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 CHAPTER IV.
CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND OF
BRONZE.

The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.—The Prehistoric

Fauna.—The Archæological Classification.—Caves of the Iron Age.—
Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.—The Caves of Césareda in
Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals.—The Cave of Reggio in
Apulia.

The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric

Time.
It will be necessary before we examine the group of caves used by
man in prehistoric times, to point out the important difference in the
measurement of time within and beyond the borders of history.
When we speak, for example, of the date of the Norman Conquest,
we imply that we can ascertain by historical records, not merely that
it succeeded the invasion of Britain by the English or Danes, and
happened before our own time, but that the interval which separates
it from those events can be accurately measured by the unit of
years. If, however, we attempt to ascertain the date of any event
which happened outside the historical limit, we shall find that it is a
question solely of relation. When we speak, for example, of the
neolithic age, we merely mean a certain stage of human progress
which succeeded the palæolithic, and preceded the bronze age, but
we have no proof of the length of the interval dividing it from the
one or the other. The historic “when?” implies “how long ago?” the
prehistoric “when?” merely implies a definition before and after
certain events, without any idea of the measurement of the
intervals.
An attempt to ascertain the absolute date of prehistoric events
must of necessity fail, since it is based on the improbable
assumption that the physical agents have acted uniformly, and that
therefore the results may be used as a natural chronometer. The
present rate of the accumulation of débris, as at the Victoria Cave of
the preceding chapter, or of that of silt in the deltas of rivers, such
as the Nile, or the Tinière, may convey a rough idea of the high
antiquity of prehistoric deposits; but a slight change either of the
climate, or of the rainfall, would invalidate the conclusion. When the
greater part of Europe lay buried under forest, when Palestine
supported a large population, and when glaciers crowned some of
the higher mountains of Africa, such as the Atlas, the European and
Egyptian climates were probably moister than at the present time,
and the rainfall and the floods greater, and consequently the
accumulation of sediment quicker than the observed rate under the
present conditions. And in the same way all estimates of the lapse of
past time, based upon the excavation of a river valley, or the
retrocession of a waterfall, such as Niagara, lie open to the same
kind of objection. It is not at all reasonable to suppose that the
complex conditions which regulate the present rate of erosion, have
been the same during the time the work has been done, and it
therefore follows that the work done is a measure of the power
employed, and not of the length of time during which it has been in
operation. We must, therefore, give up the idea of measuring the
past beyond the memory of man, as represented in historical
documents, by the historic unit of years. We can merely trace a
definite sequence of events, separated one from another by
uncertain intervals. And for that series of events which extends from
the borders of history back to the remote age where the geologist,
descending the stream of time, meets the archæologist, I have
85
adopted the term prehistoric.

The Prehistoric Fauna.

The prehistoric period is characterized by the arrival of the
domestic animals in Europe, under the care of man. The dog, swine,
horse, horned-sheep, goat, Bos longifrons, and the larger ox
descended from an ancestor, according to Professor Rütimeyer, of
the type of the great Urus, make their appearance together, in
association with the remains of man, in the neolithic stage of
86
civilization. Subsequently they spread over the whole of our
continent, for the most part under the care of man. The Bos
longifrons, however, and possibly also the Urus, reverted to feral
conditions, just as the horses and oxen, in the Americas and
Australia, have done at the present time, and their remains are
therefore frequently found in association with animals undoubtedly
wild. The domestic horse, the variety of hog descended from the
wild boar, and the domestic cattle derived from the Urus, may
possibly have passed under the yoke of man, in Europe, since their
wild stocks were to be found in that area, both in the prehistoric and
pleistocene times. This, however, cannot be affirmed of the swine
descended from the southern variety of Sus Indica, or of the Celtic
shorthorn, of the sheep, or goat, since their wild ancestors were not
indigenous in Europe. These animals must have been domesticated
in some area outside Europe; and since central Asia is the region
where the wild stocks still exist, from which all the domestic animals
are descended, it is reasonable to suppose that they were
domesticated in that region, and thence introduced, by a race of
shepherds and herdsmen, into our quarter of the world.
This conclusion is considerably strengthened by the evidence
which Professor Heer has advanced, as to the vegetables used by
the dwellers on piles in the Swiss lakes, among which some, such as
the two kinds of millet, the six-rowed barley (hordeum hexastichon),
the Egyptian wheat (triticum turgidum), and a weed (Silene cretica),
accidentally brought along with them, are distinctively of southern
derivation.
The most important wild animals living in this country during the
prehistoric period are the urus, the gigantic skulls of which occur in
the peat bogs of England and Scotland, the Irish elk, the moose
(Cervus alces), and the reindeer. The two last are far more abundant
in the north than in the south of Britain; their remains have been
discovered in the neighbourhood of London, those of both animals at
Walthamstow, and those of the latter at Crossness in Kent, on the
banks of the Thames. The remains of the bison have not been
recorded from any prehistoric deposit in this country.
The Irish elk is the only animal which has become extinct; while
the moose, or true elk, is the only wild species which has not been
proved to have been living in the preceding age. The stag was very
abundant.
The prehistoric fauna is distinguished from that of the
pleistocene not merely by the appearance of the animals above
mentioned, which were hitherto unknown, but by the absence of
many species which were living during the latter period. The cave
bear, woolly rhinoceros, and mammoth, for example, became
extinct, the musk-sheep and lemming were banished from a
temperate latitude to take refuge in the regions of the north, while
the spotted hyæna, the hippopotamus, and Felis caffer, retired to the
warm regions of Africa, where they are still living.

The Archæological Classification.

The prehistoric period has been classified by the archæologists
according to the stages of human progress which it presents. At the
frontier of history, in each country, we find that the dwellers were
acquainted with the use of iron, and had found it to be the most
convenient material for the manufacture of cutting weapons and
implements. Before this the voice of tradition points out that bronze
was the only material used for these purposes, and stone before
bronze. These three stages of human culture, or the ages of iron,
bronze, and stone, have been fully verified by investigations which
have been made in various parts of Europe, into the prehistoric
habitations and burial-places of man.
This classification by no means implies an exact chronology, or
that any one of these ages, with the exception perhaps of the first,
covered the whole of Europe at the same point of time, but that the
order in which they followed each other is the same in each country
which has been explored. There is good reason for the belief, that at
the time the Egyptian and Assyrian empires were in the height of
their glory, Northern Europe was inhabited by rude polished-stone-
using races. And it is a well-ascertained fact, that while the
inhabitants of Britain and Scandinavia were in their bronze age, the
Etruscans and Phœnicians were in their full power in the south. It is
obvious again, that, even in the same country, the poorer classes
must have been long content to use the ruder and more common
materials for their daily needs, while the richer and more powerful
used the rarer and more costly. These three ages must therefore
necessarily overlap. “Like the three principal colours of the rainbow,”
87
writes Mr. Evans, “these three stages of civilization overlap,
intermingle, and shade off the one into the other; and yet their
succession, as far as Western Europe is concerned, appears to be
equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours, though the
proportions of the spectrum may vary in different countries.” They
cannot reasonably be viewed as hard and fast lines of division,
mapping off successive quantities of time.
The age of stone is subdivided by Sir John Lubbock into the
neolithic periods, or that in which polished stone was the only
material used for cutting, and the palæolithic, in which mankind had
not learnt to grind and polish his implements. The latter belongs to
the pleistocene, or quaternary period, since the palæolithic
implements are found in association with the remains of the animals
characteristic of that age.
The prehistoric caves, therefore, may be divided into three
classes if the archæological method of analysis be employed: 1, into
those containing evidence of the use of iron; 2, those containing
proof of the knowledge of bronze; 3, and lastly, those in which
traces of polished stone weapons have been discovered
unassociated with metals. By the animal remains which they contain
they may be distinguished from those of the pleistocene age, both
by the absence, as well as the presence of certain species which
have been enumerated.
From the archæological point of view, two out of the four ages
are still represented. Stone is, at the present time, the only material
used in the more remote regions of Australia, although it is fast
being replaced by iron, which has superseded bronze, and is
spreading rapidly over the whole earth. The group of historic caves
described in the preceding chapter may be said to belong to the iron
age, that is to say, to that later portion of it in which the events are
recorded in history.
The traces of the occupation of caves by man in the iron and
bronze ages are so extremely scarce, that it is certain that they were
but rarely used as habitations. Man had sufficiently advanced in
civilization in those times to construct artificial dwellings and tombs
for himself, instead of using the natural shelters which were so very
generally occupied in Europe by his ruder neolithic predecessors.

Cave of the Iron Age.

In the course of the systematic exploration of caves in the
Mendip Hills, carried on by Messrs. Ayshford Sanford, Parker, and
myself, a cave was examined in Burrington Combe, near Wrington,
in Somerset, which may be referred to the iron age, and which we
named Whitcombe’s Hole. It opened upon the side of that
magnificent combe, at a height of about 135 feet from the bottom
and fifteen from the top, and ran horizontally inwards, the floor
being formed of an accumulation of earth mingled with charcoal,
and containing numerous broken bones and teeth. The latter
belonged to the wolf, fox, badger, rabbit, hare, stag, goat, and Celtic
shorthorn. In the lower portion were the fragments of a rude,
unornamented urn of a coarse black ware, with the rim turned at
right angles, along with a bent piece of iron, which bears a strong
resemblance to those found strengthening the corners of wooden
coffins in the Gallo-Roman graves on the banks of the Somme. The
fractures of the bones, with one exception, were caused by the hand
of man, and not by the teeth of the carnivora. The position renders
the cave eminently fitted for concealment, for while commanding an
extensive view down the Combe, it is invisible both from above and
below, and opening on the face of an almost vertical cliff, it is easily
defended. If the urn be sepulchral, the interment must be of a later
date than the occupation, because it is made in the débris which
88
resulted from the latter.

Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.

89
The cave of Heathery Burn, near Stanhope, in Weardale, co.
Durham, is the only one in this country that has furnished a large
series of articles of the bronze age. It is described by Mr. Elliott as
running into the precipitous side of a ravine, at a height of about 10
to 12 feet above the level of the Stanhope Burn, and as being
partially traversed by water. Since its discovery in 1861, it has been
altogether destroyed by the removal of the stone to be used as a
flux in smelting the ore of the Weardale Iron Company, and an
admirable section of its contents was therefore visible from time to
time. A stratum of sand at the bottom, two feet nine inches thick,
deposited by the stream, and containing angular masses of
limestone that had dropped from the roof, was covered by a sheet of
stalagmite three inches in thickness. On this rested a mass of bones
and implements imbedded in silt or sand, and sealed over by a
thickness of stalagmite of from two to eight inches.

Fig. 32.—Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn (natural

size).

On removing the upper of these two

stalagmitic floors a perfect human skull was
discovered, along with broken bones of
animals, charcoal, limpet shells, bone pins,
an instrument of bone like a paper-knife,
coarse pottery with fragments of chert
imbedded in its mass, a portion of a jet
armlet, as well as several boars’ tusks. The
same stratum at another place furnished a
singular bronze knife with a socket for the
Fig. 33.—Bronze Armlet, 90
Heathery Burn. handle (Fig. 32), bronze pins, celts, an
armlet of twisted wire (Fig. 33), along with
shells of limpet, mussel, and oyster, and charcoal, and at a third, on
the other side of the watercourse, a bronze spear-head.
Subsequently, many articles were added to the above list, seven
pins, three rings, two split-rings, a “razor,” disk, three socketed celts,
one chisel, two gouges, and four spear-heads of bronze, and a fine
bracelet, and two ornaments of the horse-shoe, or split-ring type,
made of thin plates of gold. One of the spear-heads, in the collection
of the Rev. Canon Greenwell, is represented in Fig. 34. There were
 also waste pieces of
bronze, and the half of
a bronze mould for
casting celts, Fig. 35, in
which one of the
associated celts had
actually been cast,
since it is of the same
pattern. These articles
were probably
concealed in the cavern
by workers in bronze,
who were prevented, by
some unforeseen
accident, from obtaining
them again. The
Fig. 35.—Bronze Mould for
casting a socketed celt. charcoal and the broken
bones of the Bos
longifrons, badger, and dog, imply that the cave
had been used as a habitation; and possibly the
two human skulls, which have been described
by Professor Huxley and Mr. Carter Blake, may
have belonged to the possessors of the hoard of
bronze and gold. Both were discovered in the
same stratum and below the floor of stalagmite.
Fig. 34.—Bronze
The more perfect of the two skulls is Spearhead, Heathery
considered by Professor Huxley to belong to the Burn (½ size).
same long-headed race of men as that found at
Muskham, in the valley of the Trent,—to a form which he terms the
River-bed type, and that cannot be separated from those obtained
from the long tumuli of the South of England, and considered by Dr.
Thurnam to belong to a Neolithic Basque, or Iberian population.
Articles distinctly of the bronze age have been already noticed as
having been met with in the caves of Kirkhead, in Cartmell, and in
Thor’s Cave, in Staffordshire. From the latter the bracelet of thin
bronze, Fig. 31, was obtained by Mr. Carrington, of Wetton. The
rarity of bronze implements in caves in Britain and the Continent is
probably, to a large extent, due to the value of the material, and to
the fact that it could be re-melted. If a bronze article happened to
be broken, the pieces would naturally be kept for future use, and not
thrown away, as in the case of a fractured stone implement. The
former, therefore, are rare, the latter comparatively abundant.
The cave called the Cat-Hole, in Gower (Glamorgan), explored
by Colonel Wood in 1864, contained several human skeletons, flint
flakes, fragments of red pottery marked with a string, cut bones, a
stone muller, and a bronze socketed celt. The last is of the same
pattern as some of those in the collection of the Rev. Canon
Greenwell, from Heathery Burn, and has been cast in a mould similar
in size and ornamentation to that figured in woodcut 35.

The Caves of Césareda probably occupied by

Cannibals.
91
The contents of three caves in the Iberian peninsula, referable
to the dawn of the bronze age, render it very probable that the use
of human flesh was not unknown in those times.
In 1867 Senhor J. L. Delgado described his researches in the
caverns of Césareda, in the valley of the Tagus, in the Casa da
Maura, Lapa Furada, and Cova da Maura. The first of these
contained two distinct strata. The lower, consisting of sand mixed
with fragments of rock, rested on the stalagmite, and contained
fragments of charcoal, one implement of bone, and many of flint, a
scraper, a flake, and an arrow-head. The broken bones and teeth
belonged to the following animals:—The lynx, fox, brown-bear, dog
and wolf, a species of deer, the water-vole, and the rabbit. None of
the remains of the carnivora had been subjected to the action of
fire, or had been used for food. A human skull with lower jaw was
dug out of the deepest part, but, since the matrix had been
disturbed, it had probably been interred after the accumulation of
the deposit.
92
It is recognized by Professor Busk as belonging to the same
long type as the skulls of the caves of Gibraltar and the Basque
graveyard, measuring in length 6·7 inches, in breadth 5·3, in height
5·5, and therefore possessing cephalic and latitudinal indices of ·785
93
and ·820.
The upper stratum, a sandy loam, contained a large quantity of
stones, and numerous articles fabricated by man: polished-stone
axes, flakes, and other instruments of flint, bone, and antler,
fragments of coarse black pottery, with bits of calcareous spar
imbedded in its substance, and two plates of schist ornamented with
a rude design, which may have been used as amulets. Fragments of
charcoal were scattered throughout the matrix, and adhered to
some of the pottery and to the burnt pebbles. The most abundant
remains were those of man. They were to be counted by thousands,
and were so fragmentary and scattered that it was impossible to put
together one perfect skeleton. The teeth, belonging for the most
part to children or fully-grown adults, were particularly abundant.
The long bones had lost, very generally, their articular ends, had
been fractured longitudinally, and some of them had been cut and
scraped. It is therefore probable that this accumulation was formed
by a tribe of cannibals: the evidence that human flesh formed their
principal food being precisely of the same nature as that by which
the flint-folk of the Périgord are proved to have subsisted on the
94
flesh of the reindeer. Professor Busk, however, is inclined to believe
the facts in support of cannibalism insufficient. The associated
animals consisted of the bat, dormouse, rabbit, horse, a small ox,
allied to Bos longifrons, sheep or goat, wild cat, wolf, fox, and dog.
The contents of the other two caves were precisely of the same
nature, and had been accumulated under the same conditions.
 A bronze arrow-head, discovered in the upper stratum, and the
ornamentation of the stone amulet, consisting of alternate triangles
and zigzag ladders, as remarked by Mr. John Evans, indicate that the
upper deposit belongs to the age of bronze, and probably to an early
stage, when stone was being superseded by bronze, since many
stone celts were found in the same spot.
The ancient burial-places of Ultz, in Westphalia, furnish a second
case of the practice of cannibalism, according to M. Schaaffhausen
95
of Bonn . They are probably of the age of bronze.

The Cave of Reggio, in Modena.

96
The human remains in a cave in the province of Reggio, on the
northern flank of the Apennines, brought before the Prehistoric
Congress at Bologna by M. l’Abbé Chierici, and considered by him to
be proofs of cannibalism, are probably merely the result of interment
in a refuse-heap that had previously been accumulated. They were
associated with bronze pins, rivets, polished-stone axes, and various
implements of bone, fragments of pottery and of charcoal, bones of
pig, sheep, and dog, and belong therefore to the period of transition
from the neolithic to the bronze age.
The caves have contributed but very little to our knowledge of
the bronze-folk in any part of Europe. Examples, such as those given
above, are scattered through France and Spain, but they are not
sufficiently important to require notice. We could not expect that
men, in the high state of civilization implied by the beautiful
jewellery and ornaments which are distinctive of the bronze-folk,
would have chosen the wild, half-savage life which is involved in
cave-habitation.
 CHAPTER V.
CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.

Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.—The Refuse-heap at Perthi-Chwareu.—The Sepulchral Caves.—The Neolithic Caves
in the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph.—The Chambered Tomb near Cefn.—Interments in Tomb and Caves of
the same age.—Contents of Tomb and Caves.—Description of Human Remains by Professor Busk—From Cave
No. 1 at Perthi-Chwareu—from Cairn at Cefn—from Cave at Cefn.—General Conclusions as to Human Remains.

It is evident, from the scanty remains found in caves, that they were not the normal habitations of men
in the Bronze or Iron stages of culture. We shall, however, find that they were used by the neolithic
peoples, both for shelter and for burial, in nearly every portion of Europe which has been explored.

Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.—Perthi-Chwareu.

The most remarkable examples of caves, turned to both these uses, in Britain, are offered by the
group clustering round a refuse-heap at Perthi-Chwareu, a farm high up in the Welsh hills, about ten
miles to the east of Corwen, and a mile to the west of the little village of Llandegla, in Denbighshire.

The Refuse-heap.
The first intimation of any prehistoric remains in that locality was afforded by a small box of bones
forwarded to me by Mr. Darwin, in 1869; and this I was able to follow up, through the kind assistance of
Mrs. Lloyd, the owner of the property on which they were found, from time to time, during 1869–70–
71–2. The mountain limestone, which there forms hill and valley, consists of thick masses of hard rock,
separated by soft beds of shale, and contains large quantities of producti, crinoids and corals. The strata
dip to the south, at an angle of about 1 in 25, and form two parallel ridges, with abrupt faces to the
north, and separated from each other by a narrow valley, passing east and west along the strike. The
remains sent by Mr. Darwin were obtained from a space between two strata near the top of the
northern ridge, whence the intervening softer material had been carried away by water. Its maximum
height was 6 inches, and its width 20 feet or more; and it extended in a direction parallel to the bed of
the rocks. The bones, which had evidently been washed in by the rain, and not carried in by any
carnivora, belong to the following species:—
Canis familiaris—The Dog.
Canis vulpes—The Fox.
Meles taxus—The Badger.
Sus scrofa—The Pig.
Cervus capreolus—The Roe-deer.
Cervus elaphus—The Red-deer.
Capra hircus—The Goat.
Bos longifrons—The Celtic Short-horn.
Equus caballus—The Horse.
Arvicola amphibius—The Water-rat.
 Lepus timidus—The Hare.
Lepus cuniculus—The Rabbit.
The Eagle.
Nearly all the bones were broken, and belonged to young animals. Those of the Celtic short-horn, of
the sheep or goat, and of the young pig, were very abundant; while those of the roe and stag, hare and
horse, were comparatively rare. The remains of the domestic dog were rather abundant, and the
percentage of young puppies implies also that they, like the other animals, had been used for food.
Possibly the hare may also have been eaten, but its remains were scarce, and belonged to adults. Some
of the bones had been gnawed by dogs. The only reasonable cause that can be assigned for the
accumulation of the remains of these animals is, that the locality was inhabited by men of pastoral
habits, but yet to a certain extent dependent on the chase, and that the relics of their food were thrown
out to form a refuse-heap. The latter had altogether disappeared from the surface of the ground, from
the action of the rain and other atmospheric causes, while those portions of it which chanced to be
washed into the narrow interspace between the strata were preserved, to mark the spot which it once
occupied.
There was nothing in the deposit that fixes the date of its accumulation. It may have been of the
stone, bronze, or iron age; but from the presence of the goat, short-horned ox, and dog, it certainly
does not date so far back as the epoch of the reindeer, mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave-hyæna. The
presence of the Celtic short-horn throws no light upon the antiquity, because for centuries after it had
ceased to be the domestic breed in England it remained in Wales, and still lives in the small black Welsh
cattle, that are lineal descendants of those which furnished beef to the Roman provincials in Britain.

The Sepulchral Caves.

Fig. 36.—Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu. Scale 12 feet to 1 inch.

While the refuse-heap was being explored, I chose a small depression (Fig. 36 A) in the precipitous
side of the southern ridge, that formed a kind of rock shelter overlooking the valley, and that seemed to
be a likely place for the abode of man, or of wild animals. On setting the men to work, in a few minutes
we began to discover the remains of dog, marten-cat, fox, badger, goat, Celtic short-horn, roe-deer and
stag, horse, and large birds. Mixed with these, as we proceeded, we began to find human bones,
between and underneath large masses of rock, that were completely covered up with red silt and sand.
As these were cleared away, we gradually realized that we were on the threshold of a sepulchral cave.
In the small space then excavated, human remains, belonging to no fewer than five individuals, were
found. Subsequently the work was carried on by Mrs. Lloyd, under the careful supervision of her agent
Mr. Reid. The rock-shelter narrowed into a “tunnel cave,” that penetrated the rocks in a line parallel to
the bedding, and, roughly speaking, at right angles to the valley, having a width varying from 3 feet 4
inches to 5 feet 6 inches, and a height from 3 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 6 inches.
The entrance was completely blocked up with red earth and loose stones, the latter, apparently,
having been placed there by design (Figs. 36, 37). The inside of the cave was filled with red earth and
sand to within about a foot of the roof. The remains were found, for the most part, on or near the top;
but in some cases they were deep down. One human skull, for example, was found six inches only
above the rocky floor. The human bones were associated with those of the animals of which a list has
been given, and occurred in little confused heaps. One human femur was in a perpendicular position.
The account of the continuation of the digging is given almost in the words of Mrs. Lloyd. On the
second day, after an hour’s work, a human skull was found near the roof of the cave, resting on a
femur; then eleven feet explored brought to light a large quantity of human bones, including nine
femurs. The third and fourth days were devoted to clearing out the cave (Fig. 36–7 B) up to this point,
and to excavating about four feet further in, or fifteen from the entrance. During the work two teeth of
a horse were found, resting on the floor near the entrance, and nine more about ten feet within the
cave; also a boar’s tusk of remarkable size, and close by a mussel and cockle-shell, and valve of Mya
truncata, along with a quantity of human and other bones; including five skulls, more or less perfect,
and many fragments. All these skulls were found between the tenth and fifteenth feet from the
entrance. During the fifth and sixth days, the work was superintended by Mr. Reid, who entirely cleared
the cave for about thirteen feet further: the first eight feet yielded a small quantity of human and other
bones, including the perfect skull of a marten-cat and the incisor of a wild boar. The only implement
found in the cave, a broken flint flake, occurred here, and a nearly perfect human skull, lying face
downwards, with the pelvis adhering to one side. The last five feet furnished only two bones, both of
the short-horned ox. The end of the cave was composed of unproductive grey clay. (Figs. 36–7 C.)

Fig. 37.—Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.

Small fragments of charcoal occurred throughout the cave, and a great many rounded pebbles from
the boulder clay of the neighbourhood.
 The human remains belong for the most part to very young or adolescent individuals, from the
small infant to youths of twenty-one. Some, however, belong to men in the prime of life. All the teeth
that had been used were ground perfectly flat. The skulls belong to that type which Professor Huxley
terms the “river-bed skull.” Some of the tibiæ present the peculiar flattening parallel to the median line,
which Professor Busk denotes by the term platycnemic, and some of the femora were traversed by a
largely developed and prominent linea aspera; but these peculiarities were not seen on all the femora
and tibiæ, and cannot therefore be considered characteristic of race, but most probably of sex. They
were not presented by any of the younger bones.
All the human remains had undoubtedly been buried in the cave, since the bones were in the main
perfect, or only broken by the large stones which had subsequently fallen from the roof. From the
juxtaposition of one skull to a pelvis, and the vertical position of one of the femora, as well as the fact
that the bones lay in confused heaps, it is clear that the corpses had been buried in the contracted
posture, as is usually the case in neolithic interments. And since the area was insufficient for the
accommodation of so many bodies at one time, it is certain that the cave had been used as a cemetery
at different times. The stones blocking up the entrance were probably placed as a barrier against the
inroads of wild beasts.
These remains are the first in this country which present the peculiar character of platycnemism,
noticed by Professor Busk and Dr. Falconer in human remains in the caves of Gibraltar, and by Dr. Broca
in some of those from the dolmens of France, and subsequently in the celebrated skeletons found in the
cave of Cro-magnon. I have also observed the same peculiar flattening of the tibia in the only fragment
of human bone obtained by Mr. Foote, in the Lateritic deposits of the eastern coast of Southern India,
along with the stone implements figured in the Norwich Volume of the International Congress of
Prehistoric Archæology (1868, p. 224).
The remains of the animals associated with the human bones belong to the same species as those
mentioned above from the débris of a refuse-heap, and are in a similar broken and split condition. They
may have been deposited at the same time as the human skeletons, but, from the fact that some of
them are gnawed by dogs, it is most probable that they were accumulated while the cave was used as a
dwelling. If the bodies were placed on an old floor of occupation, and afterwards disturbed by rabbits
and badgers, the remains would be mingled together as they were found to be mingled. The contents
had evidently been disturbed by the burrowing of all these animals.
Subsequently we discovered and explored no less than four other sepulchral caves, within a few
hundred yards of the refuse-heap, in which the corpses had been buried in the same crouching posture.
From one on the farm of Rhosdigre we obtained a perfect celt of polished greenstone which had never
been used (Fig. 38), together with several flint flakes, and numerous fragments of pottery, rude, black
inside, hand-made, and containing in their substance small fragments of limestone.
Similar potsherds are preserved in the Oxford Museum, from the superficial deposits of the caves of
Gailenreuth and Kuhlock, and I have observed them also among the remains from Kent’s Hole. The celt
was most probably, from its unworn condition, buried with the dead, and it stamps the neolithic age of
the interments of the whole group.
 Fig. 38.—Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave.
(Nat. size.)

Among the broken bones from this cave were the teeth of the brown bear, and the lower jaw of a
wolf; and the fractured bones of the dog implied that that animal ministered to the appetite, as well as
obeyed the commands, of the neolithic inhabitants. I have met with similar evidence of the use of dog’s
flesh for food among the broken bones which Canon Greenwell obtained from the neolithic tumuli of the
Yorkshire Wolds. On the other hand, the marks of the teeth of dogs, or wolves, on some of the human
femora, implied that those animals made their way into this cave and feasted on the corpses.
The neolithic age of these interments is proved, not merely by the presence of the stone axe, or of
97
the flint flakes, but by the burial in a contracted posture, and the fact that the skulls are identical with
those obtained from chambered tombs in the south of England proved to be neolithic by Dr. Thurnam.
The number of skeletons of all ages, and of both sexes, buried in these caves was very
considerable; and they had been placed on the old floor of occupation at successive times. In that of
Rhosdigre the accumulation of charcoal, broken bones, and fragments of pottery below some of the
human skeletons, proved that it had been used for a habitation before it was used for a burial-place. It
is very probable that originally the head of a family, or a clan, or a tribe, was buried in his own cave-
dwelling, and that it was afterwards used as a cemetery for his blood relations and followers.

The Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, near St. Asaph.

The same class of remains, referable to the neolithic age, have been met with in the caves in the
limestone cliffs of the beautiful valleys of the Clwyd and the Elwy, near St. Asaph. In the collection of
fossil bones in the possession of Mrs. Williams Wynn, discovered in 1833, in a cave at Cefn, by Mr.
98
Edward Lloyd, is a human skull and lower jaw, along with platycnemic limb-bones. They were found
mingled with the bones of goat, pig, fox, and badger, and cut antlers of the red-deer, inside the lower
entrance of the cave, in which the extinct pleistocene animals were found in the valley of the Elwy. Four
flint flakes also were discovered along with them.
The skull in its general features strongly resembles those found in the group of caves at Perthi-
99
Chwareu, and presents a cephalic index of ·770, which comes within the limits of the extreme forms
from that locality. Professor Busk, however, as will be seen in his account of this skull, because of its low
altitudinal index—·702, as compared with ·710 of the lowest Perthi-Chwareu skull—is inclined to view it
as of a different type. The conditions, on the other hand, under which it was found appear to me to be
circumstantial evidence that the interment is of the same relative age as that of Perthi-Chwareu. Both
were in caves: in both the remains of the same domestic and wild animals were found in the same
fragmentary condition. Flint flakes also occurred in both; and what is more important, the platycnemic
limb-bones in both imply a somewhat similar mode of life in the people to whom they belonged. This
body of evidence, in favour of the interments having been made by the same race of men who lived
some time in Denbighshire, seems to me of greater weight than that to the contrary afforded by the
difference of ·008 in the altitudinal indices of the skulls. After a comparison of the carefully prepared
measurements of the crania published in the “Crania Britannica” with those published elsewhere, I
cannot resist the conviction, that if similar modes of life and of burial in Britain imply an identity of race,
cranial variation within the limits of that race is by no means very small. Absolute purity of blood in an
island so near the Continent as Britain cannot be looked for; and unity of type resulting from isolation
from other races, such as that presented by the Australians, is not likely to be met with. It is therefore
very probable that some of the variations may be accounted for by the blending of different ethnical
elements in one race. I am consequently inclined to view the interments in these two caves as having
been made by the same people, in spite of the small cranial difference manifested by the Cefn skull.
The cave in Brysgill, a small ravine leading into the valley of the Elwy, explored by Mr. Mainwaring
and Mrs. Williams Wynn in 1871, furnished evidence of the occupation of man, probably of the neolithic
age. From a dark layer composed of loam, black with fragments of charcoal, a flint arrow-head, a core,
a flake, and broken bones of the horse, Bos longifrons, goat, and dog, were obtained, as well as a few
human bones which had not been broken by design.
The excavations carried on in the small tunnel-cave of Plas-Heaton, by Mr. Heaton and Professor
Hughes, have shown that it was inhabited at two different ages. In the upper or prehistoric stratum
were broken bones of the dog, badger, goat, Bos longifrons, and stag; while in the lower, or pleistocene,
were the remains of the hyæna, reindeer, cave-bear, and the lower jaw of the glutton.

The Chambered Tomb near Cefn, St. Asaph.

While the caves at Perthi-Chwareu were being explored, the accidental discovery of human remains
in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn, St. Asaph, in 1869, led to a systematic examination of its
contents by Mrs. Williams Wynn, under the superintendence of the Rev. D. R. Thomas, myself, and the
Rev. H. H. Winwood, which has resulted in the proof, that the people who buried their dead in caves
used stone-chambered tombs for the same purpose.
The cairn of loose fragments of limestone had been removed for road-mending before the cap-
stones of the stone chamber were exposed, and these were broken before any scientific observation
was made. The Rev. D. R. Thomas, however, rescued many of the human remains from destruction, and
began the exploration which defined the extent of the chamber A (Fig. 39).
Subsequently it was resumed in my presence, and the chamber A (Fig. 39) fully cleared out. At the
point c it was partially shut off from the passage B by a slab of stone 18 inches high. The passage led
from the chamber in a northern direction, and was 6 feet long by 2 wide. The chamber gradually
narrowed towards the passage, being 5 feet wide at its broad end, and 9 feet long. In the passage, as
well as in the chamber, there were human bones belonging to individuals who had been buried in a
crouching posture. Unfortunately, as the remains have been scattered, it is impossible to ascertain the
 exact number of the burials. I have, however, restored one skull and examined
seven frontal bones, and other remains, which indicate that there were at least
twelve persons, varying in age from infancy to full prime, buried in this tomb. In
addition to these, there is a large box of bones in the possession of the Rev.
D. R. Thomas, as well as other remains in other hands. But although the exact
number of bodies interred cannot be made out, there is full proof that there
were too many to have been deposited at one time in so small a cubic area;
and therefore they must have been deposited at different times, as in the caves
at Perthi-Chwareu. There were no remains of either wild or domestic animals;
and the only foreign object was a small slightly chipped flint pebble. From the
remarkable conformation of the nasal bones of some of the skulls, it would
seem likely that the burial-place belonged to one family; but, for a reason (see
Notes on Human Remains, p. 183) stated by Professor Busk, this is by no
means a certain inference.
The plan of the chamber and passage corresponds with that of the long
barrow of West Kennet, figured in the “Crania Britannica,” and with that of the
100
cromlech of Le Creux des Fées, Guernsey, described by Lieutenant Oliver. In
the former of these the corpses were buried in a contracted posture, along with
Fig. 39.—Plain of
Chambered Tomb at Cefn.
flint scrapers and fragments of rude pottery. In the latter the original contents
have disappeared. To speak in general terms, the chamber and passage belong
to the class of tombs which Dr. Thurnam names “Long Barrows,” and Professor Nilsson “Ganggräben,”
and which are found in Scandinavia and France, as well as in Britain. And it is worthy of note that the
partial insulation of the chamber A (Fig. 39) from the passage B by a slab (c), which does not reach up
to the height of the walls, is to be seen in similar tombs both in Guernsey and in Brittany.
A second and larger chamber, composed of cave slabs of limestone, was discovered in the same
cairn in 1871 by the Rev. D. R. Thomas, and completely excavated by him along with myself and the
Rev. H. H. Winwood. It was of a rudely triangular form, 10 feet long by 6 wide, traversed by a partition
of slabs, and provided with a narrow passage 10 feet long by 2 feet 6 in width, opening to the north,
and fenced off completely from the chamber by a slab, as in the preceding case. Both the chamber and
the passage were full of human remains of all ages, buried in a contracted posture; the number of
interments being far too great to have allowed the bodies to have been deposited at one time. From the
former I identified the broken jaw of a roebuck and remains of goat, a broken flint, and round pebbles
of quartz, while in the latter there were the teeth and bones of the dog and the pig.
Some of the tibiæ from both the chambers were platycnemic, but that character was only to be
recognized in the older bones. The skulls, from the second of the two chambers, agree so exactly with
those from the caves, that it is not necessary to add to the table of measurements which Professor Busk
has drawn up (p. 171).

Correlation of Chambered Tomb with Interments in the Caves of Perthi-Chwareu

and Cefn.
Nor are we without evidence that the builders of this cairn belonged to the same race as those who
buried their dead in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu and of Cefn. The crania and the limb-bones are
identical, and in both the tombs and caves the dead were buried in a contracted posture.
Why then, it may be asked, were the remains of animals so rare in the one and so abundant in the
other? In my opinion this difference may be explained by the hypothesis, invented by Professor Nilsson,
101
of the origin of chambered tombs. The idea of the “gallery graves,” according to that high authority,
was derived from the subterranean house in which the deceased lived, and in which he was buried after
his death, after the fashion of the Eskimos at the present day. The plan of the houses, like that of the
ancient Lycian dwellings described by Sir Charles Fellowes, was preserved in the tombs, and probably
for many ages after houses were no longer made in that fashion; since the principle of conservatism
and the force of custom are more deeply rooted in religious and solemn ceremonial than in the changes
of every-day life.
The rarity of the remains of the animals may be explained by the fact of these tombs never having
been used as dwellings, while their abundance in the caves may be accounted for by the latter having
been inhabited by man, and thus the idea of the dead resting in his own house would be the cause of
burial both in caves and chambered tombs. It is not at all strange that the same race should have used
both for sepulture, when we consider that a “gallery grave” is an artificial cave, and that natural caves
are few in number.
This ancient race is proved by the remains to have been pastoral, rather than dependent on the
chase, their principal food being the domestic goat, the short-horn (Bos longifrons), the horse, and hog.
They are also proved to have been neolithic, not merely by the discovery of a polished stone axe in one
of the caves, but also by the shape of the “gallery graves,” which Professor Nilsson and Dr. Thurnam
agree in referring to that stage of culture.

Table of Contents of Caves and Chambered Tomb.

The contents of the caves and the stone chambers may be gathered from the Table which we give
on the next page.
The broken bones of the hare prove that there was no prejudice against its flesh, as was the case
among the neolithic dwellers in the Swiss Pfahlbauten. We shall see in the next chapter that the animal
was also eaten by the dwellers in the neolithic caves both of France and Belgium.

List of Objects in Neolithic Caves and Cairn in North Wales.

Cairn of
Refuse-
Cave Cave Cave The Tyddyn
heap, Cave Cave
Animals. Rhosdigre Rhosdigre Rhosdigre Cefn Bleiddyn,
Perthi- No.1. No. 2.
No. 1 No. 2. No. 3. Cave. near
Chwareu.
Cefn.

DOMESTIC.
Canis familiaris—
X X X X X X X
Dog
Sus scrofa—Pig X X X X X X X X
Equus caballus—
X X X X X X
Horse
Bos longifrons—
Celtic Short- X X X X X X
horn
Capra hircus—Goat X X X X X X X X

WILD.
Canis lupus—Wolf X
Canis vulpes—Fox X X X X X X
Meles taxus—
X X X X X X
Badger
Ursus arctos—Bear X
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