DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

LAB FILE

Thermal Engineering 1 (PE203)

ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-25

Name : OINDRILA GANGULY

Roll no. : 23/PE/45
Branch : Production and Industrial Engineering
 Experiment 1

AIM : To study the working and construction of a Rankine cycle.

THEORY – Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam engines
commonly found in thermal power generation plants harness the thermal
energy of a fuel or other heat source to generate electricity. Possible heat
sources include combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas,
and oil, use of mined resources for nuclear fission, renewable fuels
like biomass and ethanol, and energy capture of natural sources such
as concentrated solar power and geothermal energy. Common heat sinks
include ambient air above or around a facility and bodies of water such as
rivers, ponds, and oceans.
The ability of a Rankine engine to harness energy depends on the relative
temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink. The greater
the differential, the more mechanical power can be efficiently extracted out
of heat energy, as per Carnot's theorem.
Rankine engines generally operate in a closed loop in which the working
fluid is reused. The water vapor with condensed droplets often seen
billowing from power stations is created by the cooling systems (not
directly from the closed-loop Rankine power cycle). This "exhaust" heat is
represented by the "Qout" flowing out of the lower side of the cycle shown in
the T–s diagram below. Cooling towers operate as large heat exchangers by
absorbing the latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid and
simultaneously evaporating cooling water to the atmosphere.
Construction – The Rankine boiler consist of :
(1) Pump: They can be centrifugal pumps in industrial applications. Water
as saturated liquid enters the pump and is compressed.
(2) Boiler: Boilers are generally heat exchangers as in thermal power plants.
The compressed liquid enters the boiler to be converted to superheated
steam.
(3) Turbines: Turbines or steam turbines are machines that use pressurised
steam to produce mechanical work. The superheated steam entering the
turbine expands and rotates the shaft to produce work which generates
electricity.
(4) Condenser: Condenser has a set of tubes with a cooling medium
surrounding it. The cooling medium may be air or water depending upon
the placement of the power plant. Steam, in a saturated liquid-vapour
state, is condensed at constant pressure and the heat is rejected to a
cooling medium.
The power plants are cooled by air in areas where the water supply is
limited. This cooling method is called ‘dry cooling’, which is used in car
engines.
Working
There are four processes in the Rankine cycle.
Name Summary Explanation

Process 1– The working fluid is pumped from

2 Isentropic compression low to high pressure. As the fluid is
a liquid at this stage, the pump
requires little input energy.
Process 2– Constant pressure heat The high-pressure liquid enters a
3 addition in boiler boiler, where it is heated at
constant pressure by an external
heat source to become a dry
saturated vapour. The input energy
required can be easily calculated
graphically, using an enthalpy–
entropy chart (h–s chart, or Mollier
diagram), or numerically,
using steam tables or software.
Process 3– Isentropic expansion The dry saturated vapour expands
4 through a turbine, generating
power. This decreases the
temperature and pressure of the
vapour, and some condensation
may occur. The output in this
process can be easily calculated
using the chart or tables noted
above.
Process 4– Constant pressure heat The wet vapour then enters
1 rejection in condenser a condenser, where it is
condensed at a constant pressure
to become a saturated liquid.
Advantages
• Efficiency: The Rankine cycle is efficient because it condenses
steam vapor into a liquid, which lowers the pressure at the turbine
outlet. The feed pump only needs 1–3% of the turbine's output
power.
• Modified Carnot cycle: The Rankine cycle overcomes the drawbacks
of the Carnot engine, which is difficult to operate and work with
superheated steam.

Disadvantages
• Low steam temperatures: The steam admitted to the turbine is at a
low temperature.
• Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) disadvantages: ORCs have lower
efficiency than steam Rankine cycles (SRCs), but they can be used
to recover waste heat from lower heat sources. ORCs also have
disadvantages such as working fluid cost, decomposition, and
temperature limits.
 Experiment 3
AIM : To study the working and construction of fire/ steam boilers.
THEORY – Steam/ Fire Boilers
A steam boiler is a system designed to generate steam by heating water. It
functions as a heat exchanger, converting water into steam for external
applications. The boiler consists of a combustion chamber and a water
container. Steam boilers come in various sizes, ranging from small units to
large models capable of handling more demanding tasks.
A steam boiler generates steam by burning fuel to heat water. This process
involves the use of three forms of heat transfer: radiation, convection, and
conduction.

Types of steam boilers :-

• Hot Water Boilers are tanks designed to transfer heat to water, which
is then circulated for heating purposes. Constructed from materials
like stainless steel, cast iron, aluminum, and steel, these boilers can
withstand high temperatures and pressures. Hot water boilers are
classified by their tube systems, which can be either fire tube or
water tube. In fire tube boilers, tubes immersed in water carry the
heat, which then heats the surrounding water. In water tube boilers,
water circulates inside the tubes, which are heated from the outside.
• Electric boilers use electric elements to generate heat, providing a
faster and more efficient heating method. As an eco-friendly and
cleaner system, they do not require fuel combustion. Electric boilers
are more durable, require less cleaning, and are virtually
maintenance-free. However, it is important to manage the buildup of
scaling in the water reservoir.

• Gas boilers, powered by natural gas or propane, are more efficient

than standard boilers. The fuel is piped directly into the boiler from
an external source. Heat distribution from a gas steam boiler
depends on its specific configuration. Gas steam boilers are suitable
for both industrial purposes and low-pressure applications.
• Low pressure steam boilers transfer heat at pressures between 10
and 15 psi with a temperature of 300°F (149°C). This type of boiler is
ideal for applications requiring consistent temperatures with
minimal need for rapid changes. Low pressure steam boilers are
popular because they deliver steam much faster than high pressure
steam boilers.

• High pressure steam boilers create excessive pressure to power

equipment and machinery. The force and power of a high pressure
steam boiler is produced by a pump that forces the steam at high
pressure into the circulation system. To be classified as a high
pressure steam boiler, a boiler must be able to produce pressure
between 15 psi and 800 psi at temperatures that exceed 250°F
(121°C).

• Oil steam boilers operate similarly to gas boilers, but use oil instead
of gas in the combustion chamber. The burning oil heats the
exchanger, which then heats the water. Oil steam boilers can
achieve efficiency rates of over 90%. Although they are more
expensive than gas steam boilers, they typically have twice the
lifespan

• Water tube boilers circulate water through tubes within the boiler.
The fire from the combustion chamber burns around the outside of
these tubes, heating them and, in turn, heating the water inside. This
design generates high pressure steam by utilizing tangential
pressure, or hoop stress, applied to the circumference of the tubes.
This stress is similar to the pressure exerted on the bands of a
wooden barrel as it fills.

• In a fire tube steam boiler, the tubes are heated while water
circulates around them. The heat inside the tubes is generated by
gases from burning coal or oil, which transfer thermal energy to the
water, producing steam. Fire tube steam boilers are typically used
for low pressure steam. The three main types of fire tube steam
boilers are Cochran, locomotive, and Lancashire.

• Shell boilers feature heat transfer surfaces enclosed within a steel

shell. Various tube layouts are employed, which affect the number of
times heat passes through the system before being discharged. Also
 known as flue boilers, shell boilers have a long, cylindrical water tank
and utilize fire tubes. Heat from the furnace or combustion chamber
flows through these fire tubes to warm the water.

Construction

A steam boiler heats water in a manner similar to a teapot, but on a larger

and more complex scale. While specific designs vary, all steam boilers
share common elements: a burner, combustion chamber, heat exchanger,
expansion tank, steam temperature control, safety relief valve, and low
water cutoff. A steam boiler is made up of the following :

Burner- The burner’s function is to deliver fuel and air into the combustion
area. Fuels such as oil, gas, or pulverized coal need to mix thoroughly with
the air. Dampers regulate the airflow to the burner, and an impeller
distributes the air evenly around it. Fuel is introduced into the boiler via
pipes known as spuds and is ignited by an igniter.

Combustion Chamber- The combustion chamber facilitates the reaction

between fuel and air to generate heat for steam production. To maximize
efficiency, the chamber must be well-insulated to prevent heat loss
through radiation. It contains tubes with water and steam that pass
through the chamber, which houses the burner and controls. Efficient
combustion is crucial for proper boiler operation, as the heat generated is
absorbed by the boiler surfaces at the top of the combustion chamber.

Heat Exchanger- The heat exchanger facilitates the transfer of heat

between fluids without allowing them to mix. It consists of a long coiled
pipe submerged in the fluid to be heated. Gas or a heated liquid flows
through the pipe, transferring heat to the surrounding water. Heat
exchangers are constructed from various materials, with stainless steel
being the preferred choice due to its resistance to corrosion and rust.

Expansion Tank- The expansion tank helps regulate and maintain boiler
pressure by providing a space for water to expand and absorb pressure
changes. It features a diaphragm that separates the tank into two sections:
one side receives water from the boiler, while the other side is managed by
an air valve to control pressure. The air valve adjusts pressure by pushing
against the water in the other section until normal pressure levels are
achieved.

Steam Temperature Control- Steam temperature control is essential to

prevent thermal stress and ensure precise temperature regulation.
Effective control of both pressure and temperature helps keep fuel costs
low. Steam temperature is typically managed by spraying water onto the
first and second stage superheaters using an attemperator or
desuperheater. Other methods for controlling steam temperature include
using flue gas circulation, flue gas bypass, or adjusting the tilt angle of the
burners in the furnace. The most straightforward approach is to monitor
the steam temperature as it exits the boiler and adjust the position of the
spray water valve accordingly.

Safety Relief Valve- The pressure relief valve The pressure relief valve is a
crucial safety measure for steam boiler operation. It helps prevent
catastrophic failures by relieving excess pressure buildup. The valve opens
when pressure exceeds a critical level and closes once the pressure
returns to normal.

Low Water Cutoff- A low water cutoff automatically shuts off the burner or
fuel supply to a steam boiler when the water level falls below a specified
point. This prevents damage such as rupture or significant failure due to a
dry-fired boiler. Low water cutoffs are essential safety features integrated
into steam boilers and hydronic systems to protect against damage and
ensure safe operation by shutting down the boiler if water is lost.

Methods Used to Heat a Boiler

A steam boiler absorbs heat generated from combustion, transferring it

through radiation, convection, or conduction. The efficiency of heat
transfer depends on factors such as the type of steam, the fuel used, and
the characteristics of the transfer surfaces.

Radiation- Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic

waves emitted by all elements and bodies. In a steam boiler, the tubes
absorb radiant heat from the flame in the combustion chamber. The
effectiveness of radiant heat transfer depends on the rate at which the
electromagnetic waves are absorbed by the surfaces.
Convection- Convection is the transfer of heat within a liquid or gas as it
heats up. When a liquid or gas is heated, it becomes lighter and less dense,
causing it to mix with cooler, denser liquid or gas. In a steam boiler,
convection occurs when the heated fluid becomes lighter and rises,
allowing cooler, heavier fluids or air to move in. This process creates a
continuous cycle of heating and mixing, as the hot fluid is replaced by
cooler fluid.

Conduction- Conduction is the process of heat transfer through direct

contact between surfaces. In metals, heat moves through the material to
warm anything it touches. In a steam boiler, conduction occurs when the
outer part of the tubing is heated, and this heat transfers through the tubing
to the inner surface and the cooler water inside.

Working - The boiler is a closed vessel in which the water is stored. Hot
gases are produced by burning fuel in the furnace. These hot gases are
made to come in contact with the water vessel where the heat
transfer takes place between the water and the steam. Therefore, the basic
principle of the boiler is to convert water into steam by using heat energy.
There are different types of boilers used for different purposes.
ADVANTAGES

• Efficiency - Steam boilers are highly efficient, usually around

99.5%. They can be more efficient than furnaces because water is a
better heat transfer medium than air.
• Cost-effective- Steam is a preferred heat source because it's
reusable and cost-effective to operate.
• Easy to maintain- Steam boilers are easy to maintain and can be
serviced with little downtime.

DISADVANTAGES

• Safety- Steam boilers can be dangerous if not properly maintained

and regulated. High-pressure steam can cause severe burns, and
leaks can lead to hazardous conditions.
• Energy loss- Steam boilers can lose energy due to leaks or inefficient
heat distribution.
• Slow start-up time- Steam boilers can take a while to start up and
generate steam.
 Experiment 4

AIM : To study the working and construction of water boiler.

THEORY – Water Boiler

A watertube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates through

tubes that are heated externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the
furnace, creating hot gas which boils water in the steam-generating
tubes. The heated water/steam mixture then rises into the steam drum.
Here, saturated steam is drawn off the top of the drum.
Watertube boilers are typically larger and can handle higher pressure and
temperatures than firetube boilers. They also have a higher thermal
efficiency, which means they can convert a larger amount of fuel into
useful energy. Watertube boilers are used in thermal power plant, industrial
facilities, and ships.
Water tube boilers are a type of boiler that uses water circulating through a
network of tubes to generate steam or hot water. The water is heated by
combustion gases that flow around the tubes, in contrast to fire tube
boilers, where the water surrounds the hot gases. Water tube boilers are
more efficient, faster, and can handle higher pressures than fire tube
boilers. They are commonly used in industries such as power generation,
chemical processing, and petrochemicals.
Types of water tube boilers
There are many different types of water tube boilers, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common types of water
tube boilers include:
• Drum boilers: Drum boilers are the most common type of water tube
boiler. They have a large steam drum at the top, where water and
steam are separated. Drum boilers are typically used for applications
that require a large amount of steam
• Once-through boilers: Once-through boilers are designed to
generate steam as quickly as possible. They do not have a steam
drum, and the water is heated directly in the tubes. Once-through
 boilers are typically used for applications that require a large amount
of steam on demand, such as power generation
• Vertical boilers: Vertical boilers are typically used for smaller
applications, such as heating buildings or providing steam for
industrial processes. They are more compact than horizontal boilers,
and they can be mounted on a wall or the ground.
• Horizontal boilers: Horizontal boilers are typically used for larger
applications, such as power generation or industrial processing.
They are more efficient than vertical boilers, but they are also more
expensive.
• Package boilers: Package boilers are pre-assembled boilers that are
delivered to the site and ready to be installed. Package boilers are a
good option for applications where space is limited or where the
boiler needs to be installed quickly.
• Superheaters: Superheaters are boilers that are designed to produce
steam at very high temperatures. Superheaters are typically used in
power plants where high temperature steam is required
• Regenerative boilers: Regenerative boilers are boilers that use the
heat from the flue gases to preheat the combustion air. This reduces
the amount of fuel that is required to heat the water, which makes
regenerative boilers more efficient then conventional boiler.

Construction

A water boiler consists of the following parts :-

• Furnace: The furnace is where the fuel is burned to create heat. The
heat from the furnace is transferred to the water in the tubes.
• Water tubes: The water tubes are the channels through which the
water flows. The water is heated by the hot gases that flow around
the tubes.
• Steam drum: The steam drum is a large vessel at the top of the boiler
where water and steam are separated. The steam is drawn off from
the steam drum for use in various applications.
• Circulation system: The circulation system is responsible for
circulating the water through the tubes. The circulation system can
be natural circulation or forced circulation. In natural circulation, the
water is circulated by the difference in density between hot water
and cold water. In forced circulation, the water is circulated by
pumps.
 • Safety valves: Safety valves are valves that open to release steam if
the pressure gets too high. This prevents the boiler from exploding.
• Water level indicator: The water level indicator is a device that shows
the water level in the boiler. This is important to ensure that the
boiler does not run out of water.

Working

Water tube boilers are commonly used for high-pressure applications,

such as in power plants and industrial processes. These boilers differ from
traditional fire-tube boilers, where hot gases from the combustion process
flow through tubes carrying water. In water tube boilers, water flows
through the tubes while hot combustion gases flow over them. Here’s how
they work:
1. Water is pumped into the boiler from an external source, such as a
tank or a water treatment system.
2. The water flows through a series of tubes, which form the walls of
the boiler’s furnace. Fuel, such as natural gas, coal, or oil, is burned,
and the resulting hot gases flow over the tubes.
3. Heat from the combustion gases is transferred to the water inside
the tubes, causing it to heat up and generate steam.
 4. The steam rises to the top of the boiler and is collected in a steam
drum, where it is separated from any remaining water.
5. The dry steam is then piped out of the drum and used for energy
generation or other processes.
Water tube boilers offer several advantages over fire-tube boilers,
including higher efficiency, faster steam generation, and the ability to
handle higher pressures and temperatures. However, they are typically
more complex and expensive to manufacture and maintain.

Water Tube Boiler Working Principle

• Fuel combustion: The first step is to burn fuel in the furnace. The fuel
can be any type of combustible material, such as coal, oil, or natural
gas. The combustion process creates hot gases, which are the
source of heat for the boiler.
• Water heating: The hot gases from the furnace flow through the water
tubes, heating the water inside the tubes. The water tubes are made
of a material that can withstand high temperatures, such as steel or
copper. The water is heated until it reaches the boiling point, at
which point it turns into steam.
 • Steam separation: The steam rises to the steam drum, where it is
separated from the water. The steam drum is a large vessel that is
located at the top of the boiler. The steam is drawn off from the
steam drum for use in various applications.
• Water circulation: The remaining water flows back down to the
furnace, where it is reheated and the process repeats. The water
circulation process is driven by the difference in density between hot
water and cold water. Hot water is less dense than cold water, so it
rises to the top of the boiler. This creates a circulation loop, with the
hot water rising to the top and the cold water flowing down to the
bottom.
Water tube boilers are a very efficient way to generate steam or hot water.
They are also capable of handling high pressures and temperatures,
making them suitable for a wide range of applications.

Superheater : A superheater in a boiler is a device that elevates the

temperature of steam produced by the boiler, converting it from saturated
steam to superheated steam. Saturated steam exists at its boiling point for
a given pressure, while superheated steam has been heated beyond its
boiling point.
The primary function of a superheater is to increase the steam’s
temperature, utilising the heat from the combustion gases to further heat
the steam and elevate its temperature.

Reheater : A reheater in a water tube boiler is a heat exchanger that

reheats steam that has passed through the high-pressure steam
turbine. The reheated steam is then fed into the intermediate pressure
turbine, and finally the low-pressure steam turbine.

Desuperheater : A desuperheater is known as a secondary heat exchanger

device that transfers heat efficiently. When steam is used for heating or
other heat transfer or in industrial processes, it is most efficient when
saturated. It is a device that lowers the temperature of superheated steam
so that it can be used efficiently for heating or for other industrial use. This
steam temperature minimization is also called as attemperation, is
performed by the desuperheater cooling water heater (a device that injects
a prescribed amount of water into a steam flow stream).
The general purpose, of this device is to provide effective and continuous
heat transfer between steam and water. And a highly effective
desuperheater application and design ensures that costly problems to be
avoided, including general wear of downstream piping and equipment,
long startup and shutdown times, and reduced process efficiency.

Advantages

Enhanced Efficiency: Water tube boilers boast superior efficiency in

converting fuel into usable energy. The direct contact between the
combustion gases and the tubes minimises heat loss, maximising the
energy extracted from the fuel.

Boosted Safety: Water tube boilers are designed with safety in mind. The
water-filled tubes efficiently dissipate heat, preventing overheating and
reducing the risk of explosions or other safety hazards.

Rapid Steam Generation: Water tube boilers are engineered to generate

steam quickly. The rapid movement of water within the tubes expedites
heat transfer, leading to faster steam production compared to firetube
boilers.

Reduced Sediment Deposition: Water tube boilers typically experience

less sediment buildup than firetube boilers. The high-pressure steam flow
within the tubes helps prevent sediment accumulation, minimising
maintenance requirements and enhancing overall efficiency.

Versatility and Adaptability: Water tube boilers can be tailored to a wide

range of applications, accommodating various fuel sources and operating
pressures. They can be customised to meet specific steam production
requirements, making them versatile solutions for diverse industrial and
commercial needs.

Long-Term Reliability: Water tube boilers are known for their durability and
longevity. Their robust construction and well-designed components ensure
a long lifespan, minimising downtime and maximising return on
investment.
 Experiment 2

AIM : To study the types of boilers.

THEORY- Types of Boilers

A boiler is a steel pressure vessel in which water under pressure is

converted into steam by the application of combustion. In other words, it
is simply a heat exchanger which uses radiant heat and hot flue gases,
liberated from burning fuel, to generate steam and hot water for heating
and processing loads.

There are two types:

1. Fire tube boilers
2. water tube boilers.

There are six basic parts of a boiler :-

1) Burner
2) Combustion space
3) Convection section
4) Stack
5) Air fans
6) Controls and accessories

FIRE TUBE BOILER

Hot flue gases flow inside tubes that are submerged in water within a shell.
• Pressures up to about 10 bar
• Produce up to 14 tonnes of steam/hr
• Can meet wide and sudden load fluctuations because of large water
volumes
• Usually rated in HP
Wet back designs
• Have a water wall at the back of the boiler in the area where
combustion gases reverse direction to enter tubes.
Dry back designs
• Refractory is used at the back, instead of a water wall. Internal
maintenance is simplified, but refractory replacement is expensive
and overheating, gauging and cracking of tube ends at the entrance
to return gas passages often cause problems.
Advantages:

• Lower initial cost

• Few controls
• Simple operation

Disadvantages:

• Drums exposed to heat, increasing the risk of explosion

• Large water volume, resulting in poor circulation
• Limited steam pressure and evaporation

WATER TUBE BOILER

Water flows through tubes that are surrounded by hot combustion gases in
a shell.
• Usually rated in tons of steam/hr
• Used for H.P. steam
• High capacity

• In recent years, interest has been revived in high temperature hot

water heating systems for institutional, industrial and commercial
plants. By increasing the temperature and pressure of the hot water
and increasing the size of the generators,
• some advantages are gained over the low pressure steam heating
systems previously used. In other cases, special forced circulation
boilers have been designed, which consist of many rows of
tubes without a steam drum. In another type, heat is supplied by
steam from a standard type of boiler which heats the water in a
direct contact heater. This is referred to as a cascade system.
Advantages:

• Rapid heat transmission

• Fast reaction to steam demand
• High efficiency
• Safer than firetube boilers

Disadvantages:

• More control than fire tube boilers

• Higher initial cost
• More complicated to operate