Socialism in Europe & The Russian Revolution

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The fall of monarchy in Russia in February 1917 and the events of October is called the Russian Revolution. How did
this come about? What were the social and political conditions in Russia when the revolution occurred? To answer
these questions, let us look at the situation in Europe and Russia a few years before the Revolution.

Through the revolution in Russia, socialism became one of the most significant and powerful ideas to shape society in the
twentieth century.

In Russia the government headed by Tsar Nicholas II was very oppressive. The common people began to hate him.
Popular discontentment rose to a new height when Russia was defeated by Japan (1904-05). In the wake of this defeat,
a large number of secret revolutionary parties sprang up. In March 1917, the Tsar was forced to abdicate and a
provisional government of moderate social revolutionaries was formed. On November 7, 1917, the Bolsheviks under
Lenin brought the downfall of the Menshevik government and established a Soviet Republic.

This chapter traces the story of this Revolution. However, to understand this, we need to first understand the Era of
Social Change in Europe that was heralded by the French Revolution.

THE AGE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Many social changes were taking place in Europe in the eighteenth century. The French Revolution inspired the people
with the ideals of liberty, equality and justice. Many people had different views about how the Government should
work and about the rights of people. While some people wanted the establishment of democratic principles, the others
supported the monarchical form of the government.

Groups of People in Europe

 The three main groups of people at this time were the Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives. Please note the details
below:

The Conservatives
● The conservatives opposed the views and ideologies of the liberals and the radicals.
● They believed in the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and the wealthy class. However, after the French
Revolution, conservatives believed in bringing changes at a slow pace in society.
● The conservatives believed that the past should be respected and changes in society should be made
gradually.
The Liberalists
● They wanted a change in society. They wanted nations to be tolerant of all religions.
● They believed in safeguarding the rights of people against the Government. They also argued for elected
Parliamentarian Government.
● The liberals however were not democrats as they did not favour the principle of universal adult franchise.
They were in favour of voting only by men and the propertied class.
The Radicals
● The radicals wanted a government duly elected by the majority of the country’s population.
● Many radicals supported women’s movements to achieve voting rights.
● They opposed the privileges enjoyed by landowners and wealthy factory owners
● They were not against the notion of private property but were against the concentration of money in the
hands of few sections of society.

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CHANGE:

Society in Russia and Europe was fast industrializing and changing in the following ways:

● New cities came up and new industrialized regions developed.

● Railways expanded and the Industrial Revolution occurred.
● Industrialization brought men, women and children to work in factories. Working hours were often long and
wages were low.
● Unemployment was common, especially during times of low demand for industrial goods.
● There were problems with housing and sanitation since towns were growing rapidly.

THE COMING OF SOCIALISM TO EUROPE AND RUSSIA:

(i) What is socialism?

By the mid-nineteenth century in Europe, socialism was a well known body of ideas that attracted widespread
attention. Socialists were against private property, and saw it as the root of all social evils of the time.

(ii) Why did this ideology emerge?

Individuals owned the property (example: factories) that gave employment but they were concerned only with personal
gain and not with the welfare of those who made the property productive. So if society as whole rather than single
individuals controlled property, more attention would be paid to collective social interests. Socialists wanted this
change and campaigned for it.

Karl Marx’s view: Marx believed that to free themselves from capitalist exploitation, workers had to construct a
radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled. This would be a communist society. He was
convinced that workers would triumph in their conflict with capitalists.
Do read the box below to understand the views of other socialist thinkers:

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Ruler: Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire.

Territories :Besides the territory around Moscow, the Russian empire included current-day Finland, Lithuania, and
Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine and Belarus and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia
and Azerbaijan.
Religion: The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity – but the empire also included Catholics,
Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists.
CONDITIONS IN RUSSIAN BEFORE THE REVOLUTION
Economic and Social conditions:
● Peasants and workers formed most of the Czarist Russia’s population including the Non-Russian nationalities.
Their condition was miserable.
● Russia was industrially a backward country. The condition of the workers was bad. They were forced to work
for long hours on low wages.
● Both the workers and peasants had no meaningful place in the society. they had no political rights. In, contrast
the nobility at the top enjoyed all the privileges in the state.
● Corruption was widespread at all levels. the condition of the soldiers was also not satisfactory.
● Two classes of the Russian Society: The king, the nobles and the clergy were at the top. This privileged class
consisted of just ten percent of the total population; yet they enjoyed all the benefits and occupied all important
jobs or posts. The serfs (farmers) who stood at the bottom formed about ninety percent of the Russian
population. They led a miserable life; they had to pay a lot of taxes and were often landless.

Political Conditions:
● The Russian Czars continued to enjoy unlimited powers and were cruel and irresponsible as before. They never
cared for the welfare of their people. The Royal family was also corrupt and immoral
● Czar Nicholas II still believed in the old concept of ‘Divine Right of Kingship’.
● The Russian Czars had built a vast empire by conquering diverse nationalities in Asia and Europe. The Czars
 forced the people there to adopt the Russian language and culture.
● The Czar’s policy of expansion also brought them in conflict or wars with other major imperialist powers.
● People were taxed heavily to maintain armed forces. Only the nobility supported the Czar as all important
positions in the state were occupied by the nobility.
● All officials were recruited from the upper classes only. They were corrupt and inefficient.
● The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by the socialists. However, because
political parties were illegal in Russia, the party had to work as an illegal organisation.
● The Socialist Revolutionary Party was formed in 1900 which struggled for the rights of peasants. The Social
Democrats differed from the Socialist Revolutionary Party on the issue of farmers. The latter under Lenin
believed that peasants cannot be part of the socialist movement as some peasants were poor, some were rich
and some even employed workers on their fields.

Figure 1: Red Square: The February Revolution soon spread throughout Russia. Red Square was one of its key locations outside of St. Petersburg, particularly
in the early days, when political speeches and rallies were held outside the Kremlin. As you stand in Red Square, surrounded by the beautiful historic buildings
with their iconic Russian feel, you will feel as if history has surrounded you.

A TURBULENT TIME: THE 1905 REVOLUTION

Bloody Sunday:
On January 9, 1905 a body of peaceful workers led by Father Gapon, with their wives and children was fired at in St.
Petersburg. They were on their way to present a petition to the Czar there. Over a thousand of them were killed and
many more wounded in the firing. This day came to be known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ as the massacre had taken place on
Sunday.

A dress Rehearsal:
The 1905 revolution proved to be a dress rehearsal of the revolution that came in 1917. The incident of Bloody Sunday
caused widespread disturbances all over Russia. Strikes took place in many Russian towns. Mutinies or rebellions
broke out in the navy and the army. The sailors of the battleship ‘Potemkin’ joined the revolutionaries. The work in
trade and industry came to a standstill. Workers in factories, docks and railways also went on a strike. The soldiers and
the representatives of the non-Russian nationalities came into close contact with the revolutionaries (Bolsheviks) in the
country.

Impact of 1905 Revolution:

● The Czar’s Manifesto: Forced by the revolution Czar issued a manifesto in October, 1905. He promised to
grant freedom of speech, press and assembly.
● Formation of Duma: Also promised a constitution and an elected body called the ‘Duma’ to make the laws.
● Implementation: The implementations of the proposals given in the manifesto were not implemented
effectively and the Czar reversed his decision.

● Formation of Soviets: The 1905 revolution gave birth to a new form of organization, called the ‘Soviet’. It
was the council of workers representatives to conduct strikes, but soon it became the instruments of political
power. Soviets played a decisive role, particularity in the 1917 October Revolution.
● Actual powers of Duma: The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second Duma
within three months. He changed the voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians.
Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out.
Figure 2: The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg was the home of the Provisional Government. Today this impressive building is home to a modern art museum,
and the calm space belies its troubled past. Throughout the whole museum, visitors are able to see the history of Russia laid out in the paintings and objects
on display.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

● In Russia, the war was initially popular and people

rallied around Tsar Nicholas II. Later the Tsar refused to
consult the main parties in the Duma and the support for the
war began to wane.

● The common people’s support also declined due to

continued hardships.

● Soldiers did not wish to fight such a war since there were
constant defeats and increasing casualties.

● Industries suffered a setback, railway lines began to

break down and there were labour shortages since most of
the men were fighting on the front.

● Large supplies of grain were sent to feed the army. By

the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.

Please see the map below to see the countries which fought in the World War I:
 THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PETROGRAD

● In February 1917, there were food shortages in Russia. While the working class was disgruntled because
of the shortages of food supplies, the Parliamentarians opposed the decision of the Tsar to dissolve the
Duma.
● On 22 February, there was a lockout at a factory by the workers. More workers from other factories joined
them. Many women led the strike in factories. In many factories, women led the way to strikes. This came
to be called the International Women’s Day. Curfew was imposed by the Government to control the
protests.
● In next few days, more people joined the revolution. Politicians, workers and middle class people began
demonstrations demanding less working hours, more wages and democracy. They were later joined by the
cavalry and soldiers. Workers formed a ‘soviet’ which later came to be known as the Petrograd Soviet.
● The Tsar abdicated the throne, and a new provisional government was formed by the Soviet leaders. The
Petrograd Revolution finally brought an end to the Russian monarchy in February 1917.
● The King was forced to abdicate the throne.

ROLE OF LENIN
● In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia. He had earlier demanded that the war should be brought to
an end, land should be distributed among the peasants and banks should be nationalised. This came to be
known as Lenin’s ‘April Theses’.
● During this time in Russia, the committees of workers were formed to look into the working of the industries.
● Similarly, peasants under the Socialist leaders formed their own groups and land committees were formed to
handle the distribution of lands to peasants.
● Lenin’s “Fundamental Law for a successful revolution was that the:
● People should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be ready to sacrifice their lives for it.
● Existing government should be in a state of crisis to make it possible for to be overthrown rapidly.
● The four fold demand of the Russian Revolutionaries
● Land to the tiller. Land of the nobles, Church and the Czar was to be taken over and transferred to the
peasant families for distribution.
● Control of industry was to be handed over to the workers or workers soviets.
● Peace for all, in particular to soldiers who were suffering heavy losses on the front.
● Equal status was to be granted to all non-Russian nationalities living in the Russian territories.

COURSE OF THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION

Do read the flow chart below to know how the October Revolution took place:

While the February Revolution led to the end to monarchy in Russia, October Revolution led to an end
of provisional government. Russia was declared as a socialist country after the October Revolution.
CHANGES IN RUSSIA AFTER THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION: OCTOBER PROCLAMATION

● The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party. The Bolsheviks were totally
opposed to private property
● After the Bolsheviks held power in Russia, land was declared as a social property and peasants
were allowed to capture the lands of the nobility.
● Most of the industries and banks were nationalised by 1917. This meant that the government took over
ownership and management
● In cities, large houses were divided into several quarters according to the size of the family.
● The Bolsheviks banned the use of the old titles of aristocracy. To assert the change, new uniforms
were designed for the army and officials, following a clothing competition organised in 1918 – when
the Soviet hat (budeonovka) was chosen
● Later, the Bolsheviks conducted elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain
majority votes. Lenin dismissed the Assembly.
● The Bolsheviks became the only party in Russia which could contest the elections. Thus, Russia
became a one-party state. Police sentenced and punished those people who criticized the
Bolsheviks. While on one hand, many people supported the Bolsheviks as they stood for
socialism, on the other hand, people were also disillusioned with the party because of the
censorship imposed by them.

Questions:
1. What were the features of Industrial society in Russia and Europe? (2)
2. What were the consequences of the Revolution of 1905? (2)
3. How did the ideas of Karl Marx contribute to the Russian Revolution? (2)
4. What were the causes of the 1905 Revolution? (3)
5. What was the impact of the First World War on Russia? (3)
6. How would you distinguish between Radicals, Liberals and Conservatives? (3)
7. Imagine that a meeting has been called in your area to discuss the socialist idea of doing away with
private property and introducing collective ownership. Write the speech you would make at the
meeting if you are: (3x3)
● a poor labourer working in the fields
● a medium-level landowner
● a house owner
8. What were the features of the Proclamation declared after the October Revolution? (5)