Solar energy

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.[1][2]

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as
either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or
convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques
include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-
dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. The source of Earth's solar power: the Sun

The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity.
The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575–49,837 exajoules
(EJ). This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in 2012.[3][4]

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term
benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance
sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global.
Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared".[1]

Contents
Potential
Thermal energy
Early commercial adaptation
Water heating
Heating, cooling and ventilation
Cooking
Process heat
Water treatment
Molten salt technology
Electricity production
Photovoltaics
Concentrated solar power
Architecture and urban planning
Agriculture and horticulture
Transport
Fuel production
Energy storage methods
Development, deployment and economics
ISO standards
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Potential
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.[5] Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while
the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared
ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.[6] Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150–300 watts/m², or 3.5–7.0 kWh/m² per
day.
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's land surface, oceans – which cover about 71% of the globe – and
atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or
convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into
clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation
amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.[7] Sunlight
absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C.[8] By
photosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy, which produces food, wood
and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.[9]

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately About half the incoming solar energy
3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.[10] In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one reaches the Earth's surface.

year.[11][12] Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.[13] The amount of solar
energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be
obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium
combined,[14]

Yearly solar fluxes & human consumption1 The potential solar energy that could be used by
humans differs from the amount of solar energy
Solar 3,850,000 [10]
present near the surface of the planet because factors
Wind 2,250 [15] Average insolation. The theoretical
such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the
[16] land available to humans limit the amount of solar area of the small black dots is
Biomass potential ~200
sufficient to supply the world's total
energy that we can acquire.
Primary energy use2 539 [17] energy needs of 18 TW with solar
power.
Electricity2 ~67 [18] Geography affects solar energy potential because areas
that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of
1 Energy given in Exajoule (EJ) = 1018 J = 278 TWh
2 Consumption as of year 2010 solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that
can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are
farther from the equator.[4] Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the
Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels
because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable
for solar panels. Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their
homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established.[4]

Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be
harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation
for practical ends, all renewable energies, other than Geothermal power and Tidal power, derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun.

Active solar techniques use photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collectors, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive
solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a
building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce
the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.[19]

In 2000, the United Nations Development Programme, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and World Energy Council published an estimate of the
potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation, cloud cover, and the land that is usable by
humans. The estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1,575–49,837 EJ per year (see table below).[4]
 Annual solar energy potential by region (Exajoules) [4]

Middle
Latin Central
Former East Sub- Centrally
North America Western and Pacific South Pacific
Region Soviet and Saharan planned
America and Europe Eastern Asia Asia OECD
Union North Africa Asia
Caribbean Europe
Africa
Minimum 181.1 112.6 25.1 4.5 199.3 412.4 371.9 41.0 38.8 115.5 72.6
Maximum 7,410 3,385 914 154 8,655 11,060 9,528 994 1,339 4,135 2,263
Note:

Total global annual solar energy potential amounts to 1,575 EJ (minimum) to 49,837 EJ (maximum)
Data reflects assumptions of annual clear sky irradiance, annual average sky clearance, and available land area. All figures given in Exajoules.
Quantitative relation of global solar potential vs. the world's primary energy consumption:

Ratio of potential vs. current consumption (402 EJ) as of year: 3.9 (minimum) to 124 (maximum)
Ratio of potential vs. projected consumption by 2050 (590–1,050 EJ): 1.5–2.7 (minimum) to 47–84 (maximum)
Ratio of potential vs. projected consumption by 2100 (880–1,900 EJ): 0.8–1.8 (minimum) to 26–57 (maximum)
Source: United Nations Development Programme – World Energy Assessment (2000)[4]

Thermal energy
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation.[20]

Early commercial adaptation

In 1878, at the Universal Exposition in Paris, Augustin Mouchot successfully demonstrated a solar steam engine, but couldn't continue development because of
cheap coal and other factors.

In 1897, Frank Shuman, a U.S. inventor, engineer and solar energy pioneer, built a small demonstration solar engine that
worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether, which has a lower boiling point than water, and
were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine. In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power
Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants. He, along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann
and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys, developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon
collector boxes, increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether. Shuman then
constructed a full-scale steam engine powered by low-pressure water, enabling him to patent the entire solar engine
system by 1912.

Shuman built the world's first solar thermal power station in Maadi, Egypt, between 1912 and 1913. His plant used
parabolic troughs to power a 45–52 kilowatts (60–70 hp) engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres (4,800 imp gal;
5,800 US gal) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields. Although the outbreak of World War I
and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy, Shuman's vision and basic 1917 Patent drawing of
design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy.[21] In 1916 Shuman was Shuman's solar collector
quoted in the media advocating solar energy's utilization, saying:

We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are
exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun.

— Frank Shuman, New York Times, 2 July 1916[22]

Water heating
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with
temperatures up to 60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems.[23] The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and
glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools.[24]

As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 154 thermal gigawatt (GWth).[25] China is the world leader in their
deployment with 70 GWth installed as of 2006 and a long-term goal of 210 GWth by 2020.[26] Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot
water systems with over 90% of homes using them.[27] In the United States, Canada, and Australia, heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar
hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GWth as of 2005.[19]
Heating, cooling and ventilation
In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ/yr) of the energy
used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ/yr) of the energy used in residential buildings.[28][29] Solar
heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.

Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from
the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials
include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid
climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing
solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler Solar water heaters facing
atmosphere at night. However, they can be used in cold temperate areas the Sun to maximize gain
to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass
depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading
conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and
MIT's Solar House #1, built in 1939 in reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.[30]
the U.S., used seasonal thermal
energy storage for year-round A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical
heating. shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an
updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass
materials[31] in a way that mimics greenhouses.

Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building in the
northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass
during the winter.[32] Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the
corresponding loss of winter heating.[33] In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator-facing side of a building
because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without
appreciably affecting winter solar gain.[34]

Cooking
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad
categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers.[35] The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first
built by Horace de Saussure in 1767.[36] A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent
lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C
(194–302 °F).[37] Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach
temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough,
Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C (599 °F) and
above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.[38] Parabolic dish produces steam for
cooking, in Auroville, India

Process heat
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The
first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, US where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the
process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus
thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one-hour peak load thermal storage.[39] Evaporation ponds are shallow pools
that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one of the oldest applications of solar energy.
Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams.[40] Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and
clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects
the "right to dry" clothes.[41] Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the
incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (40 °F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C (113–140 °F).[42] The short payback period of transpired collectors (3
to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems.[42] As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of
35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m2 (9,300 sq ft) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a
1,300 m2 (14,000 sq ft) collector in Coimbatore, India, used for drying marigolds.[43]

Water treatment
Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th-century Arab alchemists.[44] A large-scale
solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas.[45] The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2
(51,000 sq ft), could produce up to 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day and operate for 40 years.[45] Individual still designs include single-slope,
double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These
stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economical for
decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale
applications.[44]

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles
to sunlight for several hours.[46] Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six
hours to two days during fully overcast conditions.[47] It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a
viable method for household water treatment and safe storage.[48] Over two million people in developing
countries use this method for their daily drinking water.[47] Solar water disinfection in Indonesia

Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity. A
further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals
that make the water unusable.[49][50]

Molten salt technology

Molten salt can be employed as a thermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy collected by a solar tower or solar trough of a concentrated solar power
plant, so that it can be used to generate electricity in bad weather or at night. It was demonstrated in the Solar Two project from 1995–1999. The system is
predicted to have an annual efficiency of 99%, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat directly
into electricity.[51][52][53] The molten salt mixtures vary. The most extended mixture contains sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate. It is non-
flammable and nontoxic, and has already been used in the chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid, so experience with such systems exists in non-
solar applications.

The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar
collector where the focused sun heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. This is so well insulated that the thermal energy can be usefully
stored for up to a week.[54]

When electricity is needed, the hot salt is pumped to a conventional steam-generator to produce superheated steam for a turbine/generator as used in any
conventional coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt turbine would need a tank about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it
for four hours by this design.

Several parabolic trough power plants in Spain[55] and solar power tower developer SolarReserve use this thermal energy storage concept. The Solana Generating
Station in the U.S. has six hours of storage by molten salt. The María Elena plant[56] is a 400 MW thermo-solar complex in the northern Chilean region of
Antofagasta employing molten salt technology.

Electricity production
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either
directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using
concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or
mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into
a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the
photoelectric effect.

Solar power is anticipated to become the world's largest source of

electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated Some of the world's largest solar power stations: Ivanpah (CSP) and Topaz (PV)
solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall
consumption, respectively.[57] In 2016, after another year of rapid
growth, solar generated 1.3% of global power.[58]

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, in the Mojave Desert of California, is
the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large concentrated solar power plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW
Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are
the world's largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of
less than 5 kW, which are connected to the grid using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff.[59]

Photovoltaics
In the last two decades, photovoltaics (PV), also known as solar PV, has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a
mainstream electricity source. A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed
by Charles Fritts in the 1880s.[60] In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide.[61]
Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner
200,000
von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery.[62] Following the work of
Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline 150,000

silicon solar cell in 1954.[63] These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%.[64] 100,000
By 2012 available efficiencies exceeded 20%, and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics was in
50,000
excess of 40%.[65]

2006 2010 2014

Concentrated solar power
Europe Asia-Pacific
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
Americas China
sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A
Middle East and Africa
wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating
Worldwide growth of PV capacity
linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun
grouped by region in MW (2006–
and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used
2014)
for power generation or energy storage.[66]

Architecture and urban planning

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history.[68] Advanced solar
architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their
buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.[69]

The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low
surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass.[68] When these features are
tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable
temperature range. Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design.[68] The most recent
approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems Darmstadt University of Technology,
in an integrated solar design package.[70] Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows Germany, won the 2007 Solar
Decathlon in Washington, DC with
can complement passive design and improve system performance.
this passive house designed for
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding humid and hot subtropical climate.[67]
environment. The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such
as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural
environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white, and to plant trees in the area. Using these methods,
a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of
US$1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings.[71]

Agriculture and horticulture

Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of
plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and
the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields.[72][73] While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful
resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing
seasons of the Little Ice Age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of Greenhouses like these in the
solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit Westland municipality of the
Netherlands grow vegetables, fruits
walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to
and flowers.
make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which
could pivot to follow the Sun.[74] Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include
pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure.[43][75] More recently the technology has been embraced by vintners, who use the
energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.[76]

Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not
naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor
Tiberius.[77] The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad.[78] Greenhouses
remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers.

Transport
Development of a solar-powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge
is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021
kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the
winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had
improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph).[79] The North American Solar Challenge and the planned
South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the
engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.[80][81]
Winner of the 2013 World Solar
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus Challenge in Australia
reducing fuel consumption.[82][83]

In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England.[84] By 1995, passenger boats incorporating
PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively.[85] In 1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar-
powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the Sun21 catamaran made the first solar-powered crossing of the
Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007.[86] There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.[87]

In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, the Solar
Riser made the first flight in a solar-powered, fully controlled, man-carrying flying machine, reaching an Solar electric aircraft circumnavigating
the globe in 2015
altitude of 40 ft (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by
photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July
1981. In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power.[88] Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAV) with the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at
29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001.[89] The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in
2007, and month-long flights were envisioned by 2010.[90] As of 2016, Solar Impulse, an electric aircraft, is currently circumnavigating the globe. It is a single-
seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power. The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days.[91]

A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward
buoyancy force, much like an artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy
market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high.[92]

Fuel production
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would
otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels.
Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical.[93] A variety of fuels
can be produced by artificial photosynthesis.[94] The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making
carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is
hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires
mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen.[95] Some have envisaged
working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to
be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the
Concentrated solar panels are
municipal water system.[96] Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth's surface (i.e., roads,
getting a power boost. Pacific
vehicles and buildings) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants.[97] Northwest National Laboratory
(PNNL) will be testing a new
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Aside concentrated solar power system –
from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical processes have also one that can help natural gas power
been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures plants reduce their fuel usage by up
(2,300–2,600 °C or 4,200–4,700 °F).[98] Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the to 20 percent.
steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional
reforming methods.[99] Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants
present another avenue for hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute of Science uses a 1 MW solar furnace to
decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). This initial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to
produce hydrogen.[100]

Energy storage methods

Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems
generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can lower peak demand, shift
time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.[101][102]
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage medium. These
materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful temperatures (approximately
64 °C or 147 °F). The "Dover House" (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating
system, in 1948.[103] Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an
effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at
temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two project used this method of energy
storage, allowing it to store 1.44 terajoules (400,000 kWh) in its 68 m³ storage tank with an annual storage
efficiency of about 99%.[104]
Thermal energy storage. The
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied Andasol CSP plant uses tanks of
systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid, while standard grid electricity can be used to molten salt to store solar energy.
meet shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the
grid. This is handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes.
If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month.[105] Other approaches involve the use of two meters,
to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter. Most standard meters
accurately measure in both directions, making a second meter unnecessary.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one.
The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water, with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator.[106]

Development, deployment and economics

Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has
steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting
in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar
technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of
coal and petroleum.[107]

The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and
brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.[108][109] Deployment strategies focused on
incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the U.S. and the Sunshine Program Participants in a workshop on
in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the U.S. (SERI, now NREL), Japan sustainable development inspect
(NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).[110] solar panels at Monterrey Institute of
Technology and Higher Education,
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.[111] These systems saw Mexico City on top of a building on
campus.
increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels.[112] As
with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but
interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and annual
growth rates have averaged 20% since 1999.[25] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar
technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.[25]

The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now
faces:[1]

The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’
energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce
pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the
additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be
widely shared.[1]

In 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power
could provide a third of the world's energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-
carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. "The strength of solar is the
incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".[113]

We have proved ... that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun.

— Frank Shuman, New York Times, 2 July 1916[22]

ISO standards
The International Organization for Standardization has established several standards relating to solar energy equipment. For example, ISO 9050 relates to glass in
building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters.

See also
Airmass Photovoltaic system
Artificial photosynthesis Renewable heat
Community solar farm Renewable energy by country
Copper in renewable energy Soil solarization
Desertec Solar Decathlon
Global dimming Solar easement
Greasestock Solar energy use in rural Africa
Green electricity Solar updraft tower
Heliostat Solar power satellite
List of conservation topics Solar tracker
List of renewable energy organizations SolarEdge
List of solar energy topics Timeline of solar cells

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Further reading
Agrafiotis, C.; et al. (2005). "Solar water splitting for hydrogen production with monolithic reactors". Solar Energy. 79 (4): 409–21.
Bibcode:2005SoEn...79..409A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005SoEn...79..409A). doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.02.026 (https://doi.org/10.10
16%2Fj.solener.2005.02.026).
Anderson, Lorraine; Palkovic, Rick (1994). Cooking with Sunshine (The Complete Guide to Solar Cuisine with 150 Easy Sun-Cooked
Recipes). Marlowe & Company. ISBN 978-1-56924-300-8.
Balcomb, J. Douglas (1992). Passive Solar Buildings. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ISBN 978-0-262-02341-2.
Bénard, C.; Gobin, D.; Gutierrez, M. (1981). "Experimental Results of a Latent-Heat Solar-Roof, Used for Breeding Chickens". Solar Energy.
26 (4): 347–59. Bibcode:1981SoEn...26..347B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981SoEn...26..347B). doi:10.1016/0038-092X(81)90181-X (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2F0038-092X%2881%2990181-X).
Bolton, James (1977). Solar Power and Fuels. Academic Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-112350-5.
Bradford, Travis (2006). Solar Revolution: The Economic Transformation of the Global Energy Industry. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02604-8.
Butti, Ken; Perlin, John (1981). A Golden Thread (2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology). Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 978-0-
442-24005-9.
Carr, Donald E. (1976). Energy & the Earth Machine. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06407-0.
Daniels, Farrington (1964). Direct Use of the Sun's Energy. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-25938-7.
Denzer, Anthony (2013). The Solar House: Pioneering Sustainable Design (https://web.archive.org/web/20130726200811/http://solarhousehist
ory.com/book/). Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-4005-2. Archived from the original (http://solarhousehistory.com/book/) on 2013-07-26.
Halacy, Daniel (1973). The Coming Age of Solar Energy. Harper and Row. ISBN 978-0-380-00233-7.
Hunt, V. Daniel (1979). Energy Dictionary. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. ISBN 978-0-442-27395-8.
Karan, Kaul; et al. (2001). "Row Orientation Affects Fruit Yield in Field-Grown Okra". Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 17 (2/3): 169–74.
doi:10.1300/J064v17n02_14 (https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ064v17n02_14).
Leon, M.; Kumar, S. (2007). "Mathematical modeling and thermal performance analysis of unglazed transpired solar collectors". Solar Energy.
81 (1): 62–75. Bibcode:2007SoEn...81...62L (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SoEn...81...62L). doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.06.017 (https://d
oi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2006.06.017).
Lieth, Helmut; Whittaker, Robert (1975). Primary Productivity of the Biosphere. Springer-Verlag1. ISBN 978-0-387-07083-4.
Martin, Christopher L.; Goswami, D. Yogi (2005). Solar Energy Pocket Reference. International Solar Energy Society. ISBN 978-0-9771282-0-
4.
Mazria, Edward (1979). The Passive Solar Energy Book. Rondale Press. ISBN 978-0-87857-238-0.
Meier, Anton; et al. (2005). "Solar chemical reactor technology for industrial production of lime". Solar Energy. 80 (10): 1355–62.
Bibcode:2006SoEn...80.1355M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SoEn...80.1355M). doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.05.017 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2Fj.solener.2005.05.017).
Mills, David (2004). "Advances in solar thermal electricity technology". Solar Energy. 76 (1–3): 19–31. Bibcode:2004SoEn...76...19M (http://ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004SoEn...76...19M). doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(03)00102-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0038-092X%2803%2900102
-6).
Müller, Reto; Steinfeld, A. (2007). "Band-approximated radiative heat transfer analysis of a solar chemical reactor for the thermal dissociation
of zinc oxide". Solar Energy. 81 (10): 1285–94. Bibcode:2007SoEn...81.1285M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SoEn...81.1285M).
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.12.006 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2006.12.006).
Perlin, John (1999). From Space to Earth (The Story of Solar Electricity). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01013-0.
Bartlett, Robert (1998). Solution Mining: Leaching and Fluid Recovery of Materials. Routledge. ISBN 978-90-5699-633-8.
Scheer, Hermann (2002). The Solar Economy (Renewable Energy for a Sustainable Global Future) (http://www.hermannscheer.de/en/index.p
hp?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=7). Earthscan Publications Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84407-075-6.
Schittich, Christian (2003). Solar Architecture (Strategies Visions Concepts). Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG. ISBN 978-3-7643-
0747-9.
Smil, Vaclav (1991). General Energetics: Energy in the Biosphere and Civilization. Wiley. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-471-62905-4.
Smil, Vaclav (2003). Energy at the Crossroads: Global Perspectives and Uncertainties. MIT Press. p. 443. ISBN 978-0-262-19492-1.
Smil, Vaclav (2006). Energy at the Crossroads (http://ec.europa.eu/clima/consultations/docs/0005/registered/85246854723-63_confederation_
of_industry_czech_republic_en.pdf) (PDF). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. ISBN 978-0-262-19492-1. Retrieved
29 September 2007.
Tabor, H.Z.; Doron, B. (1990). "The Beith Ha'Arava 5 MW(e) Solar Pond Power Plant (SPPP) – Progress Report". Solar Energy. 45 (4): 247–
53. Bibcode:1990SoEn...45..247T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990SoEn...45..247T). doi:10.1016/0038-092X(90)90093-R (https://doi.org/
10.1016%2F0038-092X%2890%2990093-R).
Tiwari, G.N.; Singh, H.N.; Tripathi, R. (2003). "Present status of solar distillation" (http://eprint.iitd.ac.in/bitstream/2074/1230/1/tiwaripre2003.pd
f) (PDF). Solar Energy. 75 (5): 367–73. Bibcode:2003SoEn...75..367T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003SoEn...75..367T).
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2003.07.005 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2003.07.005).
Tritt, T.; Böttner, H.; Chen, L. (2008). "Thermoelectrics: Direct Solar Thermal Energy Conversion" (http://www.mrs.org/s_mrs/bin.asp?CID=125
27&DID=208641). MRS Bulletin. 33 (4): 355–72. doi:10.1557/mrs2008.73 (https://doi.org/10.1557%2Fmrs2008.73).
Tzempelikos, Athanassios; Athienitis, Andreas K. (2007). "The impact of shading design and control on building cooling and lighting demand".
Solar Energy. 81 (3): 369–82. Bibcode:2007SoEn...81..369T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SoEn...81..369T).
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.06.015 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2006.06.015).
 Vecchia, A.; et al. (1981). "Possibilities for the Application of Solar Energy in the European Community Agriculture". Solar Energy. 26 (6): 479–
89. Bibcode:1981SoEn...26..479D (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981SoEn...26..479D). doi:10.1016/0038-092X(81)90158-4 (https://doi.org/
10.1016%2F0038-092X%2881%2990158-4).
Yergin, Daniel (1991). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power. Simon & Schuster. p. 885. ISBN 978-0-671-79932-8.
Zedtwitz, P.V.; et al. (2006). "Hydrogen production via the solar thermal decarbonization of fossil fuels". Solar Energy. 80 (10): 1333–37.
Bibcode:2006SoEn...80.1333Z (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SoEn...80.1333Z). doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.06.007 (https://doi.org/10.10
16%2Fj.solener.2005.06.007).

External links
"How do Photovoltaics Work?" (https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/solarcells.htm). NASA.
Renewable Energy: Solar (https://curlie.org/Science/Technology/Energy/Renewable/Solar/) at Curlie
Solar Energy Back in the Day (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/43861/solar-energy-back-in-the-day) – slideshow by Life magazine
U.S. Solar Farm Map (1 MW or Higher) (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091029/http://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/u-s-solar-farm-
map/)
Online Resources Database on Solar in Developing Countries (http://bennu-solar.com/resources/)
Online resources and news from the nonprofit American Solar Energy Society (http://solartoday.org/)
"Journal article traces dramatic advances in solar efficiency" (http://spie.org/newsroom/technical-articles/1115-jpe-survey-article). SPIE
Newsroom. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

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