

4. Language and Thought:

●​ Language as a Tool for Cognitive Development:​

○​ Vygotsky argued that language plays a critical role in cognitive development.

○​ Children use language not only to communicate with others but also to help them
solve tasks and guide their behavior.
●​ Private Speech:​

○​ Vygotsky introduced the concept of private speech, where children talk to

themselves to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior.
○​ For Vygotsky, private speech is a vital tool for thought, whereas Piaget
considered it egocentric and immature.
●​ Development of Inner Speech:​

○​ Vygotsky believed that language and thought initially develop independently of

one another.
○​ Over time, language merges with thought. Children must use language to
communicate externally with others before they can internalize their thoughts.
○​ Between the ages of 3 and 7, children transition from external to internal speech,
meaning they start talking to themselves as a way of organizing their thinking.
●​ Internalization of Speech:​

○​ As children grow older, their external self-talk becomes internalized as inner

speech.
○​ Inner speech allows them to think and act without verbalizing out loud, and this
becomes a natural part of their cognitive process.

5. Social Origins of Mental Functions:

●​ Vygotsky emphasized that all mental functions have social origins. This means that
cognitive processes are shaped and developed through interactions with others in the
child’s environment.
●​ Language, in particular, is crucial for developing self-regulation and internalized thought
processes.

IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

STAGES OF ATTACHMENT
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language
would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language
as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly
with relative ease. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through
reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that
the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of
language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar
pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that
we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández
& Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such
that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the
ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989;
Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).

Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 1). In fact, it appears that
this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a preference for their mother’s voice
and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other
languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show
preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language
versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994;
Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).

Stage Age Developmental Language and Communication

1 0–3 months Reflexive communication

2 3–8 months Reflexive communication; interest in others

3 8–12 months Intentional communication; sociability

4 12–18 months First words

 5 18–24 months Simple sentences of two words

6 2–3 years Sentences of three or more words

7 3–5 years Complex sentences; has conversations

Table 1. Stages of Language and Communication Development

Each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate morphemes, words,
and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example,
they can tell the difference between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in fission); early on, they can
differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the
languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year
old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language or
languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker & Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).

NEWBORN COMMUNICATION

Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however, communicate with the
use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being
relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time
with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or
frustration.

Intentional Vocalizations

Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple of months of life. That
gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant
who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride. Cooing serves as practice
for vocalization. It also allows the infant to hear the sound of their own voice and try to repeat
sounds that are entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as
they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when
the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds like
“oooo.” Later, as the baby moves into babbling (see below), consonants are added to
vocalizations such as “nananananana.”

Babbling and Gesturing

Between 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include
the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds
stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the
language heard. These babies repeat certain syllables (ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a
vocalization called babbling because of the way it sounds. Eventually, these sounds will no
longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language. Deaf babies also
use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be
easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s
ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of
language are used when deaf babies sign just as when hearing babies babble.

At around ten months of age, infants can understand more than they can say. You may have
experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language. You
may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than to contribute to it.

Holophrasic Speech

Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial
words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word expressions are referred to
as holophrasic speech (holophrase). For example, the child may say “ju” for the word “juice”
and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the
holophrase. When this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too
difficult. They know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby wants some milk! But,
someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine
the parent who exclaims to a friend, “Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju
da ga” which, the parent explains, means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.”

Underextension

A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used
for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a “doggie.” This is referred to as
underextension. More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all objects that
are similar to the original object. In overextension, all animals become “doggies,” for example.

First words and cultural influences

First words for English-speaking children tend to be nouns. The child labels objects such as a
cup or a ball. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more
verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture.
Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationship between objects while children
from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size,
etc.). These differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students
from China and the United States.

Vocabulary growth spurt

One-year-olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words. But by the time they become
toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those words together in
telegraphic speech (short phrases). This language growth spurt is called the naming explosion
because many early words are nouns (persons, places, or things).

Two-word sentences and telegraphic speech

Words are soon combined and 18-month-old toddlers can express themselves further by using
phrases such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty.” Words needed to convey messages are
used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not
yet included. These expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today
would be that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used. “Give
baby ball” is used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Or a text message of “Send money now!”
rather than “Dear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses.” You get the
idea.

Child-directed speech

Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use “baby talk” or that
sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children? This represents a
universal tendency and is known as child-directed speech or motherese or parentese. It
involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and
delivering the phrase with great facial expression. Why is this done? It may be in order to clearly
articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved. Or it may be
because when this type of speech is used, the infant pays more attention to the speaker and
this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tune with one
another. When I demonstrate this in class, the students certainly pay attention and look my way.
Amazing! It also works in the college classroom!

Theories of Language Development

1. Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Key Concept:

●​ Nativism: Noam Chomsky’s theory, known as nativism, proposes that language

acquisition is biologically programmed. Infants have an innate ability to learn language,
which is hard-wired into the brain.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD):

 ●​ Chomsky introduced the concept of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a
neurological construct or innate mental mechanism that allows infants to rapidly and
easily learn the grammar of any language they are exposed to.
●​ The LAD is thought to be universal, suggesting that all human beings are born with a
predisposition for language learning, making them capable of picking up any language
that they hear in their environment.

Mechanism of Language Learning:

●​ Universal Grammar: According to Chomsky, all human languages share a common

structure or "universal grammar," which infants are able to detect through exposure to
language.
●​ Innate Ability: The LAD helps infants derive the rules of grammar from the speech they
hear. Thus, language development is largely self-directed as long as the infant is
exposed to language.
●​ No Direct Teaching Needed: Chomsky argued that language acquisition happens
without the need for explicit teaching, reinforcement, or training. Infants simply learn
language by being exposed to it.

Criticism:

●​ Critics argue that the LAD concept is not scientifically verifiable, and some believe that
the idea of an innate language instinct is overly simplistic and doesn't account for the
complexities of language learning.

2. Skinner and Reinforcement (Behaviorism)

Key Concept:

●​ Behaviorism: B.F. Skinner’s theory is rooted in behaviorism, which emphasizes the

role of environmental factors in shaping behavior. According to this theory, language
development occurs through the process of reinforcement and conditioning.

Mechanism of Language Learning:

●​ Reinforcement: Language is learned through positive reinforcement. When an infant

says a word, parents or caregivers respond with praise or attention. This increases the
likelihood that the infant will repeat the word.
●​ Imitation and Repetition: Infants learn language by imitating sounds, words, and
phrases they hear from their caregivers. As they receive positive feedback for using
correct or meaningful words, they are motivated to use them more frequently.
●​ Behavioral Associations: Over time, infants begin to associate certain words or sounds
with their corresponding meanings. Repeated exposure to reinforcement strengthens
these associations.
 ○​ Example: When a baby says “ma-ma” and the mother smiles, repeats the sound,
and provides attention, this reinforces the behavior. The infant then repeats
“ma-ma” to receive the same positive response.

Criticism:

●​ Critics of Skinner’s theory argue that it oversimplifies language development. Infants can
learn much more quickly and effectively than would be possible through reinforcement
alone, especially when considering the complexity of grammar and syntax.
●​ Language acquisition also seems to occur more rapidly and easily than what
behaviorism would predict if it relied solely on reinforcement and imitation.

3. Social Pragmatics

Key Concept:

●​ Social Impulses and Communication Needs: This theory emphasizes the role of
social interaction and the child’s active engagement in language learning as a social
necessity.

Mechanism of Language Learning:

●​ Social Communication: According to this theory, infants are motivated to learn

language due to the social necessity of communication. Humans are inherently social
beings, and language is a tool used to interact with others.
●​ Active Participation: Infants learn language because they need to communicate with
caregivers, peers, and others in their environment. Language acquisition is seen as a
social process where the child actively seeks information, imitates speech, and learns to
use words to express needs, desires, and emotions.
●​ Cultural Context: Language is learned through interactions in a social and cultural
context. The child’s desire to be part of the social world drives language learning.
○​ Example: A baby may observe the use of words and gestures in social
interactions and imitate them in order to participate in conversations, even
without direct instruction.

Criticism:

●​ Some critics argue that this theory doesn’t fully explain how infants acquire the
underlying rules of grammar. While social interaction is critical, this theory doesn’t
account for the rapid and often rule-based learning of grammar that children seem to
undergo.
Combining Theories: A Comprehensive Approach

Many researchers today suggest that all three theories (nativism, behaviorism, and social
pragmatics) contribute to language development in different ways.

●​ Nativism: Explains the biological basis for language learning, highlighting that infants
have a predisposition for acquiring language.
●​ Behaviorism: Emphasizes the role of reinforcement, imitation, and repetition in shaping
language acquisition.
●​ Social Pragmatics: Highlights the importance of social interaction and communication in
the development of language.

Current View:

Most contemporary theories of language development adopt an interactive approach,

recognizing that infants are not passive learners nor are they solely reliant on biological
predispositions. Instead, they are seen as active participants in a dynamic process of language
acquisition that is shaped by both innate abilities and social interactions.

EMERGENCE OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Piaget’s interest in moral reasoning was influenced by his observations and interviews with
children, focusing on how they understood moral issues, such as justice, rules, punishment, and
theft. He conducted extensive studies, observing children from ages 4 to 12 as they played
games like marbles and asked them about ethical dilemmas. Based on his findings, Piaget
proposed that children progress through two main stages of moral development:
heteronomous morality and autonomous morality.

1. Heteronomous Morality (4 to 7 years old)

●​ Definition:
○​ Heteronomous morality is the first stage of moral development, typically seen in
children between 4 and 7 years of age.
○​ Children at this stage believe that rules are unchangeable and must be followed
rigidly. Rules are seen as external and beyond the control of people, originating
from powerful authorities such as parents, teachers, or divine figures.
●​ Key Characteristics:
 ○​ Rules are fixed: Children view rules as absolute and fixed, handed down by
authority figures.
○​ Punishment and consequences: The focus is on the consequences of an
action, not the intentions behind it. Thus, children in this stage evaluate moral
behavior based on outcomes rather than motives.
■​ Example: Breaking twelve cups accidentally is judged as worse than
breaking one cup intentionally because the number of cups is what
matters to a heteronomous thinker, not the intent behind breaking them.
○​ Immanent justice: Children believe that if a rule is broken, punishment will
follow immediately. There is a strong belief in an automatic link between
violations and punishment.
■​ Example: If something bad happens to someone, they must have done
something wrong to deserve it, even if no clear wrongdoing occurred.
○​ Resistance to change: Children at this stage resist changes to rules. When
Piaget suggested to young children that they use new rules in a game, they
resisted, believing that the established rules were unchangeable.

2. Transition Stage (7 to 10 years old)

●​ Definition:​

○​ Between 7 and 10 years old, children undergo a transition period where they
start to show characteristics of both heteronomous and autonomous morality.
○​ This transitional stage is a time of moral development, where children begin to
question and rethink their previous understanding of morality.
●​ Key Characteristics:​

○​ Children begin to recognize that rules can change and may involve negotiation,
but they still often rely on authority figures for moral decisions.
○​ There is increased understanding that moral decisions involve more than just
consequences, and the intentions behind actions start to be considered, though
they are not fully prioritized yet.
○​ During this stage, children still hold on to some elements of heteronomous
morality, such as seeing punishment as automatic or inevitable when a rule is
broken, but they are beginning to challenge this notion.

3. Autonomous Morality (10 years and older)

●​ Definition:
○​ By around 10 years old and continuing into adolescence, children develop
autonomous morality.
 ○​ In this stage, children become aware that rules and laws are created by people
and are subject to change. The idea of immanent justice is abandoned, and
children start to focus more on the intentions behind actions rather than just the
consequences.
●​ Key Characteristics:
○​ Rules as human conventions: Children begin to see rules as conventions or
agreements that are created by people to facilitate cooperation. They recognize
that rules can be altered through mutual consent or negotiation, and they no
longer view them as fixed or absolute.
■​ Example: Children are more willing to accept changes in the rules of a
game when it is mutually agreed upon, showing flexibility in moral
reasoning.
○​ Focus on intentions: The emphasis shifts from outcomes to intentions. A child
now evaluates an action not just by its result but also by the reasons behind the
action.
■​ Example: Breaking one cup accidentally is now seen as less morally
wrong than breaking twelve cups intentionally because the child's
intention is taken into account.
○​ Less belief in immanent justice: Children at this stage recognize that
punishment is not automatic. Instead, punishment depends on the presence of
witnesses and the fairness of the punishment.
■​ Example: A child may understand that not all mistakes or misfortunes are
linked to wrongdoing, and that punishment can be inconsistent or unfair.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: DEVELOPMENT OF FRIENDSHIPS,
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
ADOLESCENCE:
PUBERTY,

David Elkind's Concepts of Adolescent Egocentrism

David Elkind, a developmental psychologist, introduced the concept of adolescent

egocentrism to describe the heightened self-consciousness that many adolescents experience.
Elkind’s theory highlights two key components that contribute to this egocentrism: the
imaginary audience and the personal fable. These concepts help explain some of the
behaviors and attitudes commonly observed in adolescents.

1. Adolescent Egocentrism

●​ Definition: Adolescent egocentrism refers to the tendency of adolescents to be overly

focused on themselves and believe that others are equally focused on them. This
 heightened self-consciousness is part of the cognitive changes that occur during
adolescence as they develop their sense of identity and personal experience.

2. The Imaginary Audience

●​ Key Concept: The imaginary audience refers to the adolescent's belief that they are
the focus of everyone else's attention, much like an actor on a stage.
●​ Description: Adolescents believe that others are constantly watching and evaluating
their behavior, appearance, and actions. This belief can lead to heightened
self-awareness and concern about how they are perceived by others.
○​ Example: A 13-year-old might think that everyone in the classroom is noticing
their acne or the way they are dressed, even though most others are not paying
attention.
●​ Attention-seeking Behavior: As a result of this perceived attention from others,
adolescents may engage in attention-getting behaviors to ensure they are noticed, such
as dressing in a certain way, acting out, or seeking approval from peers.
○​ Example: An adolescent might wear flashy clothes or act dramatically to be the
center of attention, believing that everyone around them is observing their every
move.

3. The Personal Fable

●​ Key Concept: The personal fable refers to the adolescent's belief in their own
uniqueness, which leads to feelings of invulnerability and a sense of being
misunderstood by others.
●​ Description: Adolescents in this stage often feel that their thoughts, emotions, and
experiences are so unique that no one can truly understand what they are going
through. This can lead to a sense of isolation, as they may believe that no one else has
experienced what they are feeling.
○​ Example: A 13-year-old girl might say, "No one understands me, particularly my
parents. They have no idea what I am feeling." This illustrates the personal fable,
where the adolescent feels isolated in their experiences.
●​ Fantasy and Idealism: Adolescents may create idealized stories about themselves or
indulge in fantasies of their future, often imagining that they will achieve greatness or
lead an extraordinary life, even though these fantasies may be disconnected from reality.
●​ Sense of Invincibility: The personal fable is also linked to a sense of invincibility or
invulnerability. Adolescents often believe that they are invulnerable to the dangers and
consequences that affect others.
○​ Example: A 14-year-old girl might say, "Are you kidding? I won’t get pregnant,"
reflecting her belief that certain risks, such as pregnancy, do not apply to her.
●​ Risk-Taking Behavior: This sense of invincibility can lead to risky behaviors, as
adolescents may feel that negative outcomes (such as accidents, substance use, or
unsafe sexual practices) won’t happen to them.
○​ Example: Engaging in activities such as drag racing, drug use, or unsafe sex
without contraception can be fueled by this belief in invulnerability.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF IDENTITY IN ADOLESCENCE

Expanding on Erikson’s theory, Marcia (1966) described identity formation during adolescence
as involving both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g.,
religion, politics, career, relationships, gender roles). Identity development begins when
individuals identify with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they can
become. As identity development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and
commit to options within the confines of their social contexts. In some cases, options are not
provided or are limited, and the individual will fail to commit or will commit without the
opportunity to explore various options (Marcia, 1980).

Identity confusion/diffusion occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any
identities. Foreclosure occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring
options. A moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have
not yet made commitments. As mentioned earlier, individuals who have explored different
options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of
identity achievement.

The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. Identity
diffusion is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options nor made a
commitment to an identity. Marcia (1980) proposed that when individuals enter the identity
formation process, they have little awareness or experience with identity exploration or the
expectation to commit to an identity. This period of identity diffusion is typical of children and
young adolescents, but adolescents are expected to move out of this stage as they are exposed
to role models and experiences that present them with identity possibilities. Those who persist
in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense
of purpose in life. Characteristics associated with prolonged diffusion include low self-esteem,
easily influenced by peers, lack of meaningful friendships, little commitment, or fortitude in
activities or relationships, self-absorbed, and self-indulgent.

Those in identity foreclosure have committed to an identity without having explored the
options. Often, younger adolescence will enter a phase of foreclosure where they may, at least
preliminarily, commit to an identity without an investment in the exploration process. This
commitment is often a response to anxiety about uncertainty or change during adolescence or
pressure from parents, social groups, or cultural expectations. It is expected that most
adolescents will progress beyond the foreclosure phase as they can think independently, and
we multiple identity options. However, sometimes foreclosure will persist into late adolescence
or even adulthood.

In some cases, parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen
the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents
and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps. Characteristics associated with
prolonged foreclosure well-behaved and obedient children with a high need for approval,
authoritarian parenting style, low levels of tolerance or acceptance of change, high levels of
conformity, and conventional thinking.

During high school and college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and
foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The most significant gains in the development
of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices,
lifestyles, and beliefs. This experience is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great
deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals,
as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the
future (McAdams, 2013).

Identity moratorium is a status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to
establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment. This time can be an anxious
and emotionally tense period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores
various beliefs. Nothing is guaranteed, and there are many questions, but few answers. This
moratorium phase is the precursor to identity achievement. During the moratorium period, it is
normal for adolescents to be rebellious and uncooperative, avoid dealing with problems,
procrastinate, experience low self-esteem, feel anxious, and uncertain about decisions.

Identity achievement refers to those who, after exploration, have committed. Identity
achievement is a long process and is not often realized by the end of adolescence. Individuals
that do reach identity achievement feel self-acceptance, stable self-definition, and are
committed to their identity.

While Marcia’s statuses help us understand the process of developing identity, there are several
criticisms of this theory. First, identity status may not be global; different aspects of your identity
may be in different statuses. An individual may be in multiple identity statuses at the same time
for different aspects of identity. For example, one could be in the foreclosure status for their
religious identity, but in moratorium for career identity, and achievement for gender identity.

Further, identity statuses do no always develop in the sequence described above, although it is
the most common progression. Not all people will reach identity achievement in all aspects of
their identity, and not all may remain in identity achievement. There may be a third aspect of
identity development, beyond exploration and commitment, and that is the reconsideration of
commitment. This addition would create a fifth status, searching moratorium. This status is a
re-exploring after a commitment has been made (Meesus et al., 2012). It is not usual that
commitments to aspects of our identity may change as we gain experiences, and more options
become available to explore. This searching moratorium may continue well into adulthood.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOODAND ADOLESCENCE

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg suggested that there are six stages of moral development, divided into three
levels. Each stage represents a different way of thinking about moral issues, and development
from one stage to another is driven by the ability to take the perspective of others and by conflict
between one’s current stage of thinking and reasoning at a higher stage.

Three Levels of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg categorized moral reasoning into three broad levels: Preconventional, Conventional,
and Postconventional reasoning. Each of these levels is further divided into two stages.

1. Preconventional Reasoning (Lowest Level)

At this level, moral reasoning is primarily based on external consequences, such as rewards
and punishments.

●​ Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality​

 ○​ Moral thinking is tied to punishment.
○​ Children in this stage obey rules to avoid punishment rather than for the sake of
moral principles.
○​ They believe that wrong actions are those that result in punishment and that
authorities (such as parents or teachers) must be obeyed because they have
power.
●​ Example: A child might not steal because they fear being punished, not because they
understand stealing is wrong.​

●​ Stage 2: Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange​

○​ In this stage, children begin to recognize that there is not just one right way to
behave, and they reason that pursuing their own self-interest is okay as long as
others are also free to pursue their interests.
○​ The concept of fair exchange emerges: "If I'm nice to others, they'll be nice to
me."
●​ Example: A child may help a friend because they expect their friend to help them in
return.​

2. Conventional Reasoning (Intermediate Level)

At this level, individuals apply moral standards set by others, such as parents, teachers, or the
government. The focus is on social rules and expectations.

●​ Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal

Conformity​

○​ Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty as the basis of moral judgments.
○​ Moral decisions are made based on the desire to be seen as a “good person” by
others, especially by parents or peers.
○​ Children and adolescents in this stage often adopt the moral standards of their
parents, focusing on the role of social approval.
●​ Example: A child may follow the rules at school because they want to be seen as a
"good student" or to maintain a positive relationship with their teacher or parents.​

●​ Stage 4: Social Systems Morality​

○​ Moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and
duty.
○​ At this stage, individuals recognize the importance of adhering to laws and
societal rules for the well-being of the community and society as a whole.
 ●​ Example: An adolescent may argue that laws are necessary to keep the social order
intact and should be followed to ensure stability and fairness.​

3. Postconventional Reasoning (Highest Level)

At this level, individuals recognize that there are alternative moral courses and consider the
broader principles underlying laws and societal norms. Moral reasoning is based on personal
principles rather than external laws.

●​ Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights​

○​ Individuals begin to view laws and social systems as based on values, rights,
and principles that transcend the law.
○​ People at this stage evaluate the validity of laws and social structures based on
how well they protect human rights and promote the common good.
●​ Example: A person might challenge an unjust law, believing that certain rights and
human values should take precedence over the law itself (e.g., civil rights activism).​

●​ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles​

○​ At the highest stage, individuals develop a moral code based on universal

human rights.
○​ When faced with a conflict between law and personal conscience, a person at
this stage prioritizes their ethical principles over the law, even if it involves risk or
punishment.
●​ Example: A person may refuse to follow a law they believe is morally unjust, even if it
results in punishment (e.g., acts of civil disobedience for human rights).​

Development and Age-Related Trends:

●​ Preconventional Reasoning (Stage 1 & 2):​

○​ Most children, particularly before age 9, typically reason at the preconventional

level, where moral decisions are based on external rewards and punishments.
●​ Conventional Reasoning (Stage 3 & 4):​

○​ By early adolescence, moral reasoning tends to shift toward conventional

reasoning, with adolescents reasoning primarily at Stage 3 (focusing on
relationships and social approval).
 ○​ Some adolescents may begin to show signs of reasoning at Stage 4, where they
recognize the importance of law, justice, and societal roles.
●​ Postconventional Reasoning (Stage 5 & 6):​

○​ Few individuals reach postconventional reasoning, typically emerging in early

adulthood.
○​ Individuals who do reach this level may reason at Stage 5 (social contract and
individual rights) or Stage 6 (universal ethical principles), where they prioritize
moral principles that extend beyond societal laws.

Summary of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development:

1.​ Preconventional Level: Morality is externally controlled, based on rewards and

punishments.​

○​ Stage 1: Heteronomous morality (obedience to avoid punishment).

○​ Stage 2: Individualism and exchange (self-interest and fairness).
2.​ Conventional Level: Morality is based on societal norms and expectations.​

○​ Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations (seeking approval from others).

○​ Stage 4: Social systems morality (importance of laws and social order).
3.​ Postconventional Level: Morality is based on personal principles and universal ethical
standards.​

○​ Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights (evaluating laws based on human
rights).
○​ Stage 6: Universal ethical principles (prioritizing moral conscience over laws).

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF YOUNG ADULTHOOD

ADJUSTMENT STRESSES IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD- EMPTINESS SYNDROME
AGEING:
PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN OLD AGE
DEATH AND DYING: KUBLER ROSS STAGES OF DYING
POSITIVE AGEING: CONCEPT AND APPLICATION