Course Title: Differential Calculus and Integral Calculas

Course code: MATH 101

Submitted by
Name: AFIA AUNZUM MEEM
Id: 243000110
Section: 1
Department: EEE

Submitted to,
Faculty name: Mashky Chowdhury Surja
Designation: Lecturer
Topics:

1. The essence of Calculus

2. The paradox of the derivative
3.Derivative formulas through geometry
4.Visualising the chain rule and product rule
5. What's so special about Euler's number e?
6. Implicit differentiation
7. Limits, L' Hopital's rule and epsilon delta definitions
8.Integration and the fundamental theorem of Calculus
9.What does area have to do with slope?
10. Higher order derivatives
11.Taylor series
 The Essence of Calculus

Calculus is made up of two main parts, both involving many rules and formulas. In
the fundamental section of calculus, we aim to explain the origins of these rules and
what they actually represent. The main ideas of calculus are best understood through
visual and intuitive methods, often by engaging with geometric principles. For
example, the concept of a circle’s area can help reveal the foundational ideas of
calculus.

Here is a diagram of a circle with radius RR. Suppose we apply the idea of dividing
the circle into multiple homocentric rings, and consider one of these rings with an
inner radius rr, where rr is between 0 and RR. What is its area? If we "straighten"
out this ring, we get a shape that closely approximates a rectangle. The width of
this rectangle is the perimeter of the ring, which is 2πr2\pi r. The thickness of the
rectangle is drdr, representing a small change in the radius between two adjacent
rings. As drdr becomes infinitesimally small, the sum becomes exact. This is the
main concept of integration, and the total area of the circle can be found using this
approach.

Area= 𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The graph of 2 pi r forms a triangle

Area = 1 2 × base × height = R × (2πR) = πR2

This confirms the formula for the area of a circle
The area of a circle is given by πr2, and this formula originates from the principles
of calculus. To approximate the area of a circle, we can divide it into many
homocentric rings. Each ring's area can be approximated by a rectangle, where the
width is the perimeter of the ring and the height is the thickness of the ring. By
summing the areas of all these rectangles, we get an approximation of the circle's
area. As the thickness of the rings becomes smaller and smaller, the approximation
improves. In the limit, as the thickness approaches zero, the sum of the rectangle
areas gives the exact area of the circle. This is the fundamental concept of calculus.
 The paradox of the derivative

A derivative represents the sudden rate of change. Change itself occurs between
distinct moments in time, but when you focus exclusively on a single instant,
there’s no space for change to occur.

In this graph, the horizontal axis represents time, while the vertical axis indicates
the distance covered.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
From the graph the equation of velocity =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 𝑦2−𝑦1
The equation of the slope is m= . So, we can say the slope of the equation
𝑥2−𝑥1
and acceleration are same.

The slope is not the sudden rate of change but rather the best constant
approximation of the rate of change near a point. In pure mathematics, the

derivative is not simply the ratio 𝑑𝑠 for a specific value of 𝑑𝑡 Instead, it is the
value
𝑑𝑡

that this ratio approaches as 𝑑𝑡 gets arbitrarily close to zero.

derivative equation-

𝑑𝑠 𝑠(𝑡+𝑑𝑡)−𝑠(𝑡)
(t)=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠 (2+𝑑𝑡)3 −23
(2)=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡
(𝑡) = 3𝑡 2

Slope=12

𝒅𝒔
(𝒕) = 𝟑𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕
 Derivatives formula through geometry

Rules :
d
x n = nx n−1
dx

𝑑
sin(𝑥) = cos(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cos(𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑎 𝑥 = ln (𝑎)𝑎 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

f(x) = x^n “Power Rule

f(x) = 1/x
The height of the rectangle adjusts to ensure the area of the puddle remains
constant at 1. Increasing the width by 𝑑 1 adds a small amount of area to the right.
𝑥
To balance this, the height must decrease by d1xd \frac{1}{x}, so the area lost at
the top offsets the area gained on the side.
To find the derivative of with respect to x, we can rewrite the square root
function in exponential form:

Now, we can use the power rule for differentiation:

𝑑
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛. 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

sine

In this graph, the sine function moves up and down between 1 and -1, forming the
classic wave pattern. At θ=0\theta = 0, the slope is positive because the sine
function is rising. As we progress to the right and the sine function nears its
maximum, the slope decreases to 0.
f(θ) = sin (θ)

𝑑(sin(𝜃)) 𝐴𝑑𝑗
= = cos (𝜃)
𝑑𝜃 𝐻𝑦𝑝

Visualizing the Chain Rule and Product rule

Sum Rule: The derivative of a sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives .
𝑑 𝑑𝑔 𝑑ℎ
(𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥)) = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sum of f(x)=sin(x)+𝑥2-
From the graph, we can observe that the change in sin⁡(x)\sin(x)sin(x) is
approximately cos(x)×dx cos(x) \times dxcos(x)×dx. This change is proportional to
the size of the initial dx, with the proportionality constant being
cos(x)\cos(x)cos(x) at the starting input. For x2 the change in the graph is 2x×dx.
𝑑𝑦
Rearranging , the ratio of the small change in the function to the small change in
𝑑𝑥
x that caused it, gives cos(x)+2x which is the sum of the derivatives of the
individual components.

𝑑
Product Rule:- The product rule of differentiation is used to find the derivative
𝑑𝑥

of the product of two functions, then the derivative of their product is given by:-

𝑑 𝑑
[𝑢(𝑥). 𝑣(𝑥)] = 𝑢 𝑣+𝑣 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Function Composition : Function composition is a mathematical concept where

two or more functions are combined to create a new function. Simply put, the
output of one function becomes the input of another.
If you have two functions:
g(x)=sin(x), h(x)=𝑥2
The derivative of new function is-

We’ll set up three separate number lines: the top one represents the value of x, the
middle one represents x2, and the bottom one represents sin(x2). The function
x2maps values from the first line to the second, while the sine function maps values
from the second line to the third. From the graph, the small change on the bottom
line is approximately cos(x2)×dx2.This intermediate change, dx2 is roughly 2x×dx.

So we can write,

𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑ℎ
𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)) = (ℎ(𝑥)) (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

This patter right here is what we usually call the chain rule
What is so special about Euler’s number e:

2𝑑𝑡 2𝑡 − 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Rate of change in a small time

since it makes sense to ask about a tiny change in mass over a tiny fraction of a day
but it doesn’t make as much sense to ask the change in a discrete population. Size
per second more abstractly, for a tiny change in time,
dt f(x) = 2x

Deriving the key-

M(t) = 2

𝑑𝑀 2𝑑𝑡 2𝑡 −2𝑡
(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑀 2𝑑𝑡 −1
(𝑡) = 2𝑡 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑀
(𝑡) = 2𝑡 (0.6931472 … . . )
𝑑𝑡
 2𝑡 0.001−1
Typing in , you’ll notice that as dt becomes smaller and smaller, this value
0.001
approaches a specific number, approximately 0.6931.
If we interpret 2t2^t as representing population size—perhaps of a rapidly
multiplying group of pie creatures doubling each day—this captures the
continuous growth rate. Unlike a population growing in discrete steps with each
new pie creature, this models the growth as smooth and continuous over time.
e=
𝑑(𝑎𝑡 )
= 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
There is e = 2.71828
M(t) = 𝑒𝑡

𝑑𝑀 𝑒 𝑑𝑡−1
(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Natural logs

𝑑(𝑒 3𝑡 )
= 𝑒 3𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝑒 3𝑡 )
= 3𝑒 3𝑡
𝑑𝑡

2 = 𝑒 ln(2)𝑡

The number 2 can also be written as a e to the natural log of 2. There is nothing
extravagant here, this is just the definition of the natural log.
In the function 2 to the t is the some as the function e to the power of the natural
log of 2 times t and from what we just saw, combining the fact that e to the t is it’s
own derivative with the chain rule, the derivative of this function is proportional to
itself, with a proportionality constant equal to the natural log of 2
 log 𝑒(2) log 𝜋(2) log 42(2)
2𝑡 = 𝑒 (0.69315..)𝑡 = 𝜋 (0.69315… )𝑡 = 42 (0.18545… )𝑡

Writing ect is a choice-

All sorts of natural phenomena involve some rate of change that’s proportional to
the things that’s changing

For example, the rate of growth of a population tend to be proportional to be size

of the population itself assuming there isn’t some limited resources slowing things
down

𝑒 0.00001 − 1
= 1.0000050
0.00001
 Implicit differentiation
Implicit differentiation is a method in calculus used to calculate the derivative of a
function when the relationship between the variables is expressed implicitly, rather
than in a direct or explicit form.
here is the graph-

Consider a circle with a radius of 5, centered at the origin of the xy-plane. The
equation defining this circle is x2+y2=52, meaning that all points on the circle are a
distance of 5 from the origin, as described by the Pythagorean theorem, where the
sum of the squares of the two legs of a right triangle equals the square of the
hypotenuse,52. Now, let's find the slope of the tangent line to the circle at the point
(3,4). We know that this tangent line is perpendicular to the radius at that point.
As with other problems involving the slopes of tangent lines to curves, the main
idea here is to zoom in enough so that the curve essentially resembles its tangent
line, and then examine a tiny movement along the curve. The vertical change in
that small step is called dy, and the horizontal change is dx, so the slope we're
𝑑𝑦
looking for is the ratio of rise to run, or However, unlike typical tangent slope
𝑑𝑥

problems in calculus, this curve does not represent the graph of a function.
Therefore, we can't simply apply a basic derivative to determine how a small
change in the input affects the output. In this case, x is not just an input, and y is
not merely an output—they are both interdependent variables linked by an
equation.
This is called an implicit curve, which represents the set of all points x, y that
𝑑𝑦
satisfy a condition involving both variables x and y. To find for curves like this,
𝑑𝑥

we differentiate both sides of the equation. For x2, the derivative gives 2x×dx, and
for y, we get 2y×dy. The derivative of the constant 52 on the right side is 0. By
𝑑𝑦
simplifying and rearranging the resulting equation, we can solve for , which in
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3
this case becomes − . At the point (x,y)=(3,4)the slope of the tangent line is -
𝑦 4
This technique is known as implicit differentiation.

Limits, L' Hopital's rule and epsilon delta definitions

A limit is the value that function sequence or expression approaches as the input or
index approaches a specific point or infinity

Ex.

(2+𝑑𝑥)3 −23 𝑛
lim ( )
𝑑𝑥→0 𝑛

Formal definition of derivatives

𝑑𝑓 𝑓(2+ℎ)−𝑓(2)
(2) = lim ( )
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

The equation represents the definition of the derivative, which measure the
instantaneous rate of change of a function f(x) at a specific point (here, x=2)
It calculates the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at x=2
 Y-Values
5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Let’s move to L’Hopital Rule:

When the upper limit function result shows , then L’Hopital rules have to
use .
Then we have to differentiate the function in nominator and denominator .
Integration and the fundamental theorem of calculus

Unlike breaking a cake into thinner pieces, the number of rectangles increases as
the width (dtdt) of each rectangle becomes smaller. Although the area of each
rectangle decreases, as dtdt approaches zero, the total area under the curve—the
sum of all the rectangles—converges to a specific value. This value is the integral.

Consider the equation t=2x2+5x−6t = 2x2 + 5x - 6, where t represents time. Here, dt

represents the rate of change of velocity in the graph. Suppose t= 0 and ends up at
8. To determine the exact value, we need to use integration.
The fundamental theorem of calculus bridges the concepts of integration and
differentiation. It explains that the derivative of a function f(x) corresponds to the
area under the curve of a function being integrated. To evaluate an integral, start by
finding the antiderivative of f(x). The value of the integral is then the difference
between the values of f(x) at the upper and lower limits. In essence, it enables us to
determine the total area under the curve by using the boundary points.
 What does area have to do with slope?

If we examine this graph and want to find the average value of sin(x) between 0
and π, we can calculate it by taking the integral of sin(x) from 0 to π, and then
dividing by the width of the interval, which is π. This gives us the average value as
𝜋
∫0 sin(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜋
What is the antiderivative of sin(x)?
Here example of Derivative function-

𝑑 (cos )
(𝑥 ) = −sin (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

In this graph, to find the average value of fover an interval from aa to b, we

calculate the integral of f over that interval and divide it by the interval's width,
which is b - a.
When evaluating an integral, the key step is to find an antiderivative of the
function, usually denoted as F(x) The goal is to compute the change in this
antiderivative between the limits aa and bb, expressed as F(b)−F(a). This represents
the vertical change in the graph of the antiderivative between these two points.
Even though the antiderivative may pass through zero at the lower bound, it’s
crucial to understand that we can shift the graph up or down by adding any
constant, and it will still be a valid antiderivative.
Therefore, the solution to finding the average value is the change in the height of
the antiderivative graph divided by the change in the x-values between a and b.
This is equivalent to the slope of the antiderivative graph between these two points.
This makes sense because the derivative of F(x) gives the slope of the tangent line
at each point on the graph. Thus, integrals are connected to the idea of determining
the average value through the change in the antiderivative, which can be
understood as a slope.

Higher order derivatives

Picture a graph where the second derivative at x=4is strongly positive, meaning the
slope is increasing quickly around that point. Compare this to another graph where
the second derivative at x=4 is still positive but smaller, indicating a slower rate of
increase in the slope. At locations where there’s no curvature, the second derivative
becomes zero.

Taylor series
The Taylor series expresses a function as an infinite sum of terms derived from its
derivatives at a specific point. In calculus, it provides a method to approximate
functions with polynomials, particularly useful when the exact function is
challenging or impractical to evaluate directly.
Consider the function cos(x)-

Let’s analyze the function cos(x).

At x=0, the value of cos(x) is 1. For our approximation to be accurate, it must also
equal 1 when x=0. Substituting x=0 into the polynomial approximation leaves just
the constant c0, so we set c0=1. This ensures the polynomial matches cos(x) at x=0.
The coefficients c1 and c2 can then be adjusted to improve the approximation, but
they won’t affect the fact that the polynomial equals 1 at x = 0.
The derivative of cos(x) is −sin(x), which equals 0 at x=0. This means the tangent
line is flat at this point. When we differentiate the quadratic approximation, it gives
c1+2c2x
Additionally, the second derivative of the polynomial is 2c2. To ensure it matches
the second derivative of cos(x), which is −1 at x=0, we set 2c2= −1. Solving this,
c2= −1.
2

This gives the approximation 1+0x− x2. Using this to estimate cos(0.1), we find
the result is approximately 0.995, which is very close to the actual value of
cos(0.1).