Notes by Abhimanyu Kumar | B.Tech.

(CS), IIT Delhi | Rank 51, 68th BPSC

PYQs

1. What are the distinctive features of Mauryan sculpture? (BPSC, 40th)

2. Identify the main features of the Mauryan Art as found in Bihar. (BPSC,
42nd)
3. Critically examine the salient features of Mauryan Art. (BPSC, 44th)
4. Discuss the salient features of Mauryan Art. (BPSC, 53rd-55th)
5. Throw light on Mauryan art and analyze its impact in Bihar. (BPSC,
60th-62nd)
6. Discuss the features of Mauryan art and architecture and its relationship
with Buddhism. (BPSC, 64th)
7. Describe the chief characteristics of Mauryan Art. (BPSC, 67th)
8. Art and Architecture of Mauryan Period. (BPSC, 69th)

Topics to cover

● Features/characteristics of Mauryan Art and Architecture

● Impact in Bihar
● Relationship with Buddhism

Quotes

“Mauryan art, an artistic expression that transcends time, stands as a

testimony to the great cultural heritage of ancient India.” – RC Majumdar,
Historian

“The majestic pillars and polished stonework of the Mauryan era stand as a
testament to the dawn of monumental art in India.” – John Marshall,
Archaeologist

“Mauryan art and architecture reflect the empire's political stability and
economic prosperity, showcasing a blend of indigenous traditions and
external influences that set a high standard for future dynasties.” – Upinder
Singh, Historian

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Introduction

The Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) was the first to bring much of the Indian
subcontinent under a single rule. And under the rule of Ashoka, the Mauryan art
reached its zenith, bringing about a transformative phase with large scale use of
stones and monolithic pillars, which had a lasting impact on subsequent artistic
and architectural traditions.

Historical Context

● Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE) overthrew the Nanda Dynasty,

supported by Chanakya (author of Arthashastra).
● Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, expanded the empire further, except for
Kalinga.
● Ashoka the Great (c. 274 BCE) inherited the empire, and post the Kalinga
War, embraced Buddhism and non-violence (Ahimsa).

Features of Mauryan Art

● State Patronage: Grand structures emphasizing imperial authority and

centralized governance.
● Material Excellence: Use of highly polished sandstone and monolithic
designs.
● Religious Influence: Strongly tied to Buddhism, Jainism, and emerging
Hindu themes.
● Craftsmanship: Sophisticated stone carving, polishing, and architectural
techniques. E.g. sculptures on Toranas of Sanchi Stupa
● Influences: Foreign (Achaemenid + Hellenistic) and religious (particularly
Buddhism)

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Court Art (developed under state patronage)

Palaces

● Kumhrar Palace by Chandragupta

● Carved out of wood, later stone
elements used
● Influenced by Achaemenid Palaces of
Persia
● Reflected the splendor of the Mauryan
empire
● Megasthenes: Describe the Kumhrar
palace as ‘one of the greatest creations
of mankind.’
● Fa Hien: God-gifted monuments
● Arian: Chandragupta’s palace is
comparable to the Achaemenid palaces
of Susa and Ecbatana.
● Hypostyle 80 pillared assembly hall
(Ashoka convened 3rd Buddhist
council here)

Pillars

● Free-standing monolithic structures made

of Chunar sandstone.
● Symbolised might of the state.
● Inscriptions on pillars to spread Dhamma
(Dharma Stambha – pillars of Dharma)
and royal orders.
● 4 main parts
○ Shaft – Monolith column made of
Chunar sandstone
○ Capitol – Above the shaft; either
lotus or bell shaped.
○ Abacus – circular/triangular base above the capitol
○ Figure of animal
● Most famous Ashokan pillar – Sarnath Pillar
○ By Ashoka
○ To commemorate Buddha’s first sermon
(Dhamma-chakra-pravartana)
○ The Lion Capitol (4 lions facing four directions) on top
of the pillar is India’s national anthem.
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○ Capital is inverted lotus or bell shaped.

○ Circular abacus – bull, horse, elephant and lion
○ Adopted as national emblem.
● Pillars in Bihar – Rampurva (Bull), Vaishali, Lauriya Areraj, Lauriya
Nandangarh

Stupas

● Burial mounds
● Built on the relics of Buddha.
● Served as symbol of Buddha’s teachings and centres of Buddhist devotion.
● According to Buddhist scriptures, Ashoka erected 84000 stupas (seems
exaggerated)
● Parts of a Stupa
○ Torana – Gateway
○ Vedika – Boundary wall
○ Pradakshina Path – Circumambulatory pathway
○ Anda – Hemispherical dome
○ Harmika – square railing on top
● Examples – Sanchi Stupa (MP), Bharhut Stupa (MP), Dhauli Shanti Stupa
(Orissa), Dhamekh Stupa (Sarnath, UP).
● Sanchi Stupa (MP):
○ UNESCO world heritage
site.
○ Built by Ashoka and
expanded by the Sungas
○ Jataka stories carved on
its Toranas
○ Symbolic triple umbrella
(chhatri) representing the
Buddha, Dharma, and
Sangha.
● Bharhut Stupa (MP):
○ Early stupa with stone
gateways and inscriptions
of Jataka tales.
● Dhauli Shanti Stupa (Orissa):
○ Located at the site of Ashoka’s Kalinga War
○ Inscriptions of Jataka stories
● Dhamekh Stupa (Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh):
○ Marks the spot where Buddha delivered his first sermon, revealing the
eight-fold path leading to Nirvana.

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Caves

● Aka rock-cut monasteries → used as dwelling place by monks.

● Decorative gateways and polished interiors
● Inscriptions on walls provide religious context.
● Example – Barabar and Nagarjuni caves (Jehanabad, Bihar)

○ Barabar caves built by Ashoka

■ Lomas Rishi – chaitya arch at
entrance, rectangular interior hall,
circular chamber at back
■ Visvakarma
■ Sudama
■ Karan Chopar
○ Nagarjuna caves built by Ashoka’s
grandson Dasrath
■ Gopi-ka-kubha
■ Vadithi-ka-kubha
■ Vapiya-ka-kubha

Popular Art (Individual initiative)

Pottery

● Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

● Lustrous → advanced craftsmanship
● Generally used as luxury items, and also for daily
use
● Artifacts like storage jars, bowls, and vases →
provide understanding of both aesthetics and
functionality.

Sculptures

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● Primarily for decoration of stupas.

● Smooth, polished finish.
● E.g. Parkham Yaksha, Didarganj Yakshi (objects of folklore worship),
Jataka tales on Torana of Sanchi Stupa.
● Reflect religious themes + imperial authority of Ashoka → his
commitment to spread Buddhism throughout the empire.

Parkham Yaksha (Mathura) Didarganj Yakshi (Patna)

Significance of Mauryan Art and Architecture

● Popularised the use of stone → refined stonework in later periods.

● Standardised stupa design → spread of Buddhist art throughout Asia
● The rock cut caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni provided models for later
caves like Ajanta and Ellora
● Mauryan art influenced by Achaemenid art → signifies cultural exchange
● Yaksha and Yakshi sculptures of Mauryan times → added realism and
dynamism to sculpture art.
● Mauryan approach to large-scale stone construction and refined artistry →
became hallmark of classical Indian architecture.

Relationship of Mauryan art and architecture with Buddhism

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 Notes by Abhimanyu Kumar | B.Tech. (CS), IIT Delhi | Rank 51, 68th BPSC

Mauryan art, especially during the times of Ashoka, was heavily influenced by
Buddhism. Under Ashoka’s patronage, Mauryan art became inextricably linked
with Buddhist themes.

● Ashokan pillars were erected at important Buddhist sites and promoted

Buddhist ideals (Dharma Stambha). E.g. Pillars at Lumbini, Sarnath etc.
● Stupas became Buddhist architecture, and were built on a large scale
(84,000) on the relics of Buddha.
● Caves like Barabar and Nagarjuni were carved as resting places of
Buddhist and other monks.
● Sculptures depicted Jataka tales based on previous lives of Buddha.

Impact of Mauryan art and architecture in Bihar

● Patliputra as the capital of Mauryan empire made it the administrative and

cultural hub.
● The fortification of Patliputra by timber walls and moat → laid the basis for
urban planning in the city.
● Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism popularised it in Bihar.
● Developed local sculptural tradition. E.g. Didarganj Yakshi
● The Mauryan structures like Kumhrar palace, Barabar and Nagarjuni
caves, Ashokan pillars at Lauria and Vaishali – all these are symbols of
Bihar’s historical significance and are important tourist destinations.
● As the centre of Mauryan empire, Bihar became a melting pot of cultures
and foreign influences.

It is the due to the central place of Bihar in Mauryan times that historians like
Romila Thapar consider ancient history of India as largely the ancient history of
Bihar.

Conclusion

Mauryan art and architecture represent a golden era of cultural history. Its
achievements continue to inspire and offer insights into the socio-political and
religious dynamics of ancient India, making it a pivotal chapter in the evolution
of Indian art.

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 Notes by Abhimanyu Kumar | B.Tech. (CS), IIT Delhi | Rank 51, 68th BPSC

Pala Art and Architecture

PYQs

1. Give a description of the main features of Pala art in Bihar. (BPSC,

41st)
2. Critically examine the salient features of Pala Art. (BPSC, 43rd)
3. State the main features of Pala-architecture and sculpture. (BPSC,
43rd)
4. Discuss the features of Pala art and architecture and its relationship
with Buddhism. (BPSC, 65th)

Topics to cover

1. Features of Pala Art

2. Relationship with Buddhism

Quote

“Pala Art represents the height of Indian aesthetics and culture with its blend
of Buddhist and Hindu iconography and exquisite craftsmanship.” – Vidya
Dahejia, Art Historian

Historical Background

● Death of King Shashank (Gauda Dynasty) →

Anarchy in Bengal region.
● Chieftains elected Gopala as the ruler in ~750
CE → Pala dynasty established.
● Palas patronized Buddhism.
● Gopala (750-770 CE) → Dharmapala
(Tripartite struggle with Pratiharas and
Rashtrakutas) → Devapala (810 CE-850 CE)

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● Started declining after the reign of Ramapala and was replaced by the
Sena dynasty in 12th cen CE.
● Major source: Khalimpur Copper Plate Inscription by Dharmapala etc.
● Last great phase of Buddhism → After pala dynasty, Buddhism rapidly
declined in India.

Introduction to Pala Art

● Pala Art flourished between the 8th-12th cen CE under the Pala
dynasty in Bengal and Bihar.
● As the Palas were followers of Buddhism, their art was also heavily
influenced by it.
● It encompassed architecture, sculptures, and paintings, with a
focus on Buddhist themes.

Features of Pala Art

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1. Architecture

● Materials: mostly burnt bricks → lightweight structures but less

durability.
● Mahaviharas (monasteries):
○ Residential and educational
centers for monks
○ Rectangular in shape, with an
open courtyard in the middle.
○ Some were double storeyed e.g.
Vikramshila
○ Examples: Odantapuri
(Biharsharif, by Gopala),
Vikramshila (Bhagalpur, by
Dharmapala), Somapura
(Paharpur, by Dharmapala)
● Chaityas:
○ Buddhist temples with Bangla-style roofs
○ Inspired by stupas
● Temples:
○ Palas were Buddhist → But made many Hindu temples as well.
○ Built in Vanga Nagara style
○ E.g. Gufa Mandir (Kahalgaon, Bhagalpur), Vishnupad
Temple (Bodhgaya)
● Stupas:
○ Contained Buddha relics
○ Featured elements like anda harmika, pradakshina path, and
toranas.

2. Paintings

● Miniature/Manuscript Paintings:
○ Palas considered founders of Miniature form of painting → Pala
school of painting.
○ Medium: Palm leaves.
○ Miniature paintings on palm leaves used to illustrate
Buddhist texts (Mahayana and Vajrayana scriptures)

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○ Depicted scenes from Buddha’s life, Mahayana deities, and

Tantric themes.
○ Primary colors: Red, blue, black, and white.
○ Famous Works: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita,
Panchraksh housed in Cambridge Museum.
○ Famous artists: Dhiman and Vitpala
○ Influenced painting traditions in Nepal, Tibet, and Java.
● Wall (Mural) Paintings:
○ On the walls of Mahaviharas, Chaityas, Temples etc.
○ Depicted animals, humans, flowers, and and Bodhisattvas.
○ Influenced by naturalistic themes of Ajanta and Bagh caves
paintings.
○ Example: Woman applying makeup at Sarai Sthal (Nalanda),
featuring a woman applying makeup.

3. Sculptures

● Bronze Sculptures:
○ Made using cire perdue/ lost wax technique
○ The backside of sculptures were plain and the front part was
ornamented.
○ Religious themes: Buddha, and Hindu gods and goddess
(Vishnu, Balram).
○ Found in Nalanda, crowned images of Buddha from Kurkihar
(Gaya), and Largest standing Buddha at Sultanganj.
○ Famous sculptors: Dhiman and Vithpal
○ Comparable to Chola Nataraja sculptures.
● Stone Sculptures:
○ Made from black basalt stones sourced from Munger and
Santhal Pargana.
○ Intricately ornamented, similar to bronze sculptures.
● Terracotta:
○ Decorative plaques used for walls and temples.
○ Depicted daily life scenes, along with Buddhist and Hindu
deities.
○ E.g. Terracotta art of Vikramshila Mahavihara and Paharpur.

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Relationship with Buddhism

As Pala rulers were devout Buddhists, their art and architecture was also
heavily influenced by it.
● Buddhist mahaviharas like Vikramshila, Odantapuri, Somapura were
built.
● Manuscript paintings like Prajnaparamita.
● Bronze sculptures of Buddha from Kurkihar.
● Chaityas and Stupas built on large scale.
● Syncretic Influence: Blending local motifs with Buddhist themes.
Emergence of Vajrayana school of Buddhism.

Critical Analysis

● Reliance on burnt bricks reduced structural longevity.

● Sculptures lacked attention to the rear detailing, focusing only on the
front.
● Excessive ornamentation obscured natural beauty.
● Predominantly focused on religious themes, with limited attention to
socio-political aspects.

Significance of Pala Art

● Represented the last great phase of Buddhism in India.

● Key Buddhist centers like Nalanda and Vikramshila became hubs
for art and learning.
● Promoted the internationalization of Buddhism, notably influencing
Java, Nepal, Tibet, and Sri Lanka.
● Marked the state patronage of Buddhism, which declined after the
fall of the Palas.

Conclusion

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● Pala Art represents a Golden Age of Bengal, blending architectural

brilliance, sculptural elegance, and pictorial excellence.
● Despite its decline with Buddhism, it left a lasting legacy, influencing
art across South and Southeast Asia.

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Patna Kalam Painting

PYQs
1. Bring out the salient features of Patna Kalam Painting. (66th BPSC)
2. Examine the salient features of Patna Kalam Painting. (63rd BPSC)
3. Bring out the main features of Patna Kalam Painting. (56th-59th BPSC)
4. Discuss the salient features of Patna Kalam Painting. (48-52nd BPSC)

Topics to cover
● Features of Patna Kalam Painting

Quotes

“The subtle genius of Patna Kalam resides in its quiet observation of life, where
the brush captures fleeting gestures with a spontaneity that links Mughal
finesse to a distinct local idiom.” – BN Goswamy

“In the realm of Indian miniature painting, Patna Kalam represents a turning
point – abandoning courtly splendor for the vivid portrayal of daily life, yet
retaining a refined, almost lyrical precision.” – W.G. Archer

Introduction
The Patna Kalam painting took root during 1760, and is considered among the
first schools to focus on scenes of everyday life, thus becoming the ‘art of the
commons.’

Migration of painters
1. During Akbar’s reign (1585): Rajputana
→ Agra
2. During Bengal’s rise (1730): Agra/Delhi
→ Murshidabad
3. When Bengal started to decline (1760):
Murshidabad → Patna

Feature of Patna Kalam Painting

1. Centres: Patna, Danapur, Ara
2. Patrons: Company officials, zamindars, other wealthy Indians
3. Famous Painters:

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a. Sewak Ram – festivals, cultures and lives of people. E.g. Dussehara,

Chhath, Holi, Cattle Fair, Muharram, Riverside gathering
b. Hulas Lal
c. Shiva Lal
d. Shiva Dayal Lal
e. Bani Lal
f. Ishwari Prasad
Paintings by Sewak Ram

4. Influence

Influence on Patna Kalam Painting

Mughal Painting Company Art

Fine brush strokes Water colors

Bright colors Various shades of light
Birds

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5. Distinctive aspects
a. Plain background
b. No elaborate landscape
c. Painted directly with brush without using pencil to first draw the sketch
(called ‘Kajli Seahi’)
6. Type: miniature
7. Subject: everyday life (Holi, riverside sports, Idol sellers)
8. Paper used
a. Early days: Made own paper from cotton/rags (tulat)
b. Later: imported hand-made paper from Nepal created with jute or
bamboo saplings (bansaha).
9. Brush: for very fine work: tail hair of squirrels; bolder and broader work: tail
of goat
10. Colors: extracted from plants/flowers etc.

Decline and death

1. Arrival of photography in Patna @1829
2. Revolt of 1857 → British crown took over → Patna Kalam lost some of its
greatest patrons
3. Death of Shiv Dayal (1887?) and Shiv lal (1887?) → exodus of artists from
Patna

Conclusion
The Patna painters recorded the everyday life of common folk in their works.
Across generations, these painters continued to celebrate the cultural fabric of
19th century Patna that would have otherwise remained unknown and only
imaginary.

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REVOLT OF 1857

PYQs

1. Comment on the statement that the 1857 war is neither the first, nor
national, nor a freedom struggle. (BPSC, 41st)
2. Critically examine Kunwar Singh's contribution to the Revolt of 1857.
(BPSC, 41st)
3. Evaluate the role of Kunwar Singh in the Revolt of 1857. (BPSC, 43rd)
4. Discuss the causes of the outbreak of the Revolt of 1857 in Bihar and the
reasons for its failure. (BPSC, 47th)
5. Critically examine the significance of the Revolt of 1857 with special
reference to Bihar. (BPSC, 56th-59th)
6. What were the reasons for the Revolt of 1857? What was its effect in Bihar?
(BPSC, 65th)

Topics to cover

1. Reasons/Causes
2. Effects
3. Significance
4. Kunwar Singh’s contribution
5. 1857 war – neither the first, nor the national, nor a freedom struggle

Quote
“The mutiny was the consequence of a century of oppression, misgovernance
and broken faith.” – Benjamin Desraeli

Introduction
The 1857 revolt, also called the first war of Indian independence, was a
widespread but ultimately unsuccessful rebellion against the excesses of
British rule in India. It began in Meerut on 10th May, 1857 by Indian sepoys,
and later spread to several areas like Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi and
Bihar. Its leaders included Bahadur Shah Zafar, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Nana
Sahib, Tantia Tope and Bihar’s own Kunwar Singh.

Reasons of Revolt

1. Political causes

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● Annexations of princely states under the Doctrine of Lapse and

Subsidiary Alliance (e.g. Satara, Jhansi) – seen as ‘lapse of morals’ of
East India Company.
● Abolition of regal titles of Mughals and Nawabs of Carnatic and Tanjore by
Lord Canning.
● Alien rule as the Britishers never intended to settle in India → perpetual
foreigners.
● Absentee sovereignty of British rule from a foreign land → made Indians
suspicious.

2. Economic causes

● Peasants → oppressed by heavy taxation → took loans from moneylenders

→ could not repay → evicted from their land by moneylenders →
moneylenders became the new landlords → disintegration of the old
zamindari system.
● Artisans → lost patronage from native rulers and nobles after annexation of
their territories + British policy promoted their own goods and discouraged
Indian goods + Lack of alternate employment.
● Mercantile class → high tariff duties on Indian exports (cotton, silk) made
them costly and uncompetitive + low tariffs on British imports into India + no
protective duties against machine made goods → killed Indian manufacturing
● Traditional zamindars → their land rights forfeited → loss of status →
“unable to work, ashamed to beg, condemned to penury”.

3. Socio-religious causes

● Superiority complex → Racial overtones and superiority complex towards

native Indians, often describing them as barbarians or uncivilized.
● Interventions in customs in the name of humanity → opposed by
conservative sections. e.g. prohibition of sati, campaign against infanticide,
legalizing widow re-marriage.
● Property rights → converts to Christianity were given property rights with
their Hindu relatives.
● Christian missionaries were considered a corroding influence on Hindu
society.
● Westernizing educational policy with English instead of Persian as the
official language → challenge to old orthodoxy.
● Western inventions like telegraph and railways aroused the prejudice of a
conservative society → looked upon as instruments of conversion. e.g.
Education offices came to be known as ‘shaitani daftars’.

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4. Administrative causes

● Rampant corruption in company’s administration, especially among the

police, petty officials and lower law courts, was a major cause of discontent.

5. Influence of external events

● Reverses in wars: British army faced major reverses in wars such as First
Afghan War (1838-42), Punjab wars (1845-49) and the Crimean war
(1854-56) → shattered the belief of invincibility of British rule, lowered the
morale of soldiers but increased the confidence of Indians.

6. Military/sepoy causes

● Discrimination: Indian soldiers were paid less than European counterparts,

racial discrimination in promotions and pensions, humiliation etc.
● Withdrawal of benefits: Free postage privilege of sepoys was withdrawn in
1854; they were forced to serve in far off regions without extra allowance
and unlike under Indian rulers, they were not given jagirs/prizes for
meritorious deeds.
● Parity: Upper caste sepoys resented being treated at par with low caste
recruits.
● General Service Enlistment Act, 1856: It required recruits to serve
overseas if ordered, a challenge to the castes who composed so much of the
Bengal army.
● Sepoys were peasants in uniform: Thus, the adverse impact of British
rule on peasants also led to increase in their grievances.

7. Immediate cause

In 1857, Brown Bess musket was replaced by new Enfield Rifle which required
greased paper to be bitten off before the cartridge could be loaded. It was believed
that the grease was made of beef and pig fat, outraging the religious sentiments of
sepoys. There were also reports about mixing of bone dust in atta (flour).

Reasons for failure of revolt

1. Absence of All India participation → eastern, southern and western parts

of India remained more or less unaffected.
2. Absence of all-class participation → Zamindars (“break-waters to
storm”), money-lenders, merchants (interests better protected under the
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British), educated Indians (revolt as backward looking), most Indian rulers

(Sindhia, Holkar, Maharaja of Darbhanga).
3. Lack of unity among Indians → even among the soldiers. e.g. Punjab and
South Indian sepoys sided with the British.
4. Lack of unified programme and ideology
5. Lack of forward looking plan
6. Poor organization → the rebels lacked a plan of action; though not lacking
in courage, they lacked in experience and organizing ability.
7. Poor leadership → Bahadur Shah was old and weak → created political
weakness, while company’s army was led by men of exceptional abilities such
as Outram, Lawrence brothers, etc.
8. Poor arms and equipment → Indian soldiers fought mostly with swords
and spears while the European soldiers had Enfield rifle.

Nature of the Revolt

Views differ on the nature of the 1857 revolt. Some of the views are:

1. Sepoy Mutiny: As per Sir John Seeley, it was “a wholly unpatriotic and
selfish Sepoy Mutiny with no native leadership and no popular support.”
However, that is not a complete picture as it involved many sections of the
civilian population and not just the sepoys.
2. Military outbreak: Dr K. Datta considers the revolt of 1857 to have been “in
the main a military outbreak, which was taken advantage of by certain
discontented princes and landlords, whose interests had been affected by the
new political order. It was “never all-Indian in character, but was localised,
restricted and poorly organised”.
3. War of Independence: V.D. Savarkar in his book, The Indian War of
Independence, 1857, called the revolt the first war of Indian independence
which was inspired by the lofty ideal of self-rule by Indians through a
nationalist upsurge
4. Not a war of Independence: Dr R.C. Majumdar, however, considers it as
neither the first, nor national, nor a war of independence as large parts of the
country remained unaffected and many sections of the people took no part in
the upsurge.
5. Marxist view: The 1857 revolt was “the struggle of the soldier-peasant
democratic combine against foreign as well as feudal bondage”.
6. Feudal uprising: Jawaharlal Nehru considered the revolt of 1857 as
essentially a feudal uprising though there were some nationalistic elements in
it (Discovery of India).

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7. Stand of feudalism: M.N. Roy felt the revolt was a last ditch stand of
feudalism against commercial capitalism.

The revolt of 1857 is not easy to categorise. It had seeds of nationalism and
anti-imperialism but the concept of common nationality and nationhood was not
inherent to it. However, national revolutions are mostly the work of a minority, with
or without the active support of the masses. From that point of view, the 1857
rebellion can claim a national character.

Consequences of 1857 Revolt

1. Act for the Better Government of India (1858) → Company rule

abolished + Queen Victoria declared sovereign of British India + Created
the post of Secretary of State for India, a British Cabinet member
2. Freedom of Religion → Assured religious freedom without British
interference
3. Protection under Law → Equal and impartial protection for all Indians +
Equal opportunities in government services, regardless of race or creed
4. Regard for Customs → Acknowledged old Indian rights, customs, and
practices in lawmaking
5. Reduction in Indian Soldiers → Dependence on Indian loyalty ended +
Indian regiments reduced; European regiments increased + Example
(Bengal Army): 1 European soldier for 2 Indian soldiers
6. Divide and Rule → Introduced separate units based on caste, community,
and region + Focused on recruiting from ‘martial races’ (Punjab, Nepal, NW
frontier) loyal during the Revolt
7. Army Amalgamation Scheme (1861) → Transferred the Company’s
European troops to Crown service + European troops were regularly
rotated back to England (‘linked-battalion’ scheme) + Higher posts in
army and artillery reserved for Europeans
8. Upper Classes (Princes and Landlords) → Era of annexations ended +
Dignity and rights of native princes respected + British paramountcy
recognized; princely states treated as parts of a single charge
9. Educated Classes → Power-sharing aspirations denied, causing
frustration and rise of modern nationalism + Indian Civil Services Act
(1861) claimed equality, but examination rules favored the British
10. Conservative Brand of Liberalism → Era of reforms ended +
Emphasis on non-interference in traditional Indian social structures
11. Social Deterioration → Divide and rule policy intensified + Led to
irreparable social fragmentation

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12. ‘Whiteman’s Burden’ → Government restructured on master race

ideology + Widened the gulf between rulers and ruled + Triggered political
controversies, demonstrations, and acts of violence

Conclusion

For the Indians, the 1857 Revolt had a major influence. It brought out in the open
grievances of people and the sepoys, which were seen to be genuine. The Revolt of
1857 did establish local traditions of resistance to British rale which were to be of
help in the course of the national straggle for freedom.

Role of Kunwar Singh in 1857 Revolt

Introduction
Kunwar Singh, a prominent zamindar of Jagdishpur in Bihar’s Shahabad region,
emerged as a pivotal figure during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Despite his
advanced age—he was around 80 at the time—he rallied local communities against
British authority, leveraging his stature and strategic acumen. His leadership and
unwavering courage cemented his status as one of the foremost icons of resistance
during the uprising, and a cherished hero in the annals of Bihar’s history.

Reasons for Involvement

● Deep resentment towards heavy British taxes and revenue demands, which
threatened his estate. e.g. Increased land revenue assessments burdened
local zamindars like Kunwar Singh.
● Strong sense of regional pride and duty as a Rajput zamindar of Jagdishpur,
Bihar.
● Widespread discontent with British interference in local administration and
succession rights.

Battles Fought

● Arrah (1857): Led a rebel force against the British garrison, eventually
forcing them to retreat.
● Azamgarh (1858): Temporarily occupied Azamgarh, showcasing strategic
maneuvering and effective local alliances.
● Jagdishpur (1858): Reclaimed his ancestral stronghold shortly before his
death, cementing his legacy as a local hero.

Strategies

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● Utilized guerrilla tactics and surprise raids to counter better-equipped

British troops.
● Formed alliances with local chieftains and leveraged regional loyalties for
manpower and support.
● Displayed astute leadership by continually regrouping and shifting bases,
avoiding prolonged direct confrontation.

Why the Revolt Failed

● Limited coordination among various rebel leaders across North India,

leading to isolated efforts.
● Superior British resources and reinforcements that eventually
overwhelmed local resistance.
● Gradual erosion of support as British reasserted control over key
strongholds.

Contributions

● Inspired mass participation in Bihar, galvanizing peasants and zamindars

alike to challenge colonial rule.
● Symbol of local resistance against British authority, encouraging other
regional leaders to join the revolt.
● Demonstrated courage at an advanced age (he was around 80), becoming
a living legend for local communities.

Legacy for Bihar

● Revered as “Veer Kunwar Singh,” an epitome of courage and sacrifice in

Bihar’s historical memory.
● Continues to inspire pride and regional identity; commemorated annually
through cultural events and state functions.

Quote (Historian’s View)

“He displayed the skill of a seasoned warrior in every engagement he fought.”
— Surendra Nath Sen

Conclusion
Kunwar Singh’s leadership during the 1857 uprising embodied the grit and resolve
of local forces standing against colonial dominance. Though ultimately unsuccessful,
his valor and tactical ingenuity left an indelible mark on Bihar’s struggle for
self-determination, ensuring his enduring legacy as a pioneering figure of
resistance.

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Rabindranath Tagore

PYQs
1. Describe the role of Rabindranath Tagore in the Indian National
Movement. How was it different from the Congress? (BPSC, 39th)
2. Describe the importance of social and cultural ideas of
Rabindranath Tagore. (BPSC, 48-52nd)
3. Rabindranath Tagore was a versatile genius. Discuss. (Audit Trail)
4. Define nationalism. How did Rabindranath Tagore define it? (BPSC,
56-59th)
5. Evaluate the contribution of Rabindranath Tagore to Bengal literature
and music. (BPSC, 60-62nd)
6. Write a short note on Rabindranath Tagore's contribution to the
Freedom Movement. (BPSC, 67th)
7. Describe Rabindranath Tagore’s ideas of society and culture. (BPSC,
68th)

Quote
“Tagore’s words have stirred my blood as nothing has in years.” – W.B.
Yeats

Introduction
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was a poet, philosopher, novelist and
social reformer who became the literary backbone of Indian national movement.
He was the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature (1913).
His works and ideas on nationalism, culture, and society continue to shape
modern discourse.

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1. Role in the Indian National Movement and

How It Differed from the Congress
● He believed in moral and cultural revival as a prerequisite for political
freedom.
● He kept a distance from party politics, wary of reducing freedom to mere
power struggles.
● He renounced knighthood in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre, an act that rattled British confidence.
● He warned that blind patriotism could kill compassion and universal values.
● He urged creative self-expression and education over mass street
protests.
● He criticized extremist Swadeshi steps if they fostered hatred instead of
constructive self-reliance.

2. Importance of Social and Cultural Ideas

● He advocated universal humanism to unify people across caste and creed.
● He founded Visva-Bharati to nurture the intrinsic values of ancient
education in India, blending Eastern wisdom and Western scholarship.
● At Sriniketan, he led rural reconstruction that encouraged self-sufficiency
and social cooperation.
● He saw education as a tool of emancipation, promoting free thought rather
than rote learning.
● He believed art and culture could be conduits for mutual understanding
among diverse communities.
● e.g. In Bengal’s villages, he championed local crafts to instill pride and
economic independence.

3. Rabindranath Tagore as a Versatile Genius

● He excelled in poetry, novels, plays, and essays, blending spiritual depth
with social critique. He was awarded Nobel Prize in literature for his poem
Gitanjali, and wrote many novels like Gora, Ghare Baire etc.
● He composed Rabindra Sangeet, forging a new musical style that wove
classical ragas with folk influences.

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● He turned to painting later, using bold lines and colors to express an inner
vision unconstrained by tradition.
● He established Shantiniketan, breaking rigid academic norms through
open-air classes and creative freedom.
● He dabbled in philosophy, evolving a humanistic vision that critiqued
dogmas and welcomed rational inquiry.
● His works exhibit lyrical intensity and a rare blend of universalism and
rooted cultural identity.

4. Nationalism and Tagore’s Perspective

● He saw nationalism as a spiritual unity, not a militant endeavor.
● He warned that blind nationalism could become a new faith that trampled
individual liberties.
● He respected Gandhi but disagreed on the rejection of modern science,
believing it could aid human progress.
● He emphasized cultural exchange, insisting India must absorb global ideas
while nurturing its own heritage.
● He argued that true patriotism respects human dignity above political
slogans.
● e.g. In his lectures on Nationalism (1917), he urged global cooperation to
prevent war and hatred.

5. Contribution to Bengal Literature and Music

● He revitalized Bengali prose with nuanced characters, exploring identity and
social conflicts.
● His novel ‘Gora’ examined questions of nationalism, caste, and personal faith
in a colonial society.
● Gitanjali captured global attention for its mystical longing and spiritual
lyricism, earning him the Nobel Prize.
● Rabindra Sangeet remains a pillar of Bengali culture, reflecting the soul of
Bengal in every note.
● He spurred the Bengali Renaissance, inspiring figures like Kazi Nazrul
Islam and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.
● His songs continue to unify cultural events across Bengal, reinforcing
linguistic and artistic pride.

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6. Contribution to the Freedom Movement

● He critiqued colonial injustice in essays and speeches that resonated with a
broad readership.
● His act of returning knighthood was a moral stand that echoed beyond
India’s borders.
● He saw cultural autonomy as vital, urging Indians to free their minds
alongside securing political independence.
● His composition Jana Gana Mana stirred national consciousness, and was
adopted as national anthem of independent India.
● He believed spiritual liberation must accompany political revolt, ensuring a
deeper transformation.
● He used symbolic gestures, like refusing British honors, to spotlight the
moral decay of imperial rule.

7. Ideas of Society and Culture

● He viewed society as an organic unity, relying on empathy and moral
development.
● He fostered dialogical learning at Shantiniketan, bridging art, science, and
critical thought.
● He upheld global fellowship, reflecting his faith that humanity shares a
common spiritual heritage.
● He encouraged communal harmony, urging people to rise above sectarian
divides.
● He critiqued dogmatic practices, believing rigid traditions stifle creativity
and moral growth.
● e.g. He held open forums for villagers and students, letting them debate
social and cultural reform.

Conclusion
Tagore’s legacy exemplifies the power of art and ideas to transcend political
boundaries. He championed moral freedom as the bedrock of true nationalism.

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His teachings remain a guide for those seeking a humane and harmonious social
order.

Jawaharlal Nehru

PYQs
1. Discuss the relevance of Nehru in the making of modern India.
(BPSC, 56-59th)
2. Examine the main features of Jawaharlal Nehru's foreign policy.
(BPSC, 60-62nd)
3. Write a short note on Nehru and Secularism. (BPSC, 64th)
4. Discuss Nehru's views on communalism and secularism. (BPSC,
66th)

Quote
“He could see the world as a whole when others were fumbling in the
dark.” – Lord Mountbatten

Introduction
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) was India’s first Prime Minister and a major
leader in shaping its future. He stood for democracy, social justice, and
secularism, guiding the nation’s path after independence.

1. Nehru’s Role in the Making of Modern India

● Nehru Guided the Constituent Assembly in drafting the constitution
through the Objective Resolution.

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● He was committed to building a strong Indian nation where equal rights

override societal divisions.
● He pushed for a democratic system with universal adult franchise so
every adult could vote.
● He set up key institutions, like the Planning Commission, to plan India’s
economic growth.
● He promoted a scientific outlook, starting institutes like IITs and ISRO,
and considered modern infra like dams as the ‘temples of modern India.’
● He believed in a mixed economy, combining public and private sectors to
advance industry.
● He valued personal freedoms, stressing free speech and open debate.
● He built research centers, such as CSIR labs, to develop science and
technology.
● He worked to unify India’s diverse languages, cultures, and religions
under one national identity.
● He invested in heavy industries and manufacturing sectors to
substitute imports and boost the economy.
● He envisioned government policies focused on the welfare of the poorest,
including the right to work, right to food, and right to education
(Welfare State)

2. Main Features of Nehru’s Foreign Policy

● He followed a Non-Aligned path during the Cold War, not joining either the
US or the USSR.
● He endorsed Panchsheel, or the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, for
fair international relations.
● He helped create the Non-Aligned Movement, uniting many newly freed
countries.
● He strongly opposed colonialism, supporting freedom movements in Asia
and Africa.
● He wanted peaceful solutions to conflicts, preferring talks over warfare.
● He called for nuclear disarmament, fearing the threat of atomic weapons.
● Though he aimed for peace, he faced criticism over the 1962 war with
China.
● Leveraged India’s civilizational history to build global reputation and
prestige, enhancing self-respect on the international stage.

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3. Nehru and Secularism

● Nehru believed that India belonged to all who had contributed to its
history and civilisation. This helped in building the narrative of Unity in
diversity.
● Nehru believed secularism was needed to keep India united, treating all
religions equally.
● He used the idea of Sarva Dharma Sambhav (equality of all faiths) to bring
people together.
● He wanted the state to stay neutral in religious matters
(dharma-nirpekshata).
● He valued religious tolerance, allowing citizens to follow any faith freely.
● He felt laws should come from reason, not from religious teachings.
● He shaped the Indian Constitution to protect minority rights and ensure no
single religion dominated.

4. Nehru’s Views on Communalism and

Secularism
● He saw communalism as a big danger to India’s unity, fearing it would
divide people by religion.
● He said communal violence went against the spirit of democracy and
human decency.
● He believed education was key to fighting communal hatred, teaching
respect for all.
● He supported laws and reforms to punish acts of communal incitement
and protect vulnerable groups.
● He stressed a civic identity, urging people to see themselves as Indian first,
beyond religious labels.
● He backed dharma-nirpekshata, wanting the government to be fair to all
religions without favor or bias.
● He often spoke against superstitions and urged a scientific mindset to
overcome prejudices.
● He pushed for equal rights in personal laws, like the Hindu Code Bill, to
reduce social injustice.

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Conclusion
Nehru’s leadership built the framework for a democratic and secular India.
He set in motion policies that balanced economic development, scientific
growth, and social progress.
His stance on communal harmony and religious freedom remains a guiding
light in modern India.

Mahatma Gandhi

PYQs
1. What message did Gandhiji seek to convey through his insistence
on Swadeshi? (BPSC, 40th)
2. Critically evaluate Gandhi's views on the Varna-Caste system and his
activism against untouchability.
3. Analyze Gandhiji’s role in the mass movement of Bihar. (BPSC,
46th)
4. Explain Gandhiji’s mysticism as a unique combination of originality
and public consciousness. (BPSC, 60th-62nd)
5. Describe the importance of Gandhi’s social and cultural ideas.
(BPSC, 63rd)
6. Write a short note on Gandhiji’s views on caste and religion. (BPSC,
65th)
7. Write a short note on Gandhiji’s views on Satyagraha. (BPSC, 66th)
8. Critically analyze the factors responsible for Gandhiji’s emergence
as an eminent nationalist leader.

Quote
“Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this ever in
flesh and blood walked upon this earth.” – Albert Einstein

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Introduction
Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) spearheaded India’s freedom struggle with his
ideals of nonviolence, Satyagraha, and self-reliance. Honoured as the father
of the nation, he led nationwide campaigns to end untouchability and poverty,
promote women’s rights and communal harmony, and united people through
non-violent mass movements. Activists all over the world – from Martin
Luther King, Jr. to Nelson Mandela – have credited Gandhi as a source of
inspiration in their struggles to achieve equal rights for their people.

1. Gandhiji’s contributions
● Truth: Emphasized both relative truth in actions and the absolute truth of
God.
● Nonviolence: Defined as active love, the highest law of humankind.
● Satyagraha: A method of nonviolent resistance to secure rights through
personal suffering.
● Swaraj: Advocated for self-rule and freedom for all individuals, equating it
with salvation.
● Trusteeship: Proposed that the wealthy act as trustees for the welfare of
the community.
● Swadeshi: Promoted self-sufficiency and community interdependence
to achieve independence.
● Sarvodaya: Aimed for the universal uplift and progress of all.
● Belief in Masses: Trusted the capacity of the masses to drive social
movements.
● Dalit Empowerment: Worked for the emancipation of lower castes and
challenged untouchability.
● Temple Entry: Advocated for untouchables' access to Hindu temples.
● Women Empowerment: Fought against child marriage, purdah, and
dowry, promoting active participation in movements.
● Gandhian Socialism: Sought a classless society with no poverty and
universal education and health.
● Self-sufficiency: Targeted European-made products to reduce
unemployment and poverty.
● South African Campaign: Organized Indian workers against racist
policies and united diverse groups.
● Political Empowerment: Strengthened the Indian National Congress
and promoted Hindu-Muslim unity.

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● National Freedom Movements: Led Satyagrahas like the

Non-cooperation and Salt Satyagraha for self-governance.
● Democracy: Advocated for political decentralization and greater citizen
participation in decision-making.

2. What Message Did Gandhiji Seek to Convey

Through His Insistence on Swadeshi? (BPSC,
40th)
● He promoted Swadeshi to achieve economic self-reliance, reducing
dependence on foreign goods.
● He used the charkha (spinning wheel) as a practical symbol of local
production and dignity of labor.
● He felt Indians should support local industries, thus challenging British
economic control.
● Swadeshi acted as a moral and patriotic duty, uniting people in
constructive work.
● By wearing homespun khadi, Gandhi aimed to bridge class divisions and
include the poorest in the freedom struggle.

3. Gandhi’s Views on the Varna-Caste System

and Activism Against Untouchability
● He upheld the original idea of Varna as based on duty, not birth, but
rejected rigid caste lines that led to discrimination.
● He condemned untouchability as a deep injustice that violated human
dignity.
● He renamed untouchables Harijans (“children of God”) to restore a sense of
self-worth and identity.
● He formed the Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932) to improve education, health,
and employment for Harijans.
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● He published Harijan newspaper to openly discuss caste injustices and

advocate reforms.
● He took part in temple entry movements, e.g. at Guruvayur, urging equal
rights to worship.
● He believed social reforms within Hindu society were crucial to forging a
just, united nation.

4. Gandhiji’s Role in the Mass Movement of Bihar

(BPSC, 46th)
● His first major experiment with Satyagraha in India began in Champaran
(1917), Bihar.
● Local leader Raj Kumar Shukla invited him to witness the misery of indigo
farmers under the tinkathia system.
● Gandhi arrived in Motihari, where he gathered testimonies from peasants
facing forced cultivation and exploitation.
● He worked with Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Acharya J.B. Kripalani, and others,
combining legal aid with social reform.
● He established basic schools to teach hygiene, literacy, and self-sufficiency,
blending social service with agitation.
● The British authorities had to set up an official inquiry, leading to reforms
in favor of the peasants.
● The Champaran Satyagraha’s success bolstered Gandhi’s reputation and
marked a turning point in India’s struggle for freedom.

5. Gandhiji’s Mysticism as a Unique Combination

of Originality and Public Consciousness (BPSC,
60th-62nd)
● His spiritual path rested on ahimsa (nonviolence) and truth, giving moral
strength to his leadership.
● He used fasting and prayer not as private rituals but as instruments to
awaken public conscience.
● He drew from many faiths—Hinduism, Christianity, Islam—to encourage
unity and mutual respect.

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● This personal faith became a public force, guiding the masses toward
righteous action.
● He linked inner purity with social responsibility, urging each individual to act
ethically for the common good.
● His mysticism was practical, fueling civil disobedience and upliftment of the
downtrodden.

6. Importance of Gandhi’s Social and Cultural

Ideas (BPSC, 63rd)
● He championed village self-reliance, believing India’s soul lay in its rural
communities.
● He popularized khadi and village industries to revive traditional crafts and
fight poverty.
● He promoted communal harmony, urging Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and
others to live in peace.
● He encouraged women’s emancipation, seeing them as equal partners in
social and political realms.
● He spoke of Ram Rajya as an ideal state of justice, equality, and
compassion.
● He insisted on simple living and moral discipline, linking personal conduct
with societal reform.

7. Gandhiji’s Views on Caste and Religion (BPSC,

65th)
● He distinguished between Varna and the oppressive form of caste that
fueled discrimination.
● He fought against untouchability, calling it a “sin” and championing Harijan
rights.
● He believed all religions shared core values of truth, nonviolence, and
compassion.
● He urged religious tolerance, seeing God as beyond sectarian boundaries.
● He believed active reform within Hinduism was vital, resisting extremes
that undermined unity.

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8. Gandhiji’s Views on Satyagraha (BPSC, 66th)

● Satyagraha means “holding onto truth” and resists injustice without
harming the opponent.
● It uses non-cooperation, boycotts, and civil disobedience to press for
reforms.
● It is rooted in personal discipline, requiring the Satyagrahi to be free from
hate or anger.
● Gandhi believed self-suffering can awaken the conscience of the oppressor.
● Satyagraha was central to movements like the Salt March, mobilizing people
across class lines.

9. Factors Responsible for Gandhiji’s Emergence

as an Eminent Nationalist Leader
● His success in South Africa refined his nonviolent methods, enhancing his
credibility.
● The Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar showcased his empathy and practical
solutions, winning mass support.
● His call for Swadeshi (local goods) and khadi gave ordinary Indians a direct
way to join the struggle.
● His approach united peasants, workers, and middle-class activists under
a single banner.
● He linked ethics with politics, making morality a powerful tool against
colonial rule.
● His use of simple language and humble lifestyle resonated with millions,
creating a sense of trust.
● He remained unwavering in ahimsa, distinguishing him from militant
nationalists and attracting global admiration.

10. Significance in today’s world

● Truth and Nonviolence: Address greed, violence, and consumption
through Gandhian ideals.

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● Global Peace: Essential for world stability amid war and terrorism.
● Ethical Values: Counteracts the degradation of societal values.
● Respect for Women: Promotes women's emancipation and reduces
violence against them.
● Sustainable Environment: Advocates for resource conservation to
combat global warming and climate change.
● Cleanliness: Emphasizes Swacchta and a corruption-free society.
● Decentralization: Supports empowered local governance in
democracies.
● Mobilizing People: Inspired leaders like Martin Luther King, Nelson
Mandela, and Aung San Suu Kyi.
● Gandhian Socialism: Guides policies on poverty alleviation, education,
and health.
● Casteless Society: Aims for equality irrespective of caste.
● Secularism: Encourages religious tolerance and reduces ethnocentric
bias.
● Integrity in Civil Services: Promotes truthfulness to combat corruption.

Conclusion
Mahatma Gandhi’s ideals blended spiritual conviction and mass activism,
reshaping India’s journey to independence. He fought caste injustices, advanced
the cause of the poor, and urged nonviolent resistance as the path to true
freedom. His enduring legacy stands for unity, moral courage, and a belief that
societal change begins with personal transformation.

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Santhal Rebellion
PYQs

1. The Santhal Rebellion was the first rapid reaction against British
colonial rule in India. Explain. (BPSC, 43rd)
2. The Santhal rebellion represents a model of armed mass resistance
against British colonialism in India. Explain. (BPSC, 45th)
3. Discuss the main causes of the Santhal uprising. What were its
consequences? (BPSC, 48th)
4. Critically examine the causes and consequences of the Santhal
rebellion. (Auditor Exam)
5. Discuss the main causes of the Santhal rebellion, and what were their
effects? (BPSC, 56th-59th)
6. Evaluate the causes and consequences of the Santhal rebellion in
Bihar. (BPSC, 63rd)
7. What were the reasons for the Santhal rebellion, its speed, and what
were its results? (BPSC, 66th)
8. Write a short note on the Santhal Uprising.
9. Santhal Uprising (BPSC, 69th)

Quote
“The Santhal Hul roared across the Raj, shaking the foundations of colonial
domination.”

Introduction
The Santhal Rebellion (also known as Santhal Hul,
1855–56) was a major tribal uprising against British
colonial rule and oppressive Zamindari and
moneylender systems in the Damin-e-koh region of
Rajmahal Hills.
Led by four Murmu brothers – Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand
and Bhairav – it was the most effective tribal
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movement of this period, leaving a lasting mark on colonial governance and

tribal consciousness.

1. Santhal Rebellion as the First Rapid Reaction

Against British Rule (BPSC, 43rd)
● It erupted with speed and ferocity in 1855, catching the British by surprise.
● The Santhals targeted moneylenders, zamindars, and British outposts
with remarkable coordination.
● This revolt predated the 1857 Revolt, illustrating early tribal resistance to
colonial oppression.
● It spread quickly due to strong community bonds and shared grievances,
forcing the colonial government to respond with urgency.
● The rebellion demonstrated that tribal unrest could evolve into a larger
anti-colonial movement.

2. A Model of Armed Mass Resistance Against

British Colonialism (BPSC, 45th)
● The Santhal Hul was led by local leaders like Sidhu and Kanhu, rallying
thousands under a unifying cause.
● The rebels employed guerrilla tactics, leveraging their deep knowledge of
forests and terrain.
● Unlike smaller, localized revolts, the Santhal movement saw wide
participation from ordinary villagers, including women.
● The scale and intensity of the rebellion forced British administrators to
rethink revenue policies and district control.
● Though ultimately suppressed, it set an example of organized mass
agitation for future anti-British uprisings.

3. Main Causes of the Santhal Uprising

● Land Alienation: Introduction of Permanent settlement by Lord
Cornwallis → Santhals lost land rights.
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● The exploitation by the unholy trinity of Sarkar, Sahukar and Zamindars.

○ Sarkar
■ Permanent settlement → tribals lost land rights (land
alienation)
■ Imposed heavy taxes and harshly collected them
■ Introduced currency system → the barter system of tribals
was replaced
■ Forest acts and laws → impacted livelihoods of santhals
■ Oppression of the local police and the European officers
engaged in railroad construction.
○ Sahukar/moneylenders
■ Lent money to Santhals at very high rates (usurious
moneylending) → perpetual debt bondage
■ Large tracts of tribal lands were seized through deceitful
contracts by moneylenders and landlords.
○ Zamindars
■ Snatched land rights of Santhals
■ Santhals became bonded laborers in their own lands

This penetration of outsiders called dikus by the Santhals-completely destroyed

their familiar world, and the loss of freedom and respect that the Santals enjoyed
turned them into rebels and finally they took oath to launch an attack on their
oppressors.

Consequence/Significance
● Crackdown by British: Military forces put down the rebellion with severe
reprisals, causing large-scale casualties (~15-20k Santhals were killed).
● Administrative Reforms: The British later introduced Santhal Parganas
as a distinct administrative unit to placate tribal demands + Regular
police abolished → Village headmen were to ensure peace and order.
● Legal Reforms: Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act, 1856 was enacted → checked
land alienation and gave protection from colonial exploitation.
● Inspiration for Future Movements: Tribal defiance echoed in later revolts
and mainstream nationalist struggles.
● Heightened Colonial Awareness: Authorities recognized the need to
mitigate tribal discontent, leading to policy shifts.
● Cultural Revival: Strengthened Santhal identity, culminating in community
solidarity for future struggles.
● Symbolic Victory: Though militarily crushed, it showed that tribal unity
could shake colonial power.
● Precursor to 1857 Revolt
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● Mooted the idea of Swaraj for the first time.

Conclusion
The honor shown by Santhals was praised by Charles Dickens in Household
Words, for the Santhals did not use the poisonous arrows against the Britishers
which they used for hunting.

The Santhal Hul was a powerful tribal insurrection against an oppressive colonial
and zamindari order. Though violently suppressed, it underscored the
determination of tribal communities to defend their land and dignity. Its legacy
endures in the special administrative structures and the pride it instilled in
tribal identity, marking a key chapter in India’s broad spectrum of anti-colonial
struggles.

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Munda Ulgulan
PYQs
1. Review the tribal movements of Bihar by throwing special light on
the Birsa movement. (BPSC, 35th)
2. Write a critique of the Birsa Movement with social reference to its
nature and the lesson it left on tribal administration. (BPSC, 42nd)
3. Explain how Birsa provided a new religious leadership to the tribal
struggles against the British. (BPSC, 44th)
4. The underlying objective of the Birsa movement was internal
purification and the desire to end foreign rule. Explain. (BPSC,
53rd-55th)
5. Review the features of the Birsa Movement. (BPSC, 66th)
6. Write a short note on the Santhal Uprising.
7. Birsa Munda Movement (BPSC, 68th)

Quote
“Birsa Munda awakened a new consciousness among the tribal people,
uniting them with hope and resilience.”

Introduction
Munda Rebellion of 1899-1900 was a
millenarian movement in the Chhotanagpur
plateau region. It was led by the 25 yr old
Charismatic Birsa Munda against the
Britishers and Dikus. He challenged colonial
exploitation and missionary influence,
reshaping tribal identity and aspirations.

Causes
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1. Forest, land and other laws → stripped tribals of their natural rights.
2. Oppression by landlords, moneylenders and Britishers → Debt trap and
beth begari (forced labour)
3. Khuntkatti system (joint landholding by tribal lineage) → replaced by
Zamindari tenancy system.
4. Interference in religion → Charter Act @1813 allowed christian
missionaries to propagate their ideas in India → they targeted tribal
groups
5. Tribal council → replaced by British administration

Movement
1. Phase 1
● Purification of Munda community into the Sarnaism faith
● Inner purification → ethical, spiritual purity
● Oneness of God (Singh Bonga) and Birsa Munda as Dharti Abba.
2. Phase 2
● Gathered 6000 Munda tribals to fight against Britishers and Dikus
● To end British influence and get independence from outsiders
(dikus)
● Final goal → establish Munda Raj
3. Phase 3
● Most violent and volatile phase
● Attack on British officials, police stations, Mahajans, Sahukars,
Christian missionaries

Consequences/Impact
1. Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 → Prohibited transfer of tribal land to
non-tribals
2. Khuntkatti system → reinstated
3. Restriction on beth begari (forced labour)
4. Birsa Munda became a legend.

Legacy

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1. Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas on 15th Nov → on the birth anniversary of Birsa

Munda to remember the contribution of tribal freedom fighters
2. Birsa Munda inspired the separate statehood movement of Jharkhand
3. Munda → became a symbol of anti-colonial and anti-feudal struggle at
that time.
4. Assertion of indigenous identity by indigenous tribes
5. Political awakening among tribal population
6. Brought Land reforms
7. Social reforms → Like banning of bonded labour which finds mention in
Art. 23 of the Constitution
8. Lasting symbol of resistance

1. Review of Tribal Movements in Bihar with

Special Reference to the Birsa Movement (BPSC,
35th)
● Background of Tribal Movements: Tribals faced land alienation, forced
labor, and the encroachment of zamindari and colonial systems.
● Key Movements: The Kol Uprising (1831–32), Bhumij Revolt
(1832-33), Ho uprising (1820-37) and the Tana Bhagat movement
were major revolts in the region, often targeting oppressive landlords and
British officials.

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● Emergence of Birsa: Born in the Munda tribe, Birsa witnessed daily

exploitation of tribal lands by dikus (outsiders) and missionaries.
● Ulgulan (Birsa’s Revolt): His movement (1895–1900) was a call for tribal
unity and self-rule, rallying people through a message of religious revival
and cultural pride.
● Impact on Other Movements: Birsa’s organized revolt inspired greater
tribal consciousness, influencing later demands for land rights and
autonomous administration.

2. Critique of the Birsa Movement: Its Nature

and Lessons for Tribal Administration (BPSC,
42nd)
● Social-Religious Nature: Birsa claimed divine visions, encouraging a return
to traditional tribal customs, free from outside influence.
● Reformist Character: He condemned superstitions, insisting on giving up
practices like animal sacrifice and drinking liquor, urging moral and spiritual
renewal.
● Critique of Feudal-Capitalist Structures: The movement aimed at
abolishing beth begari (forced labor) and unifying tribals under a common
socio-religious identity (Birsait).
● Administrative Lessons:
○ Revealed tribal discontent with alien land laws and forest policies.
○ Highlighted the failure of British officials to understand tribal
customs and protect tribal lands.
○ Post-revolt, the government introduced Chotanagpur Tenancy Act
(1908) to safeguard tribal land rights.
● Limitations: The rebellion lacked wider pan-Indian support and was
contained within a specific geographical region, yet it sowed seeds of tribal
self-assertion.

3. Birsa’s Role as a New Religious Leader in

Tribal Struggles Against the British (BPSC, 44th)
Birsa Munda (1875–1900) was a tribal leader from the Munda community in the
Chotanagpur plateau (now in Jharkhand).
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He led a socio-religious and political movement at the turn of the 20th century,
which challenged colonial exploitation and missionary influence, reshaping
tribal identity and aspirations.

● Prophetic Authority: Birsa proclaimed himself as a messenger of God,

blending tribal beliefs with a new moral code.
● Moral and Social Reforms: He forbade spirit worship and other practices
he saw as weakening tribal unity, pushing for a purer, united faith.
● Religious Cohesion: The Birsait sect fostered solidarity among different
tribal clans, transcending old divisions.
● Resistance to Missionary Influence: By offering an indigenous religious
identity, he reduced tribal reliance on Christian missions, which often
aligned with colonial interests.
● Driving Force for Political Action: His religious leadership legitimized
revolt, as tribals believed they were fighting under a divine mandate to
reclaim their land and autonomy.

4. Birsa Movement: Internal Purification and the

Desire to End Foreign Rule (BPSC, 53rd–55th)
● Internal Purification:
○ Birsa’s sermons preached piety, abstinence, and community
reform.
○ He aimed to strengthen moral discipline within tribal society to
resist external exploitation.
○ E.g. Urged Mundas to discard social evils (drunkenness, superstition)
to unify their struggle.
● Ending Foreign Rule:
○ He led Ulgulan (the Great Tumult), attacking symbols of colonial
power—police stations, missionary outposts.
○ He declared the region free from the “raj of the British” and called
for the establishment of a Munda Raj.
○ Though short-lived, the uprising signaled a broader anti-colonial
sentiment in tribal areas.
● Dual Strategy:
○ His movement fused spiritual reawakening and political
mobilization, making faith a unifying factor against oppressive
structures.

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○ He believed that only a morally upright society could effectively

resist external subjugation.

Conclusion
The Birsa Munda Movement was a blend of spiritual revival and political
rebellion, seeking both internal reform and external autonomy.
While it ended with Birsa’s arrest and death (1900), it led to major policy
changes like the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, safeguarding tribal lands.
Birsa’s legacy endures as a symbol of tribal pride, proving that cultural
assertion and organized resistance can challenge entrenched injustices.

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Western and Technical Education in Bihar

PYQs
1. Critically discuss the contribution of Western technical education
in the economy of Bihar. (BPSC, 39th)
2. Describe the spread of Western education in Bihar during
1900-1947 with special reference to technical education. (BPSC,
42nd)
3. Critically account for the spread of Western education in Bihar
during British rule. (BPSC, 42nd)
4. Explain the development of education and press in modern Bihar
and their role in the freedom movement. (BPSC, 46th)
5. Describe technical education in Bihar during your study period.
(BPSC, 47th)
6. Discuss the development of Western education in Bihar from 1813
to 1947. (BPSC, 60th-62nd)
7. Discuss the development of Western education in Bihar from 1857
to 1947. (BPSC, 63rd)
8. Describe the spread of Western education in Bihar during
1858-1914. (BPSC, 65th)
9. Trace the expansion of Western and technical education in Bihar
between 1857-1947. (BPSC, 65th)
10. Discuss the growth of colonial technical education in Bihar under
various schemes of British rule. Critically analyse its impact. (BPSC,
68th)
11. “Bihar has been the centre of learning and spiritualism from
ancient time.” Explain in detail. (BPSC, 69th)
12. Trace the development of modern education in Bihar and its
impact. (BPSC, 69th)

Quote
“Bihar has remained a cradle of learning since ancient times, carrying
forward a legacy of knowledge through the ages.”

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Introduction
Bihar has a long history of organised education and learning. Mithila during the
Vedic period, and later on, the world class universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila,
Odantapuri became reputed seats of religious and philosophical education.

However, the arrival of the British fundamentally changed the nature of

education. More famously, the Charter Act of 1833 and the Macaulay’s Minute
of 1835 set the stage for imparting western education in English language.

From 1813 to 1947, the expansion of Western and technical education

reshaped the cultural and economic landscape, fueling social reforms and
nationalist consciousness.

Aim of British Education Policy

The aim of British education was to create ‘Brown Sahibs’ – ‘Indians in blood
and color, but English in taste, morals and intellect.’

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Development of education during British Rule

Development of western education in Bihar

1. 1835: First modern educational school @Patna
2. 1836: Zila schools @Biharsharif, Bhagalpur, Arrah
3. 1847: First girl school @Patna – St. Joseph School
4. 1863: Patna College → turned into Patna university @1917
5. 1940: Patna Women’s College

Development of Technical Education in Bihar

1. 1883: TNB (Tej Narayan Banaili) College @Bhagalpur
2. 1886: Bihar College of Engineering → Later became NIT Patna
3. 1889: BN (Bihar National) College @Patna
4. 1899: LS College @Muzaffarpur
5. 1905: Agricultural University @Pusa, Samastipur
6. 1925: Patna Medical College

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7. 1926: ISM Dhanbad @Jharkhand

8. 1927: Patna Science College
9. 1930: Veterinary College @Patna

Reasons for English/Western Education

1. Administrative needs of the company
2. To perpetuate colonial rule
3. European disdain of Indian knowledge
4. To dispel rebellious elements
5. As a way to spread christianity
6. Demand of Indian intellectuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy

1. Contribution of Western Technical Education

to the Economy of Bihar (BPSC, 39th)
● Western technical institutes produced skilled manpower, enhancing sectors
like railways, irrigation, and industries.
● Graduates from engineering colleges joined infrastructure projects, helping
build canals and roads.
● Technical education spurred industrial ventures, e.g., sugar and textile
mills, leading to modest economic growth.
● Trained youth in surveying and mechanics contributed to development
projects under British patronage.
● However, rural uplift remained limited, as technical education primarily
served British economic interests.

2. Spread of Western Education (1900–1947)

with Special Reference to Technical Education
(BPSC, 42nd)
● Post-1900 Expansion: The demand for industrial manpower led to the
founding of more specialized colleges.

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● Vocational Courses emerged in areas like printing, carpentry, and

agricultural sciences.
● British initiatives aimed to create a compliant workforce, yet inadvertently
promoted Indian technical capabilities.
● Swadeshi Movement (1905) further propelled local interest in technical
self-reliance.
● e.g.* ‘Bihar School of Engineering’ established in 1886 (later transformed
into Bihar College of Engineering, now NIT Patna).

3. Spread of Western Education During British

Rule in Bihar (BPSC, 42nd)
● Early 19th Century Mission Schools: Introduced English language
curriculum, though limited in rural outreach.
● Government Colleges grew after the Charter Act of 1813 mandated
funds for education.
● The Wood’s Despatch (1854) encouraged mass education, spurring new
schools under government grants.
● Universities Act (1904) standardized curricula and exams, promoting a
uniform system.
● e.g. Patna College established 1863, one of the earliest centers for higher
English education in Bihar.
● e.g. B.N. College (Bankipore) founded 1889, became a leading institution
for liberal arts and sciences.

4. Development of Education and Press in

Modern Bihar and Their Role in the Freedom
Movement (BPSC, 46th)
● Printing Press facilitated journals and newspapers, spreading political
awareness and nationalist ideas.
● Local language papers (Hindi, Urdu) reached wider audiences, fueling
anti-colonial sentiments.
● Academic institutions hosted debates on swaraj, spurring youth participation
in the freedom struggle.

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● e.g. The Searchlight (founded 1918) became a major English newspaper in

Bihar, voicing nationalist views.
● Students and graduates of Patna University (1917) often led protests,
boycotts, and civil disobedience movements.

5. Technical Education in Bihar During the Study

Period (BPSC, 47th)
● Rise of industrial training institutes (ITIs) to fulfill low to mid-level
engineering tasks.
● Growth of technical schools teaching blueprint reading, basic mechanics,
and surveying for irrigation and railway projects.
● Engineering Colleges introduced modern labs and workshops, though
advanced research remained minimal.
● e.g. Bihar School of Engineering (founded 1900) offered courses in civil
engineering for canal and bridge construction.
● e.g. Prince of Wales Medical College (now Patna Medical College, 1925)
advanced Western medical education.

6. Development of Western Education in Bihar

(1813–1947) (BPSC, 60th–62nd)
● Charter Act (1813): First official endorsement of spreading Western
knowledge in India.
● Missionary Activities: Some British missionaries established schools, but
with a focus on religious instruction.
● Formalization Post-1857: After the Sepoy Mutiny, the British reorganized
education to ensure loyal civil servants.
● Hunter Commission (1882): Recommended expansion of primary and
secondary education, leading to more vernacular schools.
● Universities and Colleges: By the early 20th century, there was a spurt of
higher education institutions.
○ e.g. Patna University, established 1917, became the 7th oldest
university in India.

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7. Development of Western Education in Bihar

(1857–1947) (BPSC, 63rd)
● Post-Revolt Shifts: The British Crown took direct control, aiming to produce
administrative staff loyal to the Empire.
● Growth of Government Schools: Emphasis on English, arithmetic, and
sciences to craft an educated yet controlled populace.
● Technical and Industrial Training: Targeted supporting the colonial
economy through skills like rail engineering, mining, etc.
● Emergence of Indigenous Efforts: Indian philanthropists and reformers
(e.g., Kayastha Pathshalas) opened private schools.
● e.g. Patna Medical College (1925) and Bihar Veterinary College (1927)
expanded specialized education.

8. Spread of Western Education in Bihar

(1858–1914) (BPSC, 65th)
● Structured Curriculum: Focus on reading, writing, and arithmetic in
English medium.
● Policy Reforms like the Indian Universities Act (1904) standardized
examination and syllabi.
● Private Initiatives: Local elites funded schools for socio-political reasons,
seeking empowerment under the colonial regime.
● e.g. Munger Zila School (established 1830s, got official recognition later)
served as a major center for secondary education.
● Growth of Teacher Training Colleges, crucial for producing qualified
educators to staff the expanding network.

9. Expansion of Western and Technical

Education (1857–1947) (BPSC, 65th)
● Engineering Courses multiplied to support large-scale projects like
railways and public works.
● Stagnation in Rural Education: While urban centers saw more colleges,
villages remained underserved.

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● Socio-Political Awakening: Educated youths formed study circles,

leading to anti-colonial discussions.
● e.g. Bihar Institute of Technology (later expansions in the region)
addressed engineering demands.
● Nationalist leaders like Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah Narayan Sinha
emerged from these colleges, steering the freedom movement.

10. Growth of Colonial Technical Education

under British Schemes and Its Impact (BPSC,
68th)
● Policy-Driven: Initiatives like the Industrial Policy of 1908 encouraged
minimal local manufacturing.
● Institutions primarily catered to British infrastructural needs—roads,
railways, telegraphs—rather than holistic development.
● While this strengthened the colonial economy, it also produced an
Indian technical workforce that later contributed to nation-building.
● Criticisms: Limited seats, urban bias, and English dominance excluded large
segments of society.
● Despite constraints, graduates gained exposure to European thought,
fueling political awareness.

11. Bihar as a Centre of Learning and

Spiritualism Since Ancient Times (BPSC, 69th)
● Ancient Seats: Nalanda University (5th century CE) and Vikramshila
University (8th century CE) were global hubs of Buddhist learning.
● Flourishing intellectual traditions in philosophy, medicine, and
mathematics, attracting scholars from far lands.
● Post-ancient decline: The region’s higher education resurrected during British
rule in modern formats.
● This legacy continues in modern times, with Bihar hosting leading
institutions that blend tradition with modern curricula.

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12. Development of Modern Education in Bihar

and Its Impact (BPSC, 69th)
● Rise of Literacy: Spread of schools and colleges increased literacy levels,
especially in urban areas.
● Social Reforms: Educated middle class joined movements against child
marriage, caste discrimination, and untouchability.
● Growth of Nationalism: Universities became breeding grounds for freedom
fighters, who used their learned skills to challenge the Raj.
● Economic Contributions: Technically trained individuals managed public
works and industrial setups, boosting local growth.
● e.g. Patna Women’s College (established 1940) advanced female
education, symbolizing social progress.
● Education laid the foundation for post-independence governance in Bihar,
shaping political and administrative leadership.

Conclusion
The introduction and expansion of Western and technical education in Bihar
ushered a new era of intellectual awakening and economic participation.
Though primarily designed to serve colonial interests, it eventually empowered
Indians, fueling the freedom movement and socio-economic reforms.
Today, Bihar’s educational legacy continues to evolve, drawing from its ancient
centers of learning while adapting to modern challenges.

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Constitutional Developments
PYQs
1. Government of India Act, 1858 (BPSC, 68th)
2. Indian Councils Act, 1892 (BPSC, 69th)

Regulating Act, 1773

Introduction
In the early 1770s, the British East India Company faced widespread financial
mismanagement, corruption, and a lack of accountability in India. To address
these issues, Parliament introduced the Regulating Act of 1773, marking the
first direct step toward governmental control over the Company and the
establishment of a centralized administration.

Key Provisions

● Governor-General of Bengal: Redesignated the Governor of Bengal as the

Governor-General, supported by an Executive Council of four members.
Lord Warren Hastings was the first to hold this office.
● Subordination of Presidencies: Placed Bombay and Madras under the
authority of the Governor-General of Bengal, curbing their earlier
independence.
● Supreme Court in Calcutta (1774): Established a Chief Justice and three
other judges, introducing a formal judicial framework in India.
● Ban on Private Trade: Prohibited Company servants from engaging in
private trade or accepting gifts and bribes from locals.
● Greater British Oversight: Required the Court of Directors to regularly
report on the Company’s revenue, civil, and military affairs to the British
Government.

Conclusion
The Regulating Act of 1773 was a landmark statute that curtailed the
Company’s unchecked power and laid the groundwork for direct British

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governance in India. By introducing new administrative controls and a judicial

framework, it set the stage for future reforms and further consolidation of
British authority in the region.

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Charter Act, 1793

Introduction
By the late 18th century, the British East India Company required a renewed
charter to maintain its trade monopoly and refine its governance structure in India.
Building on previous regulatory measures, the Charter Act of 1793 was enacted
to extend the Company’s commercial privileges, strengthen administrative control
under the Governor-General, and clarify the financial and executive
responsibilities of the British authorities overseeing Indian affairs.

Key Provisions

● Extended Overriding Power: Conferred the same overriding authority

given to Lord Cornwallis over his council to all future Governor-Generals
and Presidency Governors.
● Centralized Control: Empowered the Governor-General with greater
authority over the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, ensuring tighter
administrative coordination.
● Trade Monopoly Renewal: Renewed the Company’s trade monopoly in
India for an additional twenty years, securing its commercial dominance.
● Commander-in-Chief Provision: Specified that the Commander-in-Chief
would only join the Governor-General’s council if formally appointed,
preventing automatic inclusion.
● Funding for the Board of Control: Mandated that the Board of Control
members and their staff be paid from Indian revenues, aligning their
financial support with local resources.

Conclusion
The Charter Act of 1793 further consolidated British authority in India by
extending the East India Company’s commercial privileges and political powers.
Its provisions strengthened central governance, clarified council compositions,
and formalized financial arrangements, thereby setting the stage for deeper British
involvement in Indian administration.

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Charter Act, 1813

Introduction
By the early 19th century, growing demand for free trade and missionary
activities in India prompted the British Parliament to reconsider the East India
Company’s commercial and administrative privileges. The Charter Act of 1813
reshaped these privileges by opening aspects of the Indian market and
reinforcing British authority and cultural influence.

Key Provisions

● Partial Abolition of Trade Monopoly: Ended the Company’s monopoly on

trade in India, opening Indian trade to all British merchants. However, the
tea trade and trade with China remained under the Company’s exclusive
control.
● Assertion of British Crown’s Sovereignty: Affirmed that the British
Crown held ultimate sovereignty over the Company’s Indian territories.
● Permission for Missionaries: Allowed Christian missionaries to enter
India to spread religious knowledge and education.
● Promotion of Western Education: Encouraged the introduction of
western education among the local population in British-governed regions.
● Taxation Authority: Empowered local governments to levy taxes and
impose penalties on individuals for non-payment, strengthening
administrative control.

Conclusion
The Charter Act of 1813 signified a critical shift in British policy by liberalizing
aspects of Indian trade, endorsing missionary work, and investing in western
education. It thus marked an important step toward deeper economic and
cultural transformation under British rule.

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Charter Act, 1833

Introduction
By the early 1830s, pressure to fully centralize British administration in India led
to a comprehensive restructuring of governance. The Charter Act of 1833 marked
the final step in this process by consolidating power in the hands of the
Governor-General and transforming the East India Company from a commercial
venture into a purely administrative entity.

Key Provisions

● Governor-General of India: Redesignated the Governor-General of

Bengal as the Governor-General of India, granting full civil and military
authority over all British-ruled territories in India. Lord William Bentick
was the first to hold this title.
● Exclusive Legislative Powers: Stripped the Governors of Bombay and
Madras of their legislative authority, centralizing law-making under the
Governor-General. Existing laws were termed Regulations, while new laws
were called Acts.
● End of Commercial Role: Abolished the Company’s commercial
activities, making it a solely administrative body. India’s territories were
henceforth held “in trust for His Majesty.”
● Open Competition for Civil Service: Proposed a system of merit-based
recruitment, stating that Indians should not be barred from government
posts. However, this provision was later overturned due to opposition from
the Company’s Court of Directors.

Conclusion
By eliminating the East India Company’s commercial functions and centralizing
legislative powers under the Governor-General of India, the Charter Act of
1833 fundamentally restructured British rule. It paved the way for a more unified
administration, foreshadowing future reforms and the expanding role of the
British Crown in India.

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Charter Act, 1853

Introduction
By the mid-19th century, the need for constitutional reform in India demanded
further adjustments to the governance system established by the East India
Company. The Charter Act of 1853, the last in the series of Charter Acts
(1793–1853), addressed these needs by separating legislative and executive
powers, promoting a merit-based civil service, and introducing local
representation in the law-making process.

Key Provisions

● Separation of Legislative and Executive Functions:

○ Created a distinct Legislative Council for the Governor-General
(known as the Indian or Central Legislative Council).
○ Introduced six new legislative councillors, turning the Council’s
legislative branch into a mini-Parliament following British
parliamentary procedures.
● Open Competition for Civil Service:
○ Instituted an open competitive exam for the covenanted civil
service, allowing Indians to apply.
○ Led to the formation of the Macaulay Committee (1854) to reform
the Indian Civil Service.
● Extended Company Rule Without Fixed Tenure:
○ Allowed the East India Company to retain Indian territories “on
trust for the British Crown” without specifying an end date.
○ Signaled that Parliament could terminate Company rule at its
discretion.
● Local Representation in the Legislative Council:
○ Permitted local (provincial) governments in Madras, Bombay,
Bengal, and Agra to appoint four of the six new legislative
members, incorporating provincial input into central legislation.

Conclusion
The Charter Act of 1853 significantly advanced constitutional governance in
India by separating powers, modernizing civil service recruitment, and
broadening representation. These reforms laid the groundwork for subsequent
administrative changes and helped pave the way for the diminishing role of the
East India Company under the expanding authority of the British Crown.
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Government of India Act, 1858

Introduction
Enacted in the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857, the Government of India Act of
1858—also referred to as the Act for the Good Government of India—marked a
major shift in India’s governance. It abolished the East India Company and
transferred all its powers, territories, and revenues directly to the British
Crown.

Key Provisions

● Crown Governance: Transferred administration to Her Majesty, changing

the title of the Governor-General of India to the Viceroy of India. Lord
Canning became the first Viceroy.
● End of Double Government: Abolished the Board of Control and the
Court of Directors, consolidating control under the Crown.
● Secretary of State for India: Created a new office with complete
authority over Indian administration. The Secretary was part of the British
Cabinet and accountable to Parliament.
● Council of India: Established a 15-member council to advise the
Secretary of State; the Secretary served as its Chairman.
● Legal Corporate Entity: Formed the Secretary of State-in-Council as a
body corporate, capable of suing and being sued in both India and
England.

Conclusion
While the Government of India Act of 1858 overhauled administrative
structures—ending the East India Company’s rule and placing India under direct
Crown control—it did not substantially transform the system of governance
within India itself. Instead, the Act focused primarily on improving the British
Government’s supervision and control of Indian affairs from England.

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Indian Councils Act, 1861

Introduction
In the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857, the British Government recognized the
need to involve Indians in their own governance. As part of this policy of
association, the Indian Councils Act of 1861 was passed—marking a major
milestone in India’s constitutional and political evolution. It sought to introduce
representative elements and decentralize power within the British Indian
administration.

Key Provisions

● Inclusion of Indians in Law-Making:

○ Began representative institutions by allowing the Viceroy to
nominate Indian non-official members to his expanded council.
○ In 1862, Lord Canning nominated three Indians, including the Raja
of Benaras and the Maharaja of Patiala, to the Legislative
Council.
● Decentralization of Legislative Powers:
○ Restored legislative authority to the Bombay and Madras
Presidencies, reversing the centralizing trend since the Regulating
Act of 1773.
○ Laid the groundwork for further legislative devolution, which
culminated in near-complete internal autonomy for provinces by
1937.
● New Legislative Councils:
○ Provided for the creation of legislative councils for Bengal,
North-Western Provinces, and Punjab, established in 1862, 1886,
and 1897 respectively.
● ‘Portfolio’ System and Administrative Rules:
○ Empowered the Viceroy to set rules and orders for council business.
○ Officially recognized the portfolio system introduced by Lord Canning
in 1859, enabling council members to issue final orders in their
departmental domains.
● Viceroy’s Ordinance Power:
○ Authorized the Viceroy to issue ordinances without the council’s
approval during an emergency, with each ordinance having a
six-month lifespan.

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Conclusion
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 marked the initial step toward representative
governance and decentralized administration in British India. By involving
select Indian leaders in the legislative process and restoring power to provincial
presidencies, it set a precedent for further reforms that progressively broadened
Indian participation in government.

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Indian Councils Act, 1892

Introduction
By the late 19th century, moderate leaders of the Indian National Congress
were actively calling for constitutional reforms and greater Indian
participation in governance. In response to these growing demands, the Indian
Councils Act of 1892 modestly expanded Indian involvement in legislative
processes, although it maintained an official majority and overall British control.

Key Provisions

● Increased Non-Official Membership

○ Enlarged the number of non-official members in Central and
provincial legislative councils.
○ Retained an official majority to preserve British control.
● Wider Legislative Role
○ Granted councils the power to discuss the budget and address
questions to the executive.
● Nomination on Recommendation
○ Viceroy nominated non-official members to the Central Council on
the advice of provincial councils and the Bengal Chamber of
Commerce.
○ Governors nominated non-officials to provincial councils, based on
recommendations from local bodies (district boards, municipalities,
universities, etc.).
○ Although not termed “election,” these recommendations effectively
introduced a limited, indirect electoral element.

Conclusion
Despite its limitations, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represented a small
yet significant step toward increasing Indian participation in governance, laying
the groundwork for subsequent reforms.

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Morley Minto Reforms, 1909

Introduction
Responding to the growing demands for broader constitutional reforms and
greater Indian participation in governance, the British government enacted the
Indian Councils Act of 1909—popularly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms.
Spearheaded by Lord Morley (Secretary of State for India) and Lord Minto
(Viceroy of India), this Act aimed to expand legislative councils and introduce new
representative structures, albeit with significant limitations.

Key Provisions

● Expansion of Legislative Councils

○ Substantially increased membership in both the Central and
provincial legislative councils.
○ Raised Central council seats from 16 to 60; provincial numbers varied.
● Official vs. Non-Official Majorities
○ Retained an official majority in the Central legislative council.
○ Allowed non-official majorities in provincial legislative councils.
● Enhanced Deliberative Powers
○ Permitted members to ask supplementary questions and move
resolutions on the budget, broadening legislative debate.
● Indians in Executive Councils
○ For the first time, facilitated the inclusion of Indians in the Viceroy’s
and Governors’ executive councils.
○ Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s
executive council as Law Member.
● Separate Electorates for Muslims
○ Introduced communal representation by creating separate Muslim
electorates, where Muslim members were elected solely by Muslim
voters.
○ This provision “legalised communalism,” earning Lord Minto the title
‘Father of the Communal Electorate’.
● Additional Separate Representation
○ Granted separate representation to presidency corporations,
chambers of commerce, universities, and zamindars.

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Conclusion
The Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) marked a notable
expansion of legislative councils and the first direct entry of Indians into higher
executive roles. However, by institutionalizing separate electorates for Muslims
and other groups, it also laid the groundwork for communal divisions, influencing
the future trajectory of Indian politics.

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Government of India Act, 1919

Introduction
On August 20, 1917, the British Government declared its intent to gradually
introduce responsible government in India. To fulfill this promise, the
Government of India Act of 1919—popularly known as the
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms—came into effect in 1921, aiming to
decentralize power and widen Indian participation in governance.

Key Provisions

● Division of Subjects: Separated central and provincial subjects, granting

each legislature authority over its own list while retaining a centralized
administrative structure.
● Dyarchy in Provinces: Split provincial subjects into transferred (handled
by Indian ministers accountable to legislative councils) and reserved
(administered by the Governor and his executive council).
● Bicameralism & Direct Elections: Introduced a two-chamber legislature at
the Center (Council of State & Legislative Assembly) with a directly elected
majority.
● Indian Executive Council Members: Required that three of the six
members in the Viceroy’s executive council (excluding the
Commander-in-Chief) be Indian.
● Extended Communal Representation: Established separate electorates
for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans, building on
earlier communal divisions.
● Limited Franchise: Restricted voting rights based on property, tax, or
education criteria.
● High Commissioner for India: Created an office in London, transferring
certain responsibilities from the Secretary of State.
● Public Service Commission: Provided for a public service commission,
leading to the establishment of the Central Public Service Commission in
1926.
● Separate Provincial Budgets: Allowed provincial legislatures to draft
their own budgets, distinct from the Central budget.
● Statutory Commission: Mandated the appointment of a commission to
review the Act’s working after ten years.

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Conclusion
Though the Government of India Act of 1919 broadened legislative participation
and introduced provincial autonomy in limited forms, its dyarchy model proved
cumbersome. Nevertheless, it represented a step forward in the evolving journey
toward responsible self-governance in India.

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Government of India Act, 1935

Introduction
The Government of India Act of 1935 was a landmark in the constitutional
development of British India—often described as the second significant step toward
a fully responsible government. With 321 sections and 10 schedules, it was
the most comprehensive constitutional document introduced by the British in India.

Key Provisions

● All-India Federation
○ Proposed a federation of provinces and princely states, with powers
divided among Federal (59 items), Provincial (54 items), and
Concurrent (36 items) lists.
○ Residuary powers vested in the Viceroy.
○ The federation never materialized due to the princely states’ refusal
to join.
● Provincial Autonomy
○ Abolished dyarchy in provinces and introduced full autonomy
within their defined jurisdictions.
○ Responsible governments formed in provinces, making Governors
act on the advice of ministers responsible to provincial legislatures
(in effect from 1937 to 1939).
● Dyarchy at the Centre
○ Envisaged splitting federal subjects into reserved and transferred
categories.
○ This provision never came into operation.
● Bicameralism in Provinces
○ Introduced a two-chamber legislature in six provinces (Bengal,
Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, United Provinces).
○ However, these legislatures operated under several restrictions.
● Extended Communal Representation
○ Separate electorates for depressed classes (Scheduled Castes),
women, and labour.
● Abolition of the Council of India
○ Council (established under the Act of 1858) was scrapped.
○ The Secretary of State now had a team of advisors.
● Wider Franchise
○ Voting rights extended to about 10% of the population.
● Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

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○ Established to manage currency and credit in the country.

● Public Service Commissions
○ Created a Federal PSC, Provincial PSCs, and a Joint PSC for
multiple provinces.
● Federal Court
○ Set up in 1937 to adjudicate on federal matters.

Conclusion
Despite its ambitions toward responsible governance, the Government of India
Act of 1935 was only partially implemented. Key features, such as the All-India
Federation and Central Dyarchy, remained unfulfilled. Nevertheless, it laid
significant groundwork for India’s eventual transition to self-governance and
independence.

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Indian Independence Act, 1947

Introduction
On February 20, 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced the end
of British rule in India by June 30, 1948, sparking intensified demands for
partition from the Muslim League. With the Mountbatten Plan of June 3,
1947, the British Government facilitated the division of India. These developments
culminated in the Indian Independence Act of 1947, granting independence
and sovereignty to the new Dominions of India and Pakistan from August 15,
1947.

Key Provisions

1. End of British Rule

○ Declared India independent and sovereign from August 15, 1947.
○ Provided for partition, creating two Dominions: India and Pakistan.
2. Governors-General
○ Abolished the Viceroy’s office.
○ Each Dominion would have a Governor-General, appointed by the
British King on the advice of the Dominion’s cabinet, without further
British responsibility.
3. Constituent Assemblies & Legislative Powers
○ Empowered both Dominions’ Constituent Assemblies to frame and
adopt any constitution.
○ Allowed them to repeal any British Act, including the Independence
Act itself.
○ No Act of the British Parliament after August 15, 1947, would extend
to these Dominions unless legislated by their assemblies.
4. Abolition of Secretary of State for India
○ Transferred remaining functions to the Secretary of State for
Commonwealth Affairs.
5. Princely States
○ Ended British paramountcy over princely states.
○ Allowed them to join either Dominion or remain independent.
6. Government Under 1935 Act
○ Both Dominions were to be governed under the Government of India
Act, 1935, with powers to modify it until new constitutions were
enacted.

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7. Legislative Authority & Royal Prerogative

○ The British Monarch lost the right to veto bills or reserve them.
○ The Governor-General retained the power to assent to bills on behalf
of His Majesty.
8. Constitutional Heads
○ Governors-General and provincial governors became constitutional
heads, bound by the advice of their respective councils of ministers.
9. Other Changes
○ Removed the Emperor of India title from the British Crown.
○ Discontinued new appointments to civil services by the Secretary of
State; existing civil servants retained their benefits.

Conclusion
At midnight on August 14-15, 1947, British rule ended, and power officially
transferred to the Dominions of India and Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten served
as India’s first Governor-General, and Jawaharlal Nehru became its first Prime
Minister. This Act thus marked the culmination of India’s struggle against
colonialism, ushering in independence for millions.

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Madhubani Painting
Introduction

“In every Madhubani stroke lies the heartbeat of Mithila’s cultural

tapestry.” – William G. Archer

Introduction

Madhubani Painting (also known as Mithila Art) is a folk tradition rooted in the
Mithila region of Bihar. Passed down through generations (primarily women), its
vibrant natural colors, intricate double-line motifs, and depiction of mythical as
well as social themes have preserved the cultural identity of an entire community.
Modern adaptations on textiles, accessories, and even masks exemplify its evolving
nature, and recognition such as the Padma Shri awarded to Dulari Devi (2021)
confirms its continued relevance.

Features & Highlights

● Region of Origin: Flourishes in Madhubani,

Saharsa, Supaul, Muzaffarpur etc.
● Painting Canvas: Traditionally painted on
walls and floors during special occasions like
weddings, festivals, and religious ceremonies.
● Historical Roots: Believed to date back to the
Ramayana era when King Janaka
commissioned local women to paint scenes
from Sita’s wedding → art form passed on
maternally, reinforcing shared identity and
rituals.

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● Colors & Materials: natural dyes from leaves (e.g., neem, spinach),
flowers (e.g., bougainvillea, marigold), and spices (e.g., turmeric) +
surfaces often treated with cow dung for
longevity + brushes made from twigs,
matchsticks, or fingertips.
● Double-Line Style & Motifs: Renowned for
double outlines symbolizing duality +
intricate floral, faunal, and mythical motifs
depicting gods and goddesses, fertility
symbols, and social rituals, highlighting
environmental harmony and divine blessings.
● Themes: Religious (gods and goddesses),
social (harvests, markets, weddings), nature
(forests, mountains)
● Women-Centric Tradition: Historically,
women have been the principal artists, transferring the art form through
generations + fosters economic empowerment and cultural continuity within
households and local communities.
● Global and national recognition: Over 15,000 Madhubani paintings are
preserved in Japan’s Niigata Museum, receiving worldwide acclaim.
Madhubani practitioners often receive national honors, including Padma Shri
(Dulari Devi), reinforcing the art’s esteemed cultural status.

Conclusion

Once confined to walls and floors, Madhubani’s vibrant motifs now grace global
galleries and fashion collections, evolving with modern demands yet preserving
traditional authenticity. The artform is an emblem of Indian folk heritage that
continues to inspire, innovate, and elevate cultural dialogue across the
world.

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Peasant movements, Kisan Sabha and Swami Sahajanand

PYQs
1. Write a critical note on peasant movements in Bihar with special reference to
Swami Sahajanand. (BPSC, 43rd)
2. Write a note on Swami Sahajanand and the Kisan Sabha Movement. (BPSC, 65th)

Introduction
Peasant movements in Bihar have played a crucial role in shaping both the regional
socio-economic fabric and the broader Indian national movement. Under British
colonial rule, India’s agrarian structure was drastically transformed by the introduction of
new land tenure systems and heavy revenue demands. These changes led to widespread
exploitation of peasants, creating the conditions for organized resistance. From early
revolts in the 19th century to the militant struggles of the post-independence period, Bihar
emerged as one of the most protracted and significant epicenters of agrarian unrest in
India.

Colonial Agrarian Policies and the Growth of Exploitation

1. Land Tenure Systems: The British introduced the Zamindari, Ryotwari, and
Mahalwari systems across different regions of India. In Bihar, Zamindari became
the dominant framework, creating a hierarchy of zamindars (landlords),
intermediaries, and cultivating peasants.
2. Absentee Landlords: Many zamindars and moneylenders lived away from their
estates, delegating power to local agents.
3. Sub-infeudation and Rack-renting: Multiple layers of middlemen worsened
peasants’ burden through high rents and arbitrary exactions.
4. Colonial Revenue Demands: The British imposed heavy land revenue targets that
zamindars passed on to the peasants. This led to debt bondage, forced cultivation of
cash crops (indigo), and frequent evictions.

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Early Peasant Uprisings in Bihar

1. Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)
Santhal tribesmen rose against oppressive moneylenders and British authorities in
the Rajmahal Hills region, protesting exploitative practices and land alienation.
2. Munda Uprising (1899-1901)
Led by Birsa Munda, this movement in the Chhotanagpur region challenged
forced labor, unfair land tenures, and the erosion of tribal rights.
3. Indigo Revolts
The exploitation of peasants forced to cultivate indigo under oppressive conditions
contributed to sporadic local revolts. These rebellions, though significant, often
remained isolated and lacked a broader national perspective at the time.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Turning Point in Peasant Movements

1. Tinkathia System
○ Under the tinkathia arrangement, Champaran peasants were compelled to
grow indigo on 3/20 portion of their land, suffering low wages and forced
labor.
2. Mahatma Gandhi’s First Civil Disobedience
○ Invited by Raj Kumar Shukla, Mahatma Gandhi arrived in Champaran to
investigate peasant grievances.
○ His Satyagraha pressured the colonial government to abolish the tinkathia
system and grant partial refunds of illegal dues.
○ Local Leaders: Swami Vidyananda, Rajendra Prasad, and Swami
Sahajanand Saraswati provided critical support. They organized peasant
sabhas like the Bihar Kisan Sabha and later the All India Kisan Sabha.
3. Impact on National Politics
○ The success of the Champaran Movement connected local peasant
struggles to the wider Indian freedom movement.
○ However, Gandhi’s moderate stance sometimes discouraged direct
anti-zamindari struggles, leading to future tensions with more radical
peasant leaders.

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From Class Collaboration to Class Struggle: Emergence of the Kisan

Sabhas
1. Bihar Kisan Sabha (1927)
Founded under Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, the Bihar Kisan Sabha initially
worked within the framework of Congress-led nationalism but gradually shifted
towards class struggle against landlords.
2. Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS, 1929)
In response to proposed amendments to the Tenancy Act, various left-leaning
intellectuals and activists, including Rahul Sankrityayana, Jaya Prakash Narayan,
and Rambriksha Benipuri, joined forces.
Major Struggles:
○ Anti-tenancy bill agitation (1933)
○ Bakasht land movements (1936-38) – challenging zamindari control
○ Worker-peasant protests against Dalmia Sugar Factory (1938-39)
3. Shifts in Leadership and Ideology
○ Swami Sahajanand Saraswati broke with Gandhi in 1934, criticizing his
pro-landlord leanings.
○ Later, Sahajanand aligned with the Communist Party and helped found the
All-India United Kisan Sabha in the late 1940s, demanding land
nationalization and more radical land reforms.

Post-Independence Peasant Struggles and Militant Movements

1. Continuing Agrarian Conflicts
After 1947, the agrarian structure remained largely unchanged. Land reforms were
slow and often ineffective. Leaders like Karyanand Sharma continued bataidar
(sharecropper) struggles in Purnea, pushing the government to recognize tenancy
rights.
2. Shifting Political Alignments
○ The CPI(M) in Bihar moved towards electoral politics, diminishing the
focus on mass peasant mobilizations.
○ The CPI(ML), inspired by the Naxalbari movement (late 1960s-70s),
launched militant uprisings in Bhojpur and Patna. These included guerilla
attacks on landlords, crop seizures, and armed resistance.

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3. Counter-Insurgency and Reformist Interventions

State repression by 1976 dealt severe blows to Naxalite groups. Reformist initiatives
like Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan (1952-56) and JP Narayan’s Sarvodaya tried to
diffuse radical conflicts by promoting voluntary land gifts and social harmony –
often with government collaboration.

Conclusion
Bihar’s peasant movements – ranging from 19th-century tribal rebellions to 20th-century
satyagrahas and Naxalite uprisings – highlight the enduring struggle against agrarian
exploitation. While colonial policies initially ignited these movements, persistent feudal
structures and inadequate land reforms sustained their momentum long after
independence. Leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati,
Rajendra Prasad, and a host of communist and socialist activists left an indelible mark on
both local and national politics.

Today, Bihar’s agrarian conflicts remain a testament to the power of grassroots

mobilization. Although many battles were won – such as the abolition of the tinkathia
system – the quest for equitable land rights and social justice continues. The legacy of
these movements resonates in contemporary debates on land reform, peasant rights,
and inclusive development across India.

Kisan Sabha Movement

The Kisan Sabha movement was a peasant movement that started in Bihar in the late
1920s under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. It aimed to address the
grievances of tenant farmers and landless labourers.

Kisan Sabha formation

● Started locally with the West Patna Kisan Sabha (1927) to support tenant
peasants.
● Expanded into the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929)
● Eventually led to the All India Kisan Sabha (1936), uniting diverse nationalists –
Congress, Socialists, and Communists.

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In 1934 (Gaya session), Kisan Sabha demanded:

● 50% rent reduction

● Debt moratorium
● Government intervention under Section 112 of Bengal Tenancy Act
● Full remission of rent for one year (proposed by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati)

Bakasht Movement (1936-39)

● Triggered by rent strikes and mass evictions, as zamindars reclaimed ryoti lands
as Bakasht lands.
● Key centers: Shahabad, Patna, Gaya, Darbhanga, Monghyr.
● Major Leaders:
○ Karyanand Sharma (Monghyr): Led 1,000-strong protests, organized train
blockades (1939).
○ Jadunandan Sharma (Gaya): Trained peasant militias, led Satyagraha in
Tikari estate.
● Outcome:
○ Bakasht Resolution Act (1938) restored tenant rights for holdings under
6 acres.
○ WWII economic shifts and government intervention led to movement’s
decline (1939).

Mass Mobilization

● Between 1933-35, 500+ meetings were held, with Swami Sahajanand attending
350.
● Membership rose from 33,000 (1933) to 2,50,000 (1938).

1936 Kisan Sabha Manifesto Demands

● Abolition of zamindari
● Debt cancellation
● Peasant land ownership
● Minimum wages for agricultural workers
● Voting rights for all adults

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Social Base

● Dominated by rich and middle peasants, with limited participation of landless

laborers.
● Leaders like Swami Sahajanand, Karyanand Sharma, and Jadunandan Sharma
came from modest peasant backgrounds.
● Some small zamindars also joined the movement against big zamindars.

Movement Limitations

● Despite raising zamindari abolition as a demand, it never became a mass

movement.
● Focused on immediate issues (rent, debt, evictions) rather than structural
agrarian change.
● Failed to integrate landless laborers, leading to a limited revolutionary impact.

Impact

● Weakened zamindari control and popularized peasant grievances.

● Created groundwork for future land reforms and zamindari abolition in Bihar.

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Swami Sahajanand
Quote
“Swami Sahajanand was the most compelling peasant leader of his time, fusing
spiritual conviction with political activism.” – Walter Hauser, Historian

Introduction
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati (1889–1950) was a prominent monk-turned-activist who
became one of the foremost leaders of the peasant movement in India during the early to
mid-twentieth century. Born in the Ghazipur, UP, he was drawn to spirituality early in life
and took formal vows as a sanyasi (ascetic) under the Dashnami tradition. However,
his deep empathy for the underprivileged and his acute awareness of oppressive
agrarian structures propelled him into grassroots organizing.

Contributions

● Zamindari Abolition: Led campaigns that challenged the 1793 Permanent

Settlement, influencing Bihar Land Reforms Act, 1950.
● Kisan Sabha Formation: Focused on tenancy rights, Bakasht lands, and
protecting peasants from illegal landlord practices.
● Leadership Style: Uncompromising, dissolved Bhumihar Brahmin Mahasabha
(1929) to focus on mass mobilization.
● Break with Gandhi (1934): Opposed his pro-landlord stance, criticized relief
policies post Bihar earthquake.
● Socialist-Communist Relations: Collaborated but diverged when communist
priorities clashed with local peasant issues.

Religious and Social Reform

● Critiqued religious politics (e.g., opposed Khilafat Movement’s religious

overtones).
● Advocated caste equality, authored “Brahmarshi Vansha Vistar.”
● Promoted Sanskrit learning among marginalized Brahmins to counter zamindar
oppression.

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Philosophical and Political Legacy

● Merged Vedanta and Marxism in “Gita Hriday.”

● His movement led to constitutional amendments, including First Amendment
(1951) restricting right to property to facilitate land reforms.
● Mobilized diverse peasant groups, fostering middle-caste political
empowerment (Yadavs, Kurmis, Dalits).

Conclusion
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati’s life and work exemplify how faith, when coupled with
grassroots activism, can transform social and political realities. His leadership of
peasant organizations helped lay the groundwork for agrarian reform in independent
India and inspired future generations of farmers’ movements. Although he passed away in
1950, his legacy endures in the continued struggles for rural justice and equitable
land rights. Even today, scholars and activists alike look to Sahajanand’s unyielding
commitment and holistic approach as a guiding light for achieving lasting social change.

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Moderates and Extremists

Quote:
“In India’s quest for freedom, the moderates built the framework of debate, but it was
the extremists who shattered the chains of colonial rule.” – Bipan Chandra

Introduction:

● The early Indian freedom struggle unfolded in two key phases: the Moderates and
the Extremists.
● Moderates favored constitutional methods and cooperation with Britain, while
Extremists championed self-reliance, Swadeshi, and militant resistance demanding
Swaraj (complete independence).

Moderates

● Inspiration: Influenced by Western philosophers such as Mill, Burke, Spencer, and

Bentham; embraced ideas of liberalism, democracy, equity, and freedom.
● Approach: Employed Prayer, Petition, Persuasion, and Philanthropy; their
agitation was characterized as Passive Resistance.
● Philosophy:
○ Constitutionalism: Believed that the British, possessing a sense of justice,
would address Indian grievances.
○ Economic Reforms: Advocated anti-imperialist economic policies and
changes in economic relations between India and England.
● Notable Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, G.K. Gokhale, and
W.C. Bonnerjee.
● Successes:
○ Legislative Impact: Their petitions contributed to the passing of the
Council Act 1892, albeit without fully meeting their demands.
○ Economic Critique: Introduced the notion of the economic drain (“drain
of wealth” theory) from India due to British revenue policies.
○ Foundation for Nationalism: Laid the seeds for early nationalism and later
demands for a full-scale national struggle.
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○ Political Mobilisation: Raised awareness about British politics and

economics, mobilizing the next generation of freedom fighters.
○ Formation of Congress: Their efforts consolidated the Indian National
Congress as a Pan-India political organization.
○ Broad Agendas: Despite their urban, educated, and middle-class
background, they maintained a broad outlook, prioritizing the larger interests
of the people.
● Drawbacks:
○ Narrow Representation: Predominantly elitist and urban, leading to
limited mass appeal.
○ British Appeasement: Favored cooperation with British rule to secure
concessions, rather than outright opposition.
○ Neglect of Social Issues: Chose to prioritize political over social reforms,
resulting in the neglect of major social issues in India.
○ Isolation: Their contradictions and elitism alienated them from the broader
Indian population.
○ Rise of Extremists: Their moderate stance inadvertently paved the way for
extremist leaders (e.g., Tilak) who resonated more with the masses.
○ Misinterpretation of British Rule: Failed to fully grasp that the exploitative
nature of British rule stemmed from deliberate policies, not merely
administrative shortcomings.
○ Limited Official Power: Despite significant contributions in legislative
councils, they held no real official power until 1920.

Extremists

● Methods:
○ Inspiration: Drew from the ideals of ancient India, the legacy of Shivaji
and other great kings, and the 1857 uprising.
○ Radical Approach: Advocated militant methods, including the assassination
of key personnel, to challenge British rule.
○ Objective: Demanded Swaraj (complete independence) from British rule.
○ Economic Strategy: Promoted self-reliance by advocating Swadeshi and
boycotting foreign goods.
○ Vocal Opposition: Unlike the Moderates, they were outspoken and
confrontational in opposing British rule.
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○ Notable Leaders: B.G. Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and
Aurobindo Ghosh.
● Successes:
○ Swadeshi Movement: Successfully led the boycott of the partition of Bengal
and championed the Swadeshi movement.
○ National Education: Emphasized a national scheme of education by
boycotting government-controlled institutions; established the Bengal
National College through the Bengal Council of National Education.
○ Foundation for Future Movements: Leaders like Lokamanya Tilak
preached non-cooperation with the government, setting the stage for later
national movements.
○ Mass Mobilisation: Encouraged the formation of cooperative organizations
and voluntary associations for rural sanitation, preventive police duties,
regulation of pilgrim gatherings, and famine relief.
○ Impact on the British: Their militant acts, including economic boycotts and
targeted assassinations, created fear among the British.
○ Cultural Revival: Advocated for Indianisation as a response to the
increasing Westernization of Indian society.
● Drawbacks:
○ Internal Conflict: Their rise led to conflicts within the Congress, notably
causing the Surat Split.
○ Isolated Incidents: Relied on isolated acts of violence that failed to achieve
sustained mass mobilisation.
○ Government Repression: Provoked stringent legislative measures, including:
■ Seditious Meetings Act (1907)
■ Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act (1908)
■ Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908)
■ Indian Press Act (1910)
○ Arrests: Their extreme methods resulted in the arrest of several leaders; for
instance, Tilak was sentenced and imprisoned in Mandalay.

Conclusion:

● Both the Moderates and Extremists played pivotal roles in shaping the Indian
freedom struggle through distinct approaches.

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● Moderates laid the groundwork by fostering political awareness and advocating

constitutional reforms, while Extremists energized the movement with radical
actions, economic boycotts, and a strong call for cultural revival.
● Together, their contributions and contrasting methodologies were instrumental in
paving the way for India's eventual independence.

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Press During British Rule

Quote

“Just as street lights and police patrol bring to light anything wrong or unjust
happening on the roads in the dark, the editorial pen brings to light the
injustices and the wrongs of the administration.” – Tilak in Kesari

Introduction
The British era in India was marked by persistent attempts to control the press through
various laws, yet the Indian media evolved into a powerful tool for political mobilization
and social reform. From the pioneering Bengal Gazette in 1780 – earning James Augustus
Hickey the title “Father of Indian Press” – to the vibrant newspapers that fueled the
freedom struggle, the press played a crucial role in shaping public opinion.

Pre-1857 Regulations:

● Censorship of Press Act, 1799:

○ Enacted by Lord Wellesley; imposed pre-censorship on newspapers.
○ Extended (1807): Covered magazines, books, and pamphlets.
○ Eased (1818): Under Lord Hastings.
● Licensing Regulations, 1823:
○ Enacted by John Adams; targeted Indian language newspapers.
○ Mandatory License: Starting or operating a press without a license was
punishable.
○ Enforcement Example: Raja Ram Mohan Roy halted publication of
Mirat-ul-Akbar.
● Press Act of 1835 (Metcalf Act):
○ Reserved government rights to stop the publication and circulation of print
materials.
○ Repealed the 1832 ordinance; Metcalf earned the title “Liberator of Indian
Press.”

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Post-1857 Regulations:

● Licensing Act, 1857:

○ Imposed stricter licensing requirements for print publications; maintained
earlier registration procedures.
● Registration Act, 1867:
○ Replaced the 1835 Act; mandated that all publications print their name and
address.
● Vernacular Press Act, 1878 (Gagging Act):
○ Enacted to suppress dissent against Lord Lytton's policies amid famine and
extravagant Delhi Durbar expenditures.
○ Key Features:
■ District Magistrate Powers: Inspected publications, bonded
publishers against disaffection.
■ Mandatory Deposit: Required from printers/publishers, forfeitable
upon violation.
■ Final Decisions: Magistrate’s ruling was non-appealable; allowed
searches without court orders.
● Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908:
○ Aimed at curbing extremist activities by empowering magistrates to confiscate
press property publishing inflammatory material.
○ Enforcement Example: Lokmanya Tilak was charged with sedition and
imprisoned for 6 years.
● Indian Press Act, 1910:
○ Designed to check the emerging freedom struggle during the onset of World
War I; empowered local governments to scrutinize press registrations and
deregister offenders.
○ Later repealed by Lord Reading.
● Defence of India Act, 1915:
○ An emergency law by the Governor-General to curb nationalist and
revolutionary activities during/after WWI.
○ Repeal (1921): Press Acts of 1908 and 1910 repealed on the Tej Bahadur
Sapru Committee's recommendation.
● Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931:
○ Granted provincial governments power to suppress Civil Disobedience
Movement propaganda.

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○ Enforcement: Resulted in the ban of Congress activities and related

publications.

Impact of the Press in India:

● Political Mobilisation: Publications like Indian Mirror and Bengalee disseminated

current political developments before Congress formation.
● Institutional Opposition: Served as a platform for political controversies and as a
counterforce to government policies.
● Geographical Penetration: Expanded beyond urban centers into rural areas, acting
as political educators.
● Library Movements: Libraries established around newspapers fostered reading,
discussion, and the spread of ideas.
● Nationalist Ideals: Tilak utilized Kesari and Mahratta to promote traditional festivals
and celebrate heroes like Shivaji.
● International Recognition: The press aimed to inform the British and Europeans
about India’s socio-political realities.
● Social Mobilisation: Shaped public views on social evils (e.g., Sati, child
marriages) and promoted Hindu-Muslim unity.
● Freedom Struggle: Played a vital role in mass movements by keeping the public
informed and mobilized.
● Peasant Movements: Local newspapers raised awareness about peasant struggles
across India.

Key National Leaders & Publications:

● Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Used newspapers Kesari and Maratha to spread nationalist
ideas.
● G. Subramania Iyer: Published The Hindu and Swadesamitran; mobilized Tamils and
faced defamation charges.
● Surendranath Banerjee: First Indian journalist jailed (1883) for criticizing a Calcutta
High Court judge in The Bengali.
● Dadabhai Naroji: Launched the first Gujarati newspaper RastGoftar (1851) to
promote social reforms in the Parsi community.

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● Swami Vivekanand: Published Prabudh Bharat and Udhbodhva to disseminate cultural

and social ideas.
● Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Advocated for women’s reforms through Samvad Kaumudi.
● Jawahar Lal Nehru: Founded National Herald in 1938 as a tool for the independence
movement.
● Pro-Censorship Figures: Lord Wellesley, Lord Minto-II, Lord Adams, Lord
Canning, Lord Lytton, Lord Elphinstone, Sir Munro.
● Pro-Press Freedom Figures: Lord Hastings, Sir Charles Metcalfe, Lord
Macaulay, Lord Ripon.

Conclusion:
Despite rigorous measures by the British to curb press freedom and prolong colonial rule,
the resilient Indian press found innovative ways – ranging from secret radio messages to
illicitly shared news sheets – to spread their ideas. The press not only mobilized political and
social movements but also laid the groundwork for India’s eventual independence.

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Press in Bihar During British Rule

Introduction
Bihar’s press evolved from early indigenous newspapers during British rule into a potent
force for social reform and nationalist mobilization. Today, however, local press is largely
overshadowed by state editions of national media giants.

Key Developments in Bihar’s Press History

● Early Beginnings (1850–1856):

○ 1850: Shah Kabiruddin Ahmed set up a printing press in Bihar.
○ 1856: The British launched Akhbar-e-Bihar (Urdu) under William Taylor for
administrative purposes.
● Rise of Indigenous Journalism (1872 Onwards):
○ 1872:
■ Bihar Bandhu (first Hindi newspaper) was founded by Balakrishna
and Keshavram Bhatt; it later moved to Patna and championed Hindi
in law courts.
■ Bihar Herald (first English newspaper) was launched under Guru
Prasad Sen, though it primarily served the Bengali community.
○ Other notable titles include Indian Chronicle (1881), Bihar Times (1894),
and Bihar Guardian (1899), with Bihar Times notably advocating for Bihar’s
separation from Bengal.
● Nationalist Press and Leadership
○ Sachidanand Sinha advanced local journalism by transforming Bihar Times
(later renamed Beharee) and launching the English biweekly Searchlight,
which evolved into a daily.
○ Searchlight became synonymous with nationalist sentiment, with episodes of
defiance against judicial censorship (e.g., a Rs 200 fine) and contributions from
figures like Sir Courtney Terrell (writing under a pseudonym) and Dr.
Rajendra Prasad.
● Post-Independence Transformation and Decline
○ Although indigenous newspapers thrived for decades after independence, by
the 1980s-90s, economic challenges and technological stagnation led to
their decline.

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○ Today’s newsstands in Patna feature state editions of national giants

(Hindustan, Dainik Bhaskar, Dainik Jagran, etc.), while the only notable
regional title, Prabhat Khabar, is based in Ranchi.
● Research by scholars such as N Kumar, J Natarajan, Sumita Singh, and media
critic Sevanti Ninan underscores the early vibrancy and later erosion of Bihar’s
native press due to media consolidation and low advertising revenues.

Conclusion
Bihar’s press played a crucial role in shaping regional identity and fueling the nationalist
movement through pioneering publications like Bihar Bandhu, Bihar Herald, and
Searchlight. Despite its historic significance, the decline of locally headquartered newspapers
today highlights the challenges of sustaining an independent regional media in the face of
national consolidation.

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Non-cooperation movement
Quote
‘The Non‐Cooperation Movement transformed Indian nationalism from an elite
grievance into a mass-based struggle for freedom.’ – Bipan Chandra

Introduction
The non-cooperation movement, launched in 1920, was the first pan-Indian
non-violent Gandhian movement against the British rule. It was spurred by
Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and Khilafat issue, and called upon
Indians to withdraw support from British institutions – boycotting schools,
courts, and government jobs – in order to undermine the legitimacy of
colonial authority. This movement not only united diverse social groups but
also redefined Indian political activism by shifting the focus from elite
negotiations to a people’s struggle for self‐rule.

Reasons for the Movement

● Post-WWI rise in commodity prices, decline in industrial production,
and rising taxes/rents fueled anti-British sentiment.
● Rowlatt Act: No appeal, no daleel, no wakeel → arrest without warrant,
imprisonment without trial, trial without jury → widespread
resentment.
● Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): Brutal, unprovoked firing
on unarmed protestors in Amritsar.
● Montford Reforms, 1919 with its ill-conceived scheme of dyarchy, failed
to meet the demand for self-government.
● Hunter Committee findings on Punjab atrocities were proved to be an
"eyewash".
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● Influential radical nationalists (e.g., Muhammad Ali, Abul Kalam Azad,

Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam) gained prominence over
conservative Aligarh elements.
● Muslim University Bill (1920) proposed a non-affiliating,
government-controlled university opposed by Muslims.
● Annulment of the 1911 Partition of Bengal and events like the
Tripolitan and Balkan Wars (1911–12) deepened mistrust towards
British policies.
● Khilafat Issue:
○ The Muslims regarded the sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader
– Khalifa.
○ During the war, Turkey had allied with Germany and Austria
against the British.
○ When the war ended, the British took a stern attitude towards
Turkey – Turkey was dismembered and the Khalifa removed from
power. This incensed Muslims all over the world.
● Lucknow Pact (1916): Fostered unity between the Congress and Muslim
League + United extremists and moderates.
● Government Hostilities: Actions like the Rowlatt Act, martial law in
Punjab, and Jallianwala Bagh exposed the brutal nature of colonial rule.

Program of the Non-Cooperation Movement

● Destructive (Boycott) Measures:
○ Boycott of government schools and colleges.
○ Boycott of foreign goods; insistence on using Indian-made
products.
○ Boycott of legislative councils and judicial institutions (opting for
justice by panchayat).
○ Renounce government honours/titles, resign from government
jobs, and refuse service in the British army.
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○ Refuse to pay tax if other measures did not yield results.

● Constructive Measures:
○ Cultivate a spirit of discipline and self-sacrifice.
○ National schools and colleges were to be set up.
○ Dispute resolution through mutual arbitration.
○ Adopt Charkha (hand spinning) and use Swadeshi goods.
○ To maintain Hindu-Muslim unity.
○ To give up untouchability.
○ To observe strict non-violence.

Progress of the Movement

1. Thousands of students shifted to 800 national schools/colleges.
2. Prominent lawyers (e.g., CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel)
abandoned lucrative practices.
3. Congress membership surged to 50 lakhs.
4. Tilak Fund was oversubscribed, surpassing its target.
5. Successful boycott of foreign cloth; widespread adoption of khadi
became the national uniform.
6. Picketing of toddy shops gained momentum.
7. The Prince’s visit was met with hartal (empty streets, closed shutters).
8. A call for Muslims to resign from the British army was issued by
Mohammed Ali.
9. Formation of a robust Volunteer Corps (almost a parallel police force).
10. Provincial committees were sanctioned to initiate local civil
disobedience.

People’s Response

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● Middle Class: Initially led the movement but later exhibited reservations,
especially in elite centers (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras).
● Business Class: Backed the economic boycott for swadeshi benefits,
though some hesitated due to labor unrest.
● Peasants: Massive participation, though internal caste confrontations
emerged.
● Students: Became vigorous volunteers, leaving government institutions
for national ones.
● Women: Actively joined picketing, renounced purdah, and contributed
ornaments for the Tilak Fund.
● Hindu-Muslim Unity: Achieved significant unity despite challenges (e.g.,
Moppila uprisings).

Government Response
● Divide and Rule: Attempts to split Gandhi from Khilafat leaders
(pressure on Ali brothers) failed as Gandhi resisted.
● Crackdown: In December 1921, the government declared volunteer
corps illegal, banned public meetings, gagged the press, and arrested all
leaders except Gandhi.
● Violent Repression: Police fired on protestors, causing multiple fatalities.

Significance of the Movement

● Promoted social mobility by uniting all classes, religions, and genders.
● Achieved peak Hindu-Muslim unity (e.g., Swami Shraddhananda
preaching at Jama Masjid, Delhi).
● Brought attention to caste discrimination and untouchability.
● Foreign goods imports halved between 1921 and 1922.
● The swadeshi emphasis boosted Indian industries.
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● Marked the first true mass movement involving all communities.

● Cemented the INC as a mass party and dispelled notions of it
representing a minority.
● Spawned national institutions (e.g., Bihar Vidyapeeth, Gujarat
Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bengal National University, Jamia Millia
Islamia) to strengthen the swadeshi base.
● Unified people against a common oppressor, significantly boosting
nationalism.
● Instilled a loss of fear among the masses, replacing feelings of bondage
with self-confidence and national dignity.

Causes of Failure
● Failure to elevate Muslim sentiments to a broader secular level.
● Incidents like the Bombay riots and the Chauri-Chaura incident
undermined non-violence.
● The regime’s superior armed force could easily suppress a violent
movement.
● Elite centers showed minimal participation; calls to renounce titles and
jobs were largely ignored.
● Justice Party diverted focus into Brahmin-Non-Brahmin issues by
contesting elections.
● South India remained largely unaffected; success depended on
pre-existing peasant agitations (e.g., UP Kisan Sabha, Patidar campaign in
Kheda, Bihar anti-planters agitation, Orissa anti-feudal demonstrations).
● The regime’s unwillingness to negotiate led to movement fatigue.
● In November 1922, Turkish reforms under Mustafa Kamal Pasha made
Turkey a secular state, nullifying the Khilafat cause.

Conclusion
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● The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements were landmark events

in India’s struggle against colonial rule, uniting diverse communities
through non-violent resistance.
● Despite their eventual shortcomings, the movements achieved significant
social, economic, political, and psychological gains – bolstering
Indian self-confidence and laying a strong foundation for the nation’s
eventual independence.

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Non-cooperation movement in Bihar

In Bihar, the non-cooperation movement got linked with local issues like:

● Right to graze cattle on government wasteland

● Right to wear sacred thread
● Issues of cow protection
● Kisan movements

Apart from this, other events in Bihar during Non-cooperation:

● Auctions Boycott: Banned auctions for settlement of ferries and pounds

in Munger and Bhagalpur.
● Press Strike: Government press in Patna went on strike.
● Police Strike: A significant police strike during March–April 1921 spread
across Patna, Purnea, Munger, and Champaran.
● Response to Prince of Wales’ Visit:
○ On November 17, during his landing in Bombay, a hartal was
observed across Bihar.
○ On December 22, his visit to Patna saw a complete boycott.
● Key Protests and Visits:
○ Gandhiji's Arrest (March 1922): Sparked state-wide protest
meetings.
○ Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee: Visited Bihar in 1922,
reinforcing the movement’s momentum.
● Institution Building & Leadership:
○ Bihar Vidyapeeth (Established February 6, 1921):
■ Inaugurated by Gandhiji.
■ Maulana Mazharul Hague appointed as Chancellor and
Braj Kishore Prasad as Vice-Chancellor.
■ Rajendra Prasad became Principal at National School,
Patna.
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○ Sadakat Ashram:
■ Established by Mazharul Haque near Digha in Patna, it
became a pivotal centre for the national movement.
■ A newspaper called Motherland was launched on September
30, 1921 by Mazharul Haque.
● 37th Congress Session at Gaya (1922):
○ Presided over by C.R. Das; endorsed the boycott of legislatures.
○ Rajendra Prasad was elected Congress secretary; the AICC office
was shifted to Patna.
○ Tana Bhagats participated; Rajendra Prasad later joined the
flag Satyagraha at Nagpur in 1923 with volunteers from Bihar.

Conclusion
The eminent Hindi writer, poet, playwright, journalist, and nationalist
Rambriksh Benipuri, who spent more than 8 years in prison campaigning
for India's independence, wrote:

“When I recall Non-Cooperation era of 1921, the image of a storm confronts my eyes. From
the time I became aware, I have witnessed numerous movements, however, I can assert that no
other movement upturned the foundations of Indian society to the extent that the
Non-Cooperation movement did. From the most humble huts to the high places, from villages
to cities, everywhere there was a ferment, a loud echo.”

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Champaran Satyagraha
PYQs
1. Discuss the peasant movement in Bihar in general and Gandhiji's intervention in
Champaran specifically. (BPSC, 39th)
2. Explain why Champaran Satyagraha was an important milestone in the history of
the freedom movement. (BPSC, 42nd)
3. Do you agree that Champaran Satyagraha was a turning point in India’s freedom
struggle? (BPSC, 47th)
4. Explain the significance of Champaran Satyagraha for peasant uprisings. (BPSC,
56th-59th)
5. Describe the causes and consequences of Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar. (BPSC,
63rd)
6. Explain how Champaran Satyagraha was a turning point in the freedom struggle.
(BPSC, 64th, 66th)
7. Write a short note on Champaran Satyagraha. (BPSC, 67th)
8. Champaran Satyagraha (BPSC, 69th)
9. Evaluate the Champaran Indigo Movement and explain its impacts on the Indian
Freedom Struggle. (BPSC, 69th)

Quote
"Champaran was the seed that sprouted into the great tree of India’s freedom
movement." – Jawaharlal Nehru

Introduction
The Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was the first Gandhian
movement in India. It marked the beginning of Satyagraha
as a tool for civil resistance. It was a peasant movement
against the oppressive Tinkathia system practiced in
Champaran, under which farmers were forced to grow indigo
on 3/20 part of their land, often leading to financial ruin.
The movement was significant in mobilizing peasants,
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raising awareness of their rights, and setting a precedent for future struggles against
colonial rule.

Causes of Champaran Satyagraha

● Tinkathia system required farmers to grow indigo on 3/20th part of their land.
● British planters chose the best lands for indigo cultivation → couldn’t grow enough
food.
● Peasants were paid a very low wages for the indigo they produced.
● Peasants were often harassed by planters and factory workers.
● After 1900, synthetic German indigo began to compete with indigo grown in
Bihar.
● High Rents and Illegal Taxes burdened peasants, further worsening their financial
condition.

Gandhiji’s Intervention in Champaran

● Gandhi arrived in Champaran in April 1917 after receiving requests from

Rajkumar Shukla, a local peasant leader.
● He conducted an extensive survey, recording statements from thousands of
peasants to document their sufferings.
● The British administration attempted to expel him, but he refused, leading to his
arrest, which generated national attention.
● Massive public support forced the government to drop charges, showcasing the
power of nonviolent resistance.
● Champaran Inquiry Committee was formed by Lt. Governor Edward Gait, and
Gandhi was included, to investigate into the plight of the peasants.

Consequences of Champaran Satyagraha

● Abolition of the Tinkathia system, freeing peasants from forced indigo cultivation.
● Reduction of sharabeshi rent by 26% (Gandhiji initially demanded 40%).
● End of illegal levies (abwabs) and additional fines.
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● Planters lost zamindari rights over village lands.

● Peasants gained freedom to grow crops of their choice.
● The government passed the Champaran Agrarian Act, 1918, implementing the
reforms suggested by Gandhiji. Gandhiji even reviewed the draft law to ensure
peasant interests were protected.
● Gandhiji attempted constructive work by establishing three schools in Champaran.

Significance of Champaran Satyagraha

● First Successful Satyagraha in India, proving the effectiveness of nonviolent

resistance and civil disobedience.
● Shift in Gandhiji’s Role, transforming him from a South African activist into a
national leader of the Indian freedom movement.
● Peasant Mobilization, demonstrating that rural communities could be actively
involved in the fight for independence.
● Policy Reforms, as the British were forced to acknowledge peasant grievances and
introduce agricultural reforms.
● Removed the pervasive fear instilled by the British Raj among the rural masses.
● Inspired the middle and upper classes to engage as selfless public servants,
shedding feudal habits. e.g. Rajendra Prasad, Dharnidhar Prasad, Ramnawami Prasad
and Anugrah Narain Sinha.
● Demonstrated that effective struggle coupled with constructive work could pave
the way for a new society.
● Marked a significant awakening in India, with the world witnessing the beginning
of a nationwide revival of spirit and self-respect.
● Inspiration for Future Movements, influencing later struggles like the Kheda
Satyagraha (1918) and the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22).

Impact on the Indian Freedom Struggle

● Set the Template for Mass Movements, as it was the first large-scale application of
Satyagraha in India.
● Strengthened Congress’s Connection with Rural India, shifting its focus from
elite-led politics to mass mobilization.

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● Inspired Agrarian Protests, leading to increased peasant participation in later

movements such as the Civil Disobedience Movement.
● Challenged British Authority, proving that nonviolent resistance could effectively
counter colonial oppression.
● International Recognition, as the event was reported widely, bringing global
attention to India's struggle for independence.

Conclusion
Champaran Satyagraha was a turning point in India's freedom struggle, as it introduced
Satyagraha as an effective tool against colonial rule. It also heralded the Gandhian era
of freedom struggle and established Gandhiji as the most important leader for future
struggles. Moreover, by standing firmly against British exploitation, Gandhiji and the people
of Champaran laid the foundation for India’s eventual independence in 1947.

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Formation of Indian National Congress

Quote

"The birth of the Indian National Congress was the birth of modern India." – R.C.
Majumdar

Introduction
In 1885, the Indian National Congress emerged as a unifying force in colonial India,
inspired by Allan Octavian Hume to consolidate various regional associations into a
pan-Indian platform that amplified the spirit of national consciousness.

Objectives

● To forge National Identity of being the sons and daughters of the same soil.
● To build a Pan-Indian Political Platform where leaders can gather and undertake
political activities.
● To promoting Mass Awareness of colonial injustices.
● To create a single and national level Political Leadership to represent Indian
interests.
● To collectively present Indian Demands to the British government.

Reasons for Formation

● Growing Political Consciousness and National Feeling among Indians → need

for a national organization by 1885.
● Rise of Intellectualism among the western-educated elite like Dadabhai Naoroji,
WC Banerjee → aspirations for representation and reform.
● Repeated Protests and Campaigns, like campaign for Indians in civil services
(1877-78), fueled public confidence.
● Natural Culmination of previous political work and campaign and regional efforts
like British Indian Association, Indian League etc.

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● Growing Discontent over economic hardships and continuous wars → Collective

resistance.
● Failure of Indians in facing campaigns like the anti-Ilbert Bill agitation
highlighted the need for coordinated action.

Other Reasons

● Some viewed the INC as a Safety Valve devised by the British to manage Indian
dissent.
● It was also seen as a means to protect British Interests by channeling grievances into
a moderate forum.
● The Congress provided a way to secure Indian Support and legitimacy from
educated elites under colonial rule.

Significance

● The INC nurtured prominent National Leaders who guided the struggle for
independence.
● It organized crucial Mass Movements, including the Swadeshi and Khilafat
agitations.
● It championed Political Representation of Indian interests, both domestically and
internationally.
● The party’s Politics of Opposition in legislatures challenged colonial policies
post-1919.
● It served as an Agent of Social Change, promoting unity across religious and caste
lines.
● Eventually, the INC assumed the mantle of National Leadership, spearheading
India’s freedom struggle.

Conclusion
The founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 established the pan-Indian
momentum vital for a unified struggle against colonial rule and set the course for India’s
national self-determination, culminating in a successful fight for independence.

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Quit India Movement

PYQs
1. What was the role of the 'Azad Dasta' of Bihar in the Quit India Movement?
(BPSC, 40th)
2. Discuss the impact of Quit India Movement in Bihar. (BPSC, 41st)
3. Analyze the nature and extent of the Quit India Movement with special reference
to Bihar. (BPSC, 44th)
4. Describe the contribution of Bihar in the Quit India Movement. (BPSC, 48th-52nd)
5. Describe the people’s participation in Bihar during the Quit India Movement of
1942. (BPSC, 60th-62nd)
6. Write a short note on Jayaprakash Narayan and the Quit India Movement. (BPSC,
66th)
7. Write an essay on the Quit India Movement of 1942. Was it a spontaneous
movement? (BPSC, 67th)

Quote
“Gandhi’s ‘Quit India’ cry in 1942 shattered lingering British illusions of permanent control
over India.” – Stanley Wolpert

“From August 1942 onward, India’s departure from the Empire was no longer a question of
if, but only a matter of when.” – Stanley Wolpert

“Quit India Movement was the most un-Gandhian of the Gandhian movements.” – Bipan
Chandra

Introduction
The Quit India Movement, launched by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, was a
decisive call for the British to leave India immediately. Gandhi’s powerful slogan “Do or
Die” ignited nationwide mass protests, strikes, and acts of civil disobedience against
colonial rule. Although the British responded with widespread arrests and harsh
repression, this national uprising unified people across regions and classes, demonstrating a
formidable resolve for freedom. Despite being suppressed, the Quit India Movement

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emerged as a pivotal moment in the Indian independence struggle, foreshadowing the

end of British Raj just a few years later.

Reasons for Quit India Movement

1. Failure of Cripps Mission
○ Exposed Britain’s unchanged attitude on constitutional advance.
○ Highlighted that silence would mean accepting Britain’s right to decide
India’s fate.
2. Economic Hardships
○ Rising prices of rice, salt, etc., fueled popular discontent.
○ Industrialists, rich peasants: faced excessive profit tax, forced War Fund
contributions, and coerced war bond sales.
3. High-Handed British Attitude
○ Actions like commandeering of boats in Bengal and Orissa caused
widespread anger.
4. Fear of Scorched Earth Policy
○ Possible British scorched earth in Assam, Bengal, and Orissa against a
Japanese invasion.
5. News from South-East Asia
○ British reverses in SE Asia and rumors of imminent collapse emboldened
Indian sentiment.
○ Hasty British evacuation left subjects behind, shattering white prestige.
○ Racist treatment of Indians in SE Asia further eroded British credibility.
6. Demoralized Population
○ Leaders feared Indians might not resist a Japanese invasion if their worth and
power were not reaffirmed.
7. British Policies
○ “Denial policy” in coastal Bengal, destruction of communications.
○ Atrocities by Australian and American soldiers on Indian civilians.

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Gandhi’s Instructions to Different Sections

(Discussed at Gowalia Tank meeting, not officially issued.)

● Government Servants: Stay in service, declare allegiance to Congress.

● Soldiers: Remain in the army but do not fire on compatriots.

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● Students: If confident, leave studies.

● Peasants: Pay mutually agreed rent if zamindars are anti-government; else no rent.
● Princes: Support the masses, accept people’s sovereignty.
● Princely States’ People: Back the ruler if anti-government; otherwise, be part of
the Indian nation.

Gandhi’s Mantra: “Do or Die” – “We shall either free India or die in the
attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.”

Spread of the Movement

1. Public on Rampage
○ Attack on Authority: Forcible hoisting of national flags on public buildings,
destruction of railway tracks, telegraph lines, and bridges.
○ Strikes: Students boycotted schools/colleges, distributed illegal news sheets;
workers struck in Ahmedabad, Bombay, Jamshedpur, etc.
2. Underground Activity
○ Leaders like Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali,
Usha Mehta, Biju Patnaik, Sucheta Kripalani, Achyut Patwardhan, and
others operated secretly.
○ Aimed to maintain morale, provide guidance, and in some cases distribute
arms.
3. Parallel Governments
○ Ballia (August 1942): Led by Chittu Pandey; freed many imprisoned
Congress leaders.
○ Tamluk (Midnapore, 1942–1944): Jatiya Sarkar provided cyclone relief,
paddy distribution, and formed Vidyut Vahinis.
○ Satara (1943–1945): “Prati Sarkar,” led by Y.B. Chavan, Nana Patil; ran
village libraries, Nyayadan Mandals, prohibition campaigns, and
Gandhi marriages.
4. Guerrilla Bands
○ Bihar: ‘Azad Dastas’ raided ammunition depots, treasuries, government
offices; later suppressed in 1944 after linking with dacoit gangs.

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Extent of Mass Participation

● Youth: Students led from the front.
● Women: Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, Usha Mehta were prominent.
● Workers: Organized strikes; faced severe repression.
● Peasants: Core supporters; targeted government symbols, avoided anti-zamindar
violence.
● Government Officials: Lower-level police/administration often showed sympathy,
weakening British authority.
● Muslims: Many sheltered underground activists; notably, no communal riots
occurred during QIM.
● Communists: Supported the British after the USSR was attacked by Germany,
calling it a “People’s War”.
● Muslim League: Opposed QIM due to fear of minority oppression in a
post-British India.
● Hindu Mahasabha: Boycotted QIM (leaders like V.D. Savarkar, Shyama Prasad
Mukherjee), supporting British war efforts.
● Dalits: Under Ambedkar in the Viceroy’s Executive Council, official stance was
non-participation (though some Dalit regions joined).
● Princely States: Showed a low-key response overall.

Government Repression
● Physical Violence: Lathi charges, tear gas, firing on crowds; estimated 10,000
killed, mass floggings.
● Press Gagged: National Herald and Harijan were shut down.
● Military Control: Army took over towns and cities.
● Punitive Fines: Residents in protest areas faced heavy fines.

Evaluation of Quit India Movement

Positive Outcomes
1. Depth of Nationalism
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○ Government loyalty eroded, showcasing the reach of Indian nationalism.

2. Consensus on British Exit
○ Proved it was impossible to rule India against the will of the people.
○ Shattered the myth of a largely loyalist population.
3. Irreversible Demand for Independence
○ Future talks focused solely on the transfer of power.
○ The British became persona non grata.
4. Role of Common People
○ Displayed unparalleled heroism; faced brutal repression under adverse
conditions.

Negative Outcomes
1. Rise of Muslim League
○ Strengthened its rural base, promising an Islamic state to Muslim peasants.
○ Grew closer to the British, influencing constitutional politics.
2. Communalization of Politics
○ Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha postures intensified communal
divides, eventually leading to Partition.
3. Loss of Lives
○ Widespread violence, arrests, and deaths under British reprisals.

Conclusion
● The Quit India Movement (August Revolution) marked a turning point in
India’s independence struggle.
● Despite mass arrests and brutal repression, the spirit of defiance persisted.
● By 1945, it was clear that British rule could no longer withstand the collective will
of the Indian people.
● This surge of national unity and sacrifice decisively opened the path to India’s
independence in 1947.

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Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) in the Quit India Movement

Jayaprakash Narayan played a key underground role in the Quit India Movement,
coordinating clandestine activities and mobilizing grassroots opposition to British rule.
Imprisoned at Hazaribagh Jail, he orchestrated a dramatic escape in November 1942 and
soon formed Azad Dasta squads to conduct sabotage and disseminate revolutionary
literature. His unwavering commitment and leadership sustained the movement’s
momentum despite intense British surveillance.

● Key Underground Leader

○ Operated secretly alongside Rammanohar Lohia and others after the arrest
of top Congress leaders.
● Escape from Hazaribagh Jail
○ In November 1942, JP escaped from Hazaribagh Jail (Bihar) in a dramatic
jailbreak, further galvanizing the movement.
● Guerrilla Warfare & Coordination
○ Organized guerrilla activities, particularly from the Nepal border, to
impede British communications.
○ Helped coordinate sabotage operations targeting rail lines, telegraph lines,
and other infrastructure.
● Mobilizing Youth
○ Encouraged students and youth to join the freedom struggle, thereby
widening the movement's base.
● Impact
○ JP’s activities boosted morale, kept nationalist networks functional, and
offered strategic leadership in the absence of arrested leaders.

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Quit India Movement and Azad Dasta

● The Quit India Movement (1942) was marked by mass upsurge, arrests of top
leaders, and a subsequent wave of underground resistance.
● In Bihar, a remarkable component of this underground activity was the emergence of
‘Azad Dasta’ – a series of guerrilla squads that aimed to sustain the anti-colonial
struggle despite intense British repression.

Role of Azad Dasta in the Quit India Movement

● Formation and Leadership

○ Azad Dastas were loosely organized guerrilla bands formed mainly under
the influence of revolutionary leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan (JP).
○ They drew inspiration from Gandhiji’s call for “Do or Die,” despite adopting
more militant tactics.
● Guerrilla Warfare Techniques
○ Focused on sabotage of British infrastructure – targeting rail lines,
telegraph lines, and police stations.
○ Aimed at disrupting the communication and administrative machinery to
undermine the colonial government’s authority.
● Support Base
○ They found local support among peasants, small-town youth, and
disillusioned lower-level government officials.
○ Often operated from rural hideouts, ensuring quick mobility and surprise
raids.
● Collaboration and Coordination
○ Established covert networks for information-sharing and logistical
support.
○ Communicated with other underground leaders to coordinate raids and
evade British forces.
● Impact on the Movement
○ Kept nationalist morale alive when top Congress leaders were in prison.
○ Demonstrated the popular resolve to challenge British authority even under
brutal repression.
○ Their activities forced the British to divert significant military and police
resources to Bihar.
● Decline and Suppression

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○ As the British intelligence became more efficient, many Azad Dasta

members were arrested or forced to surrender.
○ Some bands linked up with dacoit groups, which led to loss of public
support and aided British clampdown.

Conclusion

● The Azad Dasta of Bihar symbolized a determined, grassroots armed resistance

that emerged in the absence of central leadership during the Quit India Movement.
● Their guerrilla tactics, though short-lived, reflected the intense resolve among
common people to fight for freedom and disrupt colonial authority, thereby
contributing to the overall momentum that eventually led to India’s independence.

Bihar and Quit India Movement

● Student-led demonstrations: In August 1942, students in Patna led protests,
openly defying British bans on assemblies and inspiring parallel agitations in Gaya,
Bhagalpur, and other towns.
● Jayaprakash Narayan’s jailbreak: Imprisoned at Hazaribagh Jail, Jayaprakash
Narayan orchestrated a daring escape in November 1942, emboldening local
resistance and undermining British morale.
● Formation of Azad Dasta: Under JP’s guidance, Azad Dasta squads engaged in
sabotage by cutting telegraph wires, disabling railway lines, and circulating
revolutionary literature.
● Grassroots mobilization: Local leaders like Rambriksh Benipuri fostered
village-level support, offering covert shelters to activists and spreading Gandhi’s
“Do or Die” call.
● Women’s participation: Women assumed critical roles as couriers and
fundraisers, transporting vital information and supplies while avoiding British
surveillance.
● British crackdown: In response, authorities imposed curfews and martial law,
carrying out mass arrests, property seizures, and harsh penalties to clamp down
on dissent.

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● Lasting impact: Despite intense repression, the Quit India Movement in Bihar
galvanized anti-colonial sentiment, strengthening the push toward India’s
impending independence.

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Swadeshi Movement
Quote

"Swadeshi was not just an economic program but a profound assertion of

self-rule and cultural identity." – Sumit Sarkar, Historian

Introduction

● Swadeshi Movement (1905-1911) emerged as a response to Lord Curzon's

partition of Bengal (1905), aiming to promote self-reliance, indigenous
industries, and boycott of British goods.
● It was initially led by Moderate leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji,
Surendranath Banerjee, Gokhale etc. In the 2nd phase, under the
leadership of extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra
Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh, it saw mass participation in
boycotts, protests, and the promotion of khadi and local industries.
● The movement was strongest in Bengal, but it spread across India,
inspiring later Gandhian movements like Non-Cooperation (1920).

Causes of Swadeshi Movement

● Partition of Bengal (1905): Announced by Lord Curzon, it was seen as an

attempt to divide and rule by creating Hindu-Muslim divisions.
● Anti-Colonial Sentiment: Growing resentment against British economic
exploitation (drain of wealth), leading to calls for self-reliance and
indigenous industries.
● Economic Nationalism: Opposition to British goods flooding Indian
markets, harming Indian artisans and industries.
● Desire for self-rule (Swaraj): Inspired by leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, emphasizing Swaraj (self-rule).

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● Cultural Revival: Aimed at reviving Indian traditions, education, and

industries, promoting Swadeshi institutions.
● Press and Literature: Nationalist newspapers like Kesari, Bande Mataram
awakened masses towards Swadeshi ideology.
● Influence of Extremists: Leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh and Tilak pushed
for a more assertive and radical approach against British rule.

Progress of the Movement

● Partition of Bengal (1903-05): Officially done for “administrative

convenience” but actually aimed at weakening Bengal by dividing it along
linguistic and religious lines.
● Anti-Partition Campaign (2 Phases): Led first by Moderates (1903-05)
through petitions and public meetings, then by Extremists (post-1905)
with more assertive methods.
● Moderate Methods: Employed petitions, memoranda, and propaganda via
newspapers like Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and Bengalee.
● Day of Mourning (16 Oct 1905): Marked the official implementation of
partition, observed with fasts, processions, and chanting of Bande
Mataram.
● Raksha Bandhan Appeal: Led by Rabindranath Tagore and
Ramendrasundar Trivedi to symbolize unity across West and East Bengal.
● Boycott of Foreign Goods: Called for discarding Manchester cloth and
Liverpool salt, spreading quickly to Poona, Bombay, Punjab, Delhi, and
Madras.
● Congress Support: 1905 session under Gokhale condemned partition; 1906
session under Dadabhai Naoroji declared self-government or Swaraj as
the national goal.
● Extremist Leaders: Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Bipin Chandra Pal) and Aurobindo Ghosh championed passive resistance,
civil disobedience, and organized boycotts.

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● Forms of Struggle: Boycott of foreign items, mass public meetings,

creation of Samitis (like Swadesh Bandhab Samiti), and use of festivals
(e.g., Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji).
● Self-Reliance (Atma-shakti): Encouraged national education (e.g., Bengal
National College), promotion of Swadeshi industries (e.g., Swadeshi
Steam Navigation Company), and cultural rejuvenation in music,
painting, and folk theatre.
● Mass Participation: Students, women, and some zamindars joined;
however, many Muslims and most peasants remained aloof due to
divide-and-rule policies and religious alienation.

Achievements

● Shifted the national movement from moderate methods to extremist

strategies
● Inspired new political techniques (passive resistance, mass boycotts)
● Eroded British moral authority.

Limitations

● Fell short of organized leadership

● Suffered from severe repression (arrests, deportations)
● Internal divisions (e.g., Surat Split, 1907) weakened the movement
● Low key peasant participation
● Costlier Swadeshi goods deterred poorer sections from buying them
● National institutions were not yet robust enough to replace British
systems.

Conclusion

Despite failing to prevent partition, the Swadeshi Movement galvanized Indian

nationalism, nurtured a culture of resistance, and laid the groundwork for
future mass movements.

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OR

The Swadeshi Movement lit a fervent spark of unity and self-determination,

forever shaping the course of India’s freedom struggle.

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CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

PYQs

Evaluate the role of different social classes in Bihar in the Civil Disobedience
Movement. (BPSC, 45th)

Quote

"Gandhi’s genius lay in turning simple acts like making salt into powerful
symbols of resistance." – Judith Brown

Introduction

● Launched in 1930 under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership.

● Began with the Dandi March, defying oppressive British salt laws.
● Aimed at violating unjust laws and asserting India’s right to Purna Swaraj
(complete independence).

Background

● Calcutta Session (Dec 1928): Congress ultimatum to British – either grant

dominion status by 2029, or purna swaraj (complete independence) will
be demanded.
● Lahore Session (Dec 1929): Congress demanded Purna Swaraj and
announced a Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhiji.
● Gandhi’s 11 Demands: Presented to the British with a deadline of Jan 31,
1930; no positive response from the government.
● Dandi March: On 12th March, 1930, Gandhi and 78 followers marched 240
miles from Sabarmati to Dandi, breaking the salt law on the coast.

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● Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Movement briefly suspended; the British sought

Congress participation in Round Table Conferences.
● Resumption (Dec 1931): Failure of the 2nd Round Table Conference led
Congress to resume the movement on Dec 29, 1931.

Causes of Civil Disobedience Movement

● Great Depression (1930): Prices of food crops fell sharply; peasant distress
rose due to falling incomes and credit crunch.
● Parallel Protests: Unrest among poor Muslims in Bengal, tribals (e.g.,
Santhals), and untouchables (e.g., Namasudras) also spurred discontent.
● Purna Swaraj: Congress’s official goal, fueling the drive for complete
independence.
● Industrialists’ Discontent: Emergence of FICCI and friction with British
policies encouraged collaboration with Congress.
● Labour Activism: Increasing communist influence galvanized workers;
Congress attempted to align with them.
● Simon Commission: Its racist outlook and unsatisfactory report
heightened the need for a larger movement.
● Gandhian Strategy: Alternation between phases of truce and struggle
(S-T-S) to exhaust the colonial regime.
● Salt Satyagraha: Oppressive Salt Act (1882) gave the British a salt
monopoly and made its local manufacture a crime.

Response/Participation of different sections

● Women: Picketed liquor shops, opium dens, and foreign-cloth outlets;

marked their entry into the public sphere on an unprecedented scale.

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● Muslims: Participation lower than in 1920-22 due to communal appeals

by certain leaders and government’s divide-and-rule tactics.
● Students & Youth: Played a vital role in boycotts of foreign goods and
anti-liquor campaigns.
● Merchants & Petty Traders: Enthusiastic in implementing boycotts,
especially in Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
● Tribals: Actively involved in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, Karnataka.
● Workers: Prominent in United Provinces, Bihar, Gujarat.
● Tamil Nadu: C. Rajagopalachari led a salt march from Tiruchirapalli to
Vedaranniyam; followed by picketing of foreign cloth and anti-liquor
campaigns.

Drawbacks

● Fatigue & Apprehension of Anarchy: By late 1930, movement energy

waned; merchants withdrew, peasants turned militant, leaders jailed.
● Lack of Conclusive Outcome: First Round Table Conference failed; British
grew anxious to involve Congress.
● Diminishing Public Response: The 2nd phase of the movement did not
evoke the same mass enthusiasm.
● Communal Divide: Muslim participation remained low; government
fostered communalism as a counter to nationalism.
● Civil Martial Law: Lord Willingdon enacted draconian ordinances to ban
Congress organizations.
● Repression: Seizure of Congress offices, police brutality, confiscation of
property, and mass arrests curbed the movement.

Significance of the Movement

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● Peasant Demands Included: Socio-economic issues found space in

Congress agendas, reflecting rising assertiveness of agrarian interests.
● Women’s Emancipation: Marked the formal entry of women on national
stage.
● Power of Congress: The Gandhi-Irwin Pact and release of leaders
demonstrated that no settlement on India’s future could be made without
Congress.
● British Recognition: Round Table Conferences showed that the British
needed Indian cooperation.
● Non-violent Resistance: Satyagraha highlighted a moral edge against
imperialism.
● Innovative Protest Methods: Use of Prabhat Pheris, pamphlets, and
large-scale defiance of multiple taxes (salt, forest, land).
● Pan-Indian Scope: Brought diverse regions and communities together
under a unified nationalist cause.

Pan-India Nature of the Movement

● Rich and Poor Alike: Grievances against unjust taxes and laws resonated
across social strata.
● Widespread Participation: Different communities – urban, rural, tribals –
joined to challenge British authority.
● Unified Purpose: Despite local variations, the overarching aim was ending
colonial rule.

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Non-cooperation movement vs. Civil Disobedience Movement

Aspect Non-Cooperation Civil Disobedience Movement

Movement (1920-22) (1930-34)

Objective Vaguely stated Swaraj or Explicit demand for complete

redressal of specific independence
grievances

Method Non-cooperation with Immediate violation of laws

British institutions (e.g., Salt Law)

Forms of Boycotts of schools, Decline in lawyer boycotts and

Protest colleges, courts, and student withdrawals; rise in
foreign goods direct mass action

Muslim High participation due to Much lower than in 1920-22

Involvement Khilafat Movement

Labour Industrial strikes and No major industrial labor strike

Upsurge worker participation

Peasants & Limited peasant Large-scale peasant

Business involvement; business participation balanced the
support varied reduced intelligentsia role

Government Imprisonments and Imprisonments soared (about

Repression crackdowns, but relatively three times more than before)
lower

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Congress Less organized, still Stronger organizational

Strength evolving structure compared to
Non-Cooperation phase

Civil Disobedience Movement in Bihar

1. Salt Satyagraha in Patna (April 1930): Organised from 16 to 21 April 1930,

defying the British salt laws by producing salt locally.
2. Picketing in Bhagalpur (June 1930): Congress volunteers initiated
picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops at Bihpur, promoting
indigenous goods and opposing British economic policies.
3. Tarapur Police Firing (February 1932): When a crowd attempted to hoist
the Congress flag at the local police station, the police opened fire,
resulting in the death of 34 freedom fighters, marking a tragic yet pivotal
moment in Bihar's contribution to the independence movement.
4. Peasant Mobilization: Bihar Congress leaders leveraged peasant
grievances to advance the nationalist cause, highlighting the agrarian
distress under British policies.
5. Tribal Involvement: Tana Bhagats of Ranchi and the Santals of
Hazaribagh refused to pay taxes and participated in protests.
6. Suppression of Nationalist Literature: The British authorities targeted
dissident publications like the Bihar Satyagraha Samachar.
7. Leadership of Shri Krishna Sinha: Actively participated in the Namak
Satyagraha at Garhpura.

Conclusion

The Civil Disobedience Movement ignited a nationwide passion for Purna

Swaraj, uniting peasants, industrialists, workers, women, and students in a
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collective stand against colonial rule. By targeting a universal grievance – the

salt tax – it transcended socio-economic barriers, proving that the quest for
complete independence belonged to all Indians. Despite repression and internal
challenges, it deepened the roots of nationalism and underscored that no
future for India could be shaped without the voice of its masses.

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Temples and Caves

PYQs
1. Development of caves in eastern India in ancient times. (68th BPSC)
2. Analyse the development of temples in North India in ancient times. (68th
BPSC)
3. Cave paintings of eastern India in ancient period. (69th BPSC)

Topics to cover
1. Temple architecture (mainly North India)
2. Cave architecture (mainly eastern India)
3. Cave paintings

Quote on Temple Architecture

“Indian temple architecture is the visible manifestation of the spiritual ethos of
a timeless civilization.” – Percy Brown, British Historian

Introduction
Temple architecture in India began evolving during the Gupta period (4th-6th cen
CE), marking the shift from cave temples to free-standing structures.

Longer intro
● Temples were designed not only as places of worship but also as symbols
of cultural, religious and artistic expression.
● The architectural style was influenced by religious practices (Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism), regional variations and socio-political patronage.

Styles of Temple Architecture

The temple architecture in India evolved through 3 major styles during 5th-13th
cen CE – Nagara (north India), Dravida (south India) and Vesara (Deccan) style,
reflecting regional, cultural and dynastic influences. [show these styles on
map]

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Parameter Nagara Dravida Vesara

Origin During Gupta During Pallavas During Chalukyas

period (4th-6th cen (6th cen CE) in the (7th cen CE) in
CE) in the Tamil region. Deccan region.
Gangetic plains. Hybrid style
(blend of Nagara
and Dravidian
elements)

Key - Shikhara: - Vimana: - Shikhara:

Features Curvilinear, Pyramidical tower Combines
towering, above the sanctum. curvilinear
beehive-shaped - Gopurams: (Nagara) and
structure Ornate gateway pyramidal
- Garbhagriha: towers added in - Stellate shape:
Sanctum later periods. Star shaped
sanctorum housing - Prakara: sanctum and
the deity Enclosure walls intricate
- Mandapa: with sculpted carvings on
Pillared halls for deities. pillars.
devotees - Water tanks for - Absence of tall
- No boundary rituals within gopurams
walls or water temple complexes.

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tanks

Evolution - Early phase - Pallava period - Early phase

(5th-8th cen): (6th-9th cen): (Chalukyas):
Simple, flat roofed. Introduction of Introduction of
e.g. Dashavatara structural temples. star-shaped
Temple, Deogarh e.g. Shore Temple, temples. e.g.
- Medieval phase Mahabalipuram Pattadakal
(8th-12th cen): - Chola Period Temples,
Complex designs (9th-13th cen): Karnataka
with multiple Massive temples - Hoysala Period
shikharas. e.g. with intricate (12th-13th cen):
Khajuraho Temple, carvings. e.g. Enhanced
MP; Konark Sun Brihadeeswara ornamentation
Temple Temple, Thanjavur with soapstone
- Regional - Vijayanagar carvings. e.g.
variations: 1. Period Hoysaleswara
Odisha style (14th-16th cen): Temple, Halebidu
(Rekha Deul e.g. Expansion of
Lingaraj Temple, gopurams and
Odisha); 2. vibrant temple
Kashmiri style towns. e.g.
(wooden Virupaksha Temple,
architecture and Hampi
pitched roofs e.g.
Martand Sun
Temple, J&K

Conclusion

● The Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara styles represent the regional diversity
and artistic ingenuity of ancient India.
● Each style reflects a fusion of religious symbolism, cultural ethos, and
architectural innovation, leaving a lasting legacy on Indian heritage.
● These architectural marvels continue to inspire awe and serve as testimony
to India’s rich cultural and artistic traditions.

Quote on cave architecture

“Indian cave architecture reflects the soul’s journey, carved into the silence of
stone.” – Ananda Coomaraswamy

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Introduction
Cave architecture in India is one of the earliest forms of religious architecture,
originating around 3rd cen BCE.

Longer intro
● Developed primarily under the patronage of Mauryas, Satavahanas and
Guptas, caves served as religious sanctuaries for Buddhists, Jains and
Hindus.
● Eastern India holds special importance for its association with early
Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika sects, featuring unique cave structures.

Key Features
● Rock cut method: Carved directly out of rocks in hills and mountains. e.g.
Kailasa temple in Cave 16 of Ellora caves.

● Chaityas (Prayer Halls): Quadrangular chambers with

flat roofs, and used as prayer halls. e.g. Karla caves,
Maharashtra – one of the largest chaityas
● Viharas (Residential Halls): Simple rectangular
chambers with cells for monks. e.g. Nasik caves,
Maharashtra – most of the caves are viharas; 25 out of 29
Ajanta caves are Viharas.
● Polished interiors: Mauryan caves feature smooth
granite surfaces with mirror like polish. e.g. Barabar
caves, Jehanabad
● Ornamental gateways: Ornate arch with detailed
carvings depicting narratives and deities. e.g.
Elephant carvings on Lomas Rishi cave, Bihar
● Stupas inside caves: Early Buddhist caves
house stupas as focal points of worship. e.g.
Bhaja caves, Maharashtra

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● Sculptures and reliefs: Depictions of religious themes, celestial beings and

mythological tales. e.g. Udayagiri caves, Odisha

● Natural light utilization: Intelligently placed openings allow sunlight to

illuminate interiors. e.g. Ajanta caves,
Maharashtra
● Water Tanks and Drainage: Built for
monastic living and rituals. e.g. Kanheri caves,
Maharashtra
● Multi-religious use: Dedicated to Buddhism,
Jainism and Hinduism over different periods.
e.g. Badami caves, Karnataka
● Inscriptions: Inscriptions on caves reveal
patrons, rulers, and historical contexts. e.g.
Hathigumpha inscription on Udayagiri caves,
Odisha

Significance of caves
1. Religious importance: Early centres for Buddhism and Jainism, fostering
their spread.
2. Architectural influence: Simple yet pioneering structures that inspired later
cave complexes.
3. Cultural insights: Inscriptions and sculptures provide insights into the
socio-political and religious life of ancient India.

Conclusion
Cave architecture in ancient India represents the transition from temporary
wooden structures to enduring stone monuments.
These sites remain a testament to India’s rich heritage and its early mastery of
rock-cut techniques.

Quote on Cave Paintings

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“Indian cave paintings, with their vibrant depictions, immortalize the artistic
spirit of the early communities.” – James Fergusson

Introduction
Cave paintings are among the earliest form of artistic expression in India,
reflecting spiritual, cultural and social life. A large number of paintings
(stick-like figures) from cave walls have been found from MP, UP, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Bihar. e.g. Bhimbetka cave paintings, MP.

These paintings evolved from prehistoric times to later periods, showcasing

influences of Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.

Features of cave paintings

● Prehistoric Themes: Depictions of hunting, dancing, rituals, and animals,
primarily in red and white pigments. e.g. Bhimbetka Rock Shelters
(Madhya Pradesh) – UNESCO World Heritage Site with paintings dating
back to 30,000 BCE.
● Religious and Narrative Themes: Later cave paintings focus on Buddhist
Jataka tales, Hindu epics, and Jain teachings. e.g. Ajanta Caves
(Maharashtra) – Paintings of the Buddha's life and Jataka tales.
● Natural Pigments: Colors made from minerals like red ochre, white kaolin,
green from copper compounds, and black from charcoal. e.g. Bagh Caves
(Madhya Pradesh) – Vibrant use of red, yellow, and green hues.
● Stylized Human Figures: Prehistoric paintings feature stick-like figures,
while later ones exhibit graceful postures and expressive faces. e.g. Ellora
Caves (Maharashtra) – Hindu and Buddhist figures depicted with intricate
details.
● Fresco Technique: Paintings created on wet plaster, ensuring durability and
vibrant colors. e.g. Ajanta Caves – Masterpiece of ancient fresco art.
● Symbolism: Emphasis on spirituality, with lotus, stupas, and halos
symbolizing divinity. e.g. Ajanta Cave 1 – Halo around Buddha signifies
enlightenment.
● Mythological Scenes: Stories from Mahabharata, Ramayana, and local
folklore are prominent. e.g. Sittanavasal Caves (Tamil Nadu) – Jain
themes and lotus ponds.
● Intricate Detailing: Focus on facial expressions, jewelry, garments, and
flora-fauna. e.g. Ajanta Cave 17 – Painting of a princess with intricate
ornaments.
● Use of Perspective: Advanced techniques like shading and depth used in
Buddhist cave paintings. e.g. Bagh Caves – Scenes with naturalistic depth
and detailing.

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Cave paintings in Eastern India

Cave paintings in Eastern India reflect regional creativity and spiritual
traditions, dating back to the Mauryan period and later influenced by
Buddhism, Jainism and local tribal cultures.

Found primarily in Bihar, Odisha and Jharkhand, these paintings illustrate the
cultural evolution of the region.

Features of cave paintings in Eastern India

1. Early Mauryan simplicity: Minimalist art, associated with early Buddhism.
e.g. Barabar caves, Jahanabad
2. Jain influence: Focused on ascetic themes and Jain teachings e.g.
Khandagiri and Udayagiri caves, Odisha
3. Natural pigments: Use of local minerals like red ochre, white clay and
charcoal for painting. e.g. Sitamarhi caves, Bihar
4. Religious symbols: Like lotus flowers, stupas and Jain tirthankaras. e.g.
lotus motifs on Udayagiri caves, Odisha.
5. Depictions of daily life: Scenes of hunting, agriculture and rituals. e.g.
Rock shelters of Jharkhand.

Significance of Cave Paintings in Eastern India

1. Historical value: Provide a glimpse into ancient society, religious evolution
and local traditions.
2. Religious propagation: Jain and Buddhist cave paintings helped in
spreading religious ideologies.
3. Cultural insight: Tribal paintings reflect daily life, traditions and spiritual
practices.

Conclusion

● The cave paintings in Eastern India are a testament to the spirituality and
artistic ingenuity of ancient civilizations.
● From the simplistic motifs of Barabar to the symbolic Jain themes in
Udayagiri, these artworks highlight regional distinctiveness and religious
diversity.
● Although many have faded, they remain an integral part of India's cultural
legacy.

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