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Advanced Integration
Techniques

Advanced approaches for solving many complex integrals using special functions, some
transformations and complex analysis approaches

Third Version

ZAID ALYAFEAI
YEMEN

mailto:[email protected]
Contents

1 Differentiation under the integral sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.1 Basic Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.1.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.3 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.4 Inverse Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.5 Interesting results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.5.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.5 Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.5.1 Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.5.2 Reduction formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.6 Other Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.6.1 Euler Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.6.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.6.3 Weierstrass Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.7 Laurent expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.9 More values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.10 Legendre Duplication Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1
 3.11 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.12 Euler’s Reflection Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.13 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.14 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4 Beta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1.1 First integral formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1.2 Second integral formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1.3 Geometric representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.9 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.10 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5 Digamma function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.3 Difference formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.3.1 First difference formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.3.2 Second difference formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.5 Series Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.6 Some Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.8 Integral representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.8.1 First Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.8.2 Second Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.8.3 Third Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.8.4 Fourth Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2
 5.9 Gauss Digamma theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.10 More results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.11 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.12 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.13 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.14 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.15 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6 Zeta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6.2 Bernoulli numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6.3 Relation between zeta and Bernoulli numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6.5 Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6.6 Hurwitz zeta and polygamma functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6.6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6.6.2 Relation between zeta and polygamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7 Dirichlet eta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7.2 Relation to Zeta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7.3 Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

8 Polylogarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.2 Relation to other functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.3 Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8.4 Square formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

8.5 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

8.6 Dilogarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8.6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8.6.2 First functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8.6.3 Second functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8.6.4 Third functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

8.6.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3
 8.6.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8.6.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

8.6.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

9 Ordinary Hypergeometric function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

9.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

9.2 Some expansions using the hypergeomtric function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

9.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9.4 Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9.5 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

9.6 Special values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

10 Error Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10.2 Complementary error function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10.3 Imaginary error function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10.4 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10.5 Relation to other functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

10.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

10.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

10.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

10.9 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

10.10 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

11 Exponential integral function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

11.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

11.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

11.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

11.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

11.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

11.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

11.7 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

12 Complete Elliptic Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

12.1 Complete elliptic of first kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

12.2 Complete elliptic of second kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

12.3 Hypergeometric representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4
 12.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

12.5 Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

12.6 Special values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

12.7 Differentiation of elliptic integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

13 Euler sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

13.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

13.2 Generating function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

13.3 Integral representation of Harmonic numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

13.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

13.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

13.6 General formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

13.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

13.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

13.9 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

13.10 Relation to polygamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

13.11 Integral representation for r=1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

13.12 Symmetric formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

13.13 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

14 Sine Integral function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

14.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

14.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

14.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

14.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

14.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

14.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

14.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

14.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

15 Cosine Integral function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

15.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

15.2 Relation to Euler constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

15.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

15.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

15.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5
 15.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

15.7 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

15.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

16 Integrals involving Cosine and Sine Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

16.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

16.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

17 Logarithm Integral function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

17.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

17.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

17.3 Find the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

17.4 Find the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

17.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

17.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

18 Clausen functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

18.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

18.2 Duplication formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

18.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

18.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

19 Clausen Integral function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

19.1 Definiton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

19.2 Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

19.3 Duplication formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

19.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

19.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

19.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

19.7 Second Integral representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

19.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

20 Barnes G function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

20.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

20.1.1 Functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

20.2 Reflection formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

20.3 Values at positive integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

20.4 Relation to Hyperfactorial function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

6
 20.5 Loggamma integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

20.6 Glaisher-Kinkelin constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

20.7 Relation to Glaisher-Kinkelin constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

20.8 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

20.9 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

20.10 Relation to Howrtiz zeta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

20.11 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

21 Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

21.1 Introduction to complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

21.2 Polar representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

21.3 Complex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

21.3.1 Exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

21.3.2 Sine and Cosine and hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

21.3.3 Complex logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

21.4 Taylor and Laurent expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

21.5 Poles and residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

21.6 Integration around paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

21.7 Bounds on integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

21.8 Contours around poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

22 Real integrals using contour integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

22.1 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

22.1.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

22.2 Integrating around an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

22.2.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

22.3 Creating crazy integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

22.3.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

22.3.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

22.3.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

22.4 Trigonometric functions with rationals of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

22.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

22.5 Integration along contours with detours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

22.5.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

22.6 Integrals of functions with branch cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

7
 22.6.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

22.6.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

22.6.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

22.6.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

22.6.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

22.6.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

22.7 Rectangular contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

22.7.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

22.7.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

22.7.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

22.8 Triangular contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

22.8.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

22.9 Residue at infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

22.9.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

22.10 Inverse of Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

22.10.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

22.11 Infinite sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

22.11.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

8
ÕækQË@ áÔgQË@ é<Ë@ Õæ„.

9
Acknowledgement

I want to offer my sincerest gratitude to all those who supported me during my journey to finish this

book. Especially my parents, sisters and friends who supported the idea of this book. I also want to

thank my Math teachers at King Fahd University because I wouldn’t be able to learn the advanced

without having knowledge of the elementary. I also want to extend my thanks to all my friends on the

different math forums like MMF, MHB and stack exchange without them I wouldn’t be learning any

thing.

Reviewers

A special thank for Mohammad Nather Shaaban for reviewing some parts of the book.

What is new?

The new version is all about contour integration using the concepts from complex analysis. One might

deviate from such approaches because of the heavy theory behind them but I tried to give a brief

overview of the theory before delving deep into approaches.

The future work

I have a plan to add many other sections. Basically I’ll try to focus on transformations like Mellin and

fourier transforms. Also many other functions like the Jacobi theta function and q-series.

10
Introduction

This book is a summary of working on advanced integrations for around five years. It collects many

examples that I gathered during that period. The approaches taken to solve the integrals aren’t neces-

sarily the only and best methods but they are offered for the sake of explaining the topic. Most of the

content of this book I already wrote on mathhelpboards.com during the past three years but I thought

that publishing it using a pdf would be easier to read and distribute. The motivation behind this book is

to allow those who are interested in solving complicated integrals to be able to use the different methods

to solve them efficiently. When I started learning about these techniques I would suffer to get enough

information about all the required approaches so I tried to collect every thing in just one book. You are

free to distribute this book and use any of the methods to solve the integrals or use the same techniques.

The methods used are not necessarily new or ground-breaking but as I said they introduce the concept

as easy as possible.

To follow this book you have to be know the basic integration techniques like integration by parts, by

substitution and by partial fractions. I don’t assume that the readers know any other stuff from any

other topics or advanced courses from mathematics. Usually the details that require deep knowledge of

analysis or advanced topics are left or just touched upon lightly to give the reader some hints but not

going into details.

After reading this book you should be able to solve many advanced integrals that you might face

in engineering courses. I hope you enjoy reading this book and if you have any suggestions, com-

ments or correction I will be happy to recieve them through my email mailto:[email protected]

or this email mailto:[email protected]. Also I am avilable as a staff member at http://www.

mathhelpboards.com if you have some questions that I could reply to you directly using Latex.

11
1 Differentiation under the integral sign

This is one of the most commonly used techniques to solve a numerous number of questions.

Assume that we have the following function of two variables

b
∫ f (x, y) dx
a

Then we can differentiate with respect to y provided that f is continuous and has a partial continuous

derivative on a chosen interval

b
F ′ (y) = ∫ fy (x, y) dx
a

Now using this in many problems is not that clear you have to think a lot to get the required answer

because many integrals are usually in one variable so you need to introduce the second variable and

assume it is a function of two variables.

1.1 Example

Assume we want to solve the following integral

1 x2 − 1
∫ dx
0 log(x)
That seems very difficult to solve but using this technique we can solve it easily. The crux move is to

decide where to put the second variable! So the problem with the integral is that we have a logarithm

in the denominator which makes the problem so difficult to tackle! Remember that we can get a natural

logarithm if we differentiate exponential functions i.e F (a) = 2a ⇒ F ′ (a) = log(2) ⋅ 2a

Applying this to our problem

1 xa − 1
F (a) = ∫ dx
0 log(x)
Now we take the partial derivative with respect to a

1 ∂ xa − 1 1 1
F ′ (a) = ∫ ( ) dx = ∫ xa dx =
0 ∂a log(x) 0 a+1
Integrate with respect to a

F (a) = log (a + 1) + C

12
To find the value of the constant put a = 0

F (0) = log(1) + C Ô⇒ C = 0

This implies that

1 xa − 1
∫ dx = log (a + 1)
0 log(x)
By this powerful method we were not only able to solve the integral we also found a general formula for

some a where the function is differentiable in the second variable.

To solve our original integral put a = 2

1 x2 − 1
∫ dx = log (2 + 1) = log(3)
0 log(x)

1.2 Example

Find the following integral

π
2 x
∫ dx
0 tan x
So where do we put the variable a here? that doesn’t seem to be straight forward , how do we proceed ?

Let us try the following

π
2 arctan(a tan(x))
F (a) = ∫ dx
0 tan(x)
Now differentiate with respect to a

π
1
F ′ (a) = ∫
2
dx
0 1 + (a tan(x))2
It can be proved that

π
2 1 π
∫ dx =
0 1 + (a tan(x))2 2(1 + a)
Now Integrate both sides

π
F (a) = log(1 + a) + C
2
Substitute a = 0 to find C = 0

13
 π
2 arctan(a tan(x)) π
∫ dx = log(1 + a)
0 tan(x) 2
Put a = 1 in order to get our original integral

π
2 x π
∫ dx = log(2)
0 tan(x) 2

1.3 Example
∞ sin(x)
∫ dx
0 x
This problem can be solved by many ways , but here we will try to solve it by differentiation. So as I

showed in the previous examples it is generally not easy to find the function to differentiate. Actually

this step might require trial and error techniques until we get the desired result, so don’t just give up if

an approach doesn’t work!

Let us try this one

∞ sin(ax)
F (a) = ∫ dx
0 x
If we differentiated with respect to a we would get the following

∞
F ′ (a) = ∫ cos(ax) dx
0

But unfortunately this integral doesn’t converge, so this is not the correct one. Actually, the previous

theorem will not work here because the integral is improper.

So let us try the following

∞ sin(x)e−ax
F (a) = ∫ dx
0 x
Take the derivative

∞
F ′ (a) = − ∫ sin(x)e−ax dx
0

Use integration by parts twice

∞ −1
F ′ (a) = − ∫ sin(x)e−ax dx =
0 a2 + 1
Integrate both sides

14
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Book of the Pyrenees, by S.
(Sabine) Baring-Gould

Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet

Archive. See
https://archive.org/details/bookofpyrenees00bariuoft
 A BOOK OF
THE PYRENEES
BY THE SAME AUTHOR

THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

THE TRAGEDY OF THE CÆSARS
STRANGE SURVIVALS
SONGS OF THE WEST
A GARLAND OF COUNTRY SONG
OLD COUNTRY LIFE
YORKSHIRE ODDITIES
OLD ENGLISH FAIRY TALES
A BOOK OF GHOSTS
THE VICAR OF MORWENSTOW
A BOOK OF NURSERY SONGS AND RHYMES
A BOOK OF FAIRY TALES

AND
(Uniform with this Volume)

A BOOK OF BRITTANY
A BOOK OF CORNWALL
A BOOK OF DEVON
A BOOK OF NORTH WALES
A BOOK OF SOUTH WALES
A BOOK OF THE RHINE
A BOOK OF THE RIVIERA
 LA VALLÉE DU LYS

A BOOK OF
THE PYRENEES
BY
S. BARING-GOULD
AUTHOR OF “A BOOK OF BRITTANY,” “A BOOK OF THE
RIVIERA,” ETC.

IT IS THE SOUL THAT SEES; THE OUTWARD EYES

PRESENT THE OBJECT, BUT THE MIND DESCRIES.
LONGFELLOW

WITH TWENTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS

METHUEN & CO.

36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
LONDON

First Published in 1907

 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

I. The Pyrenean Chain 1

II. Gascony 15
III. Bayonne 30
IV. S. Jean-Pied-de-Port 51
V. Orthez 66
VI. Pau 85
VII. Oloron 114
VIII. The Val d’Ossau 124
IX. Lourdes 134
X. The Lavedan 152
XI. Luz and Cauterets 162
XII. Tarbes 175
XIII. Bagnères 189
XIV. The Val d’Aure 201
XV. Luchon 214
XVI. Couserans 236
XVII. Foix 245
XVIII. La Cerdagne 264
XIX. The Canigou 272
XX. Perpignan 286

Index 305
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
La Vallée du Lys Frontispiece
PAGE

Map of the Pyrenees 1

Natives of Roussillon 4
The Cascade, Gavarnie
From a photograph by Messrs. Levy and Sons, Paris 7
The Cathedral, Bayonne 32
The Coast, Biarritz 44
San Sebastian 48
Pas de Roland 54
The Bridge, Orthez 66
Pau 85
The Castle, Pau 92
Room of Jeanne d’Albret, Castle of Pau 100
Betharam 112
The Basilica, Lourdes 134
The Templar Church, Luz
From a photograph by Messrs. Levy and Sons, Paris 167
La Brèche de Roland
From a photograph by Messrs. Levy and Sons, Paris 169
Choir of S. Bertrand de Cominges 220
Cloisters, S. Bertrand de Cominges 226
La Cascade d’Enfer, Luchon 232
Le Lac d’Oo 234
Vernet les Bains 274
Château de Roussillon 286
Gateway of the Citadel, Perpignan 291
Cathedral Interior, Perpignan 294
The Cloisters of Elne 298

Note.—The illustrations are from photographs by Messrs.

Neurdein frères, of Paris, except where other
acknowledgment is made.
 PREFACE

T
his Book of the Pyrenees follows the same lines as my Book of
the Rhine and Book of the Riviera. It is not a guide, but an
introduction to the chain, giving to the reader a sketch of
the History of the Country he visits.
PYRENEES
THE PYRENEES
 CHAPTER I
THE PYRENEAN CHAIN
The wall of division—A triple chain—Contrasts—Deforesting—
The Catalan of Roussillon—The Basque of Navarre—Roman
roads—The three ports—Central ridge—Trough to the north—
Watershed—Glacial moraines—Lakes—Cirques—Abrupt
termination of the lower valleys—Cave dwellers—Dolmens—
That of Buzy—Landes of Pontacq—The Iberian stock—
Development of language—Auxiliary verbs—The Basque
villages and people.

T
he Pyrenees stand up as a natural wall of demarcation between
two nations, the French and the Spaniards, just as the
mountains of Dauphiné sever the French from the Italians.
It has been remarked that these natural barriers are thrown up to
part Romance-speaking peoples, whereas the mountain ranges sink
to comparative insignificance between the French and the Germans.
Over the Jura the French tongue has flowed up the Rhone to Sierre,
above the Lake of Geneva, so the Spanish or Catalan has overleaped
the Pyrenees in Roussillon, and the Basque tongue has those who
speak it in both cis-Pyrenean and trans-Pyrenean Navarre. The
Pyrenees are the upcurled lips of the huge limestone sea-bed, that
at some vastly remote period was snapped from east to west, and
through the fissure thus formed the granite was thrust, lifting along
with it the sedimentary rocks.

Consequently the Pyrenees consist of from two to three parallel

chains. The central and loftiest is that of granite, but where loftiest is
hidden on the north side by the upturned reef of limestone. On the
south the calcareous bed is lifted in great slabs, but split, and does
not form so ragged and so lofty a range.
The Pyrenees start steeply out of the Mediterranean, which at a
distance of five-and-twenty miles from Cape Creuse, has a depth of
over 500 fathoms, and there the limestone flares white and bald in
the line of the Albères. But to the west the chain does not drop
abruptly into the Atlantic, but trails away for 300 miles, forming the
Asturian mountains, and then, curving south, serves to part Galicia
from Leon. The range of the Pyrenees dividing France from Spain is
350 miles in length.
The chain to the west wears a different aspect from that in the
east. The Basque mountains are clothed with trees, pines and birch,
walnut and chestnut, and above them are turf and heather. But the
eastern extremity is white and barren. This is due to the fact that
the Western Pyrenees catch and condense the vapours from the
Atlantic, whereas the Oriental Pyrenees do not draw to them heavy
and continuous rains. The boundary between the regions and
climates is Mont Carlitte. In the Western Pyrenees the snow line lies
far lower than in the east. On the former of these glaciers hang in
wreaths, whereas there are none in the east.
The contrast between the northern and southern slopes is even
more marked than that between the extremities of the chain. On the
French side are snow, ice, running streams, fertile vales, luxuriant
meadows and forests, and valleys and hillsides that sparkle with
villages smiling in prosperity. But on the southern slope the eye
ranges over barren rocks, sun-baked, scanty pastures, and here and
there at long intervals occur squalid clusters of stone hovels, scarce
fit to shelter goats, yet serving as human habitations.
 To the mountaineers the French side is bach, that in shadow;
the Spanish is soulane, the sunny. At one time this latter slope was
not as arid and desert as at present, but the thriftlessness of man
has shorn down the forests and the teeth of the goats have nipped
off or barked every seedling or sapling thrown up by nature to cover
its nakedness and redress the evil. Thereby the rainfall has been
diminished, and the soil is exposed to be carried away into the plain
A
by every storm that breaks over the heights. Trees are the patient
workers that reconstitute the flesh over the bones of the mountains.
They derive their elements from the air and the rock, and they
perform transformations far more wonderful than those attributed to
the philosopher’s stone. As Victor Hugo sang:—
“Les arbres sont autant de mâchoires qui rongent
Les aliments épars dans l’air souple et vivant;
Ils dévorent la pluie, ils dévorent le vent.
Tout leur est bon: la nuit, la mort. La pourriture
Voit la rose, et lui va porter sa nourriture.”

A
É. Reclus: Géographie universelle, II. “La
France.”

When the trees disappear from a country it shows the

thriftlessness of the inhabitants—“sufficient unto the day is the evil
thereof”; with the axe and the firebrand they destroy in a day what
it will take centuries to replace.
Two non-French races occupy the extremities of the chain and
the lowlands at its feet. In the Basses Pyrénées are the Basques, in
Pyrénées Orientales are the Catalonians, speaking a dialect of the
Spanish of Barcelona.
The whole of Aquitaine, from the Loire to the Pyrenees, the
whole of Western Spain and Portugal, was once occupied by the
Iberians, of whom the Basques are the shrunken residue. All Eastern
France and Eastern Spain were overflowed by the Celts. The Romans
recognized that Spain was in the possession of two races totally
distinct, ethnographically and linguistically, and they termed the
population of the peninsula Celtiberians.
When the Romans arrived on the scene they carried one main
causeway from Arles to Narbonne, and thence to Toulouse, and from
Toulouse to Dax. From this, roads branched to the south and crossed
the Pyrenees into Spain by three gaps, natural doorways—one to the
east, the easiest of all, by Le Perthus, where Pompey set up a
trophy; one by Somport leading from Iluro (Oloron) to Saragossa; a
third by Roncevaux to Pampeluna.
By the first of these ports Hannibal crossed from Spain on his
way to Italy; by it also poured the Saracens to devastate the fields of
Gaul. By Roncevaux Charles the Great passed to menace the
Saracen power, and on his return met there with disaster at the
hands of the Basques, which has been immortalized in song.
East and west were debatable lands. Navarre sat astride on the
ridge, with a foot in Spain and the other in Gascony. To the east was
Roussillon, that pertained to the kings of Aragon, till ceded definitely
to France in 1659.
 NATIVES OF ROUSSILLON

But to revert to the geological structure of the Pyrenees. The

central chain is, as already said, composed of crystalline rocks,
granite, and micaceous schist, whereas the northern chain exhibits
the upturned beds of superincumbent deposits, and on the Spanish
side the limestone lies on the granite. In the department of Haute
Garonne the chains are soldered together by a transverse bar of
mountain.
 J. H. Michon, author of Le Maudit, says well:—

“These mountains reveal to me almost the entire history

of the successive periods in the terrestrial crust. I have but to
follow the torrent of the Arbouste, and mount to the Lac de
Seculéjo, and push farther to the Pic d’Espingo, to find myself
on the crest of the ridge dividing France from Spain. Often at
these altitudes, reaching to 3000 metres above the sea, the
prodigious force which has rent the terrestrial crust in a fault
of eighty leagues in breadth, which has upheaved, as in the
Marboré, enormous masses of limestone that once formed
the basin of seas succeeding each other at different epochs—
often has this phenomenon filled me with amazement. There
in the Marboré lie the beds, retaining their horizontality, as
though the aqueous deposits had been formed at this great
elevation.
“But more commonly the central chain presents to our
view masses of granite of astounding thickness. What a
terrible cataclysm must that have been which thus reft and
upset the globe, changing an extensive plain long submerged
into a gigantic wall of granite shielded right and left with
encasing masses of sedimentary formations which the
upheaved granite has split and displaced in all directions.”

To the north of the Pyrenees lies a deep trough extending from

the Bay of Biscay to the Corbières that links the Pyrenees to the
Cevennes, and which at the present day forms the watershed
between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. This gulf was gradually
silted up by the torrents from the Pyrenees. Masses of rubble may
be seen backing and capping isolated hills of sandstone, and forming
long ridges, as that of the Park at Pau. The drift was from east to
west. All the low hills are crowned with rolled stones. The boulders
vary in size in proportion to the distance they have travelled. At
Pamiers, Tarbes, and Pau they are of the size of a child’s head, but
farther north dwindle to pebbles and gravel, and finally we enter on
a region of clay and sand, which heavy rains convert into quagmires.
Indeed, those of Armagnac, between the Garonne and the Upper
Adour, have hardly their equal in France. These are not glacier
deposits, for the stones and pebbles have been rolled, and the clay
or mud is the chewed or mumbled remains of boulders. At a later
period the entire basin thus choked was lifted high above its original
level.
That there was a glacial period in the south of France is certain,
and the glaciers have left their moraines behind them. The glacier of
Argelez extended in one stream to Lourdes, and then fanned out
towards Tarbes. At Argelez it filled the valley to the height of 4430
feet. To morraine is due the desolate plain of detritus of
Lannemezan. Separated from the mountain spurs by the profound
depression in which flows the Neste, it is attached to the main chain
solely by the isthmus that runs out from the Pic d’Arneille towards
the plains.
The true watershed, between the Atlantic and the
Mediterranean, lies far to the east, on the frontier between Ariège
and the Pyrénées Orientales. All the streams and rivers to the west
of the insignificant chain there flow into the Bay of Biscay. The rivers
to the east are comparatively unimportant, the Aude alone being of
a respectable size; and this does not derive its waters from the main
chain of the Pyrenees, its sources are in the spur that acts as the
watershed.
 THE CASCADE, GAVARNIE

The lakes of the Pyrenees are nothing more than mountain

tarns; the largest is the Lac Lanoux, in Pyrénées Orientales, lying
below an irregular cirque, commanded by the Pic Pédroux. It stands
6500 feet above the sea-level, and is about two and a half miles
long. It is usually frozen over from September to the end of June.
But if the lakes be insignificant, the cirques are of the most
imposing character. There are none in Europe comparable to that of
Gavarnie. This consists of an immense cul-de-sac, a vast
amphitheatre, the stages of limestone capped with snow and ice,
and above it tower five huge snow-clad mountain crests. The arena
is heaped up with rubble brought down by the cascades. The mighty
walls are wept over by water from the thawing glaciers. The highest
fall of all is that in the lap of the cirque; it is a stream that
precipitates itself from a height of 1270 feet, and, speedily resolving
itself into spray, waves in the air like an ostrich plume. Superb as is
the Cirque de Gavarnie in summer its appearance in winter is even
more sublime. Especially is it so when the mountain-tops are
enveloped in vapour. Then the aspect is as of a series of walls with
snow bars intervening, mounting as a giant staircase into heaven;
and the cascades are transformed into crystal columns.
There are other cirques deserving of notice, as that of Estaubé,
commanded by the Pic de Pinède, behind which rises the Mont
Perdu, on Spanish ground.
Troumousse, to the east of Estaubé, is a basin of pasture, girded
about by a rampart 3000 feet in height, above which soars the
Munia, a mass of snow and ice.
From the French side long lush valleys run to the roots of the
first chain between the buttresses, but above this the character of
the scenery changes abruptly. The melted snows descending from
peak and terrace have sawn their way through the barrier imposed
by the northern belt of limestone, feeling for and finding faults,
through which they have torn their way, and debouch abruptly on to
the lower broad valleys out of restricted ravines. Above these gorges
we light on basins, such as that of Luz, green, in spring a sheet of
gold from the crocuses. These were lake-beds, dried up when the
torrents had contrived their escape. The rich vale of Ossau, between
monotonous spurs, ends abruptly above Laruns, and there, through
a cleft in the precipice, rages forth the Gave. It is much the same
with the other Gave. Above Lourdes it glides through a broad, well-
cultivated valley, but at Pierrefite, the mountain barrier is cleft in two
places, through one of which roars forth the river from Luz, through
the other the Gave from Cauterets. The Val de Campan, the Val
d’Arreau, and that of Luchon, have much the same character.
Of the mountains, undoubtedly the Pic de Midi d’Ossau is the
most conspicuous, not on account of its height, for it attains only to
8700 feet, but from its form, resembling a dog’s tooth, cleft near the
summit, glittering with snow, and rising in singular majesty above
the Val d’Ossau, where the mountains fall back respectfully to allow
a full view of its majesty. There are many noble mountains,—the Pic
de Midi de Bigorre, 9436 feet; the Vignemale, 10,820 feet; Mont
Perdu, 11,168 feet; Maladetta of the same height almost to a foot;
but these last hold themselves screened behind the inferior but
snow-clad northern range. The Canigou, however, belongs to this
latter range, and is afflicted with none of the retiring qualities of the
crystalline range. It steps boldly, ostentatiously forth above the plain
of Roussillon, and for long was supposed to be the highest peak of
the Pyrenees, though actually reaching only to 8360 feet. M. Élisée
Reclus says of it:—

“Like Etna, the Canigou is one of those mountains which

rise vigorous as masters over a wide stretch of country. From
below this grey pyramid, cleft with ravines, streaked with
detritus between salient ribs of rock, of every tint, is not a
whit less striking in aspect than the Sicilian volcano.”

To the lover of flowers the Pyrenees present greater attractions

than even the Alps. They lie farther to the south, enjoy more sun,
and exhibit a greater luxuriance of vegetation and more variety in
species. We meet in the Pyrenees with all old Alpine friends and
make fresh acquaintances. Nowhere does the Saxifraga longifolia or
pyramidalis throw up such a jet-d’eau of blossom. I have grown it at
home, but it does not equal the beauty and abundance of flower as
here wild. Nowhere are the geraniums in greater abundance and
variety, springing up among the tufts of sharp-scented box. The
crimson Erodium manescavi, the yellow Hypericum mummularium,
the imbricated Dianthus monspessulanus, and the still more tattered
Dianthus superbus, the purple toothwort, the blue stately aconite or
monkshood, the lemon-coloured Adonis vernalis, the violet
Ramondia pyrenaica, the Primula viscosa and P. auricula, the Lilium
bulbiferum, the Lilium pyrenaicum, and a thousand more. Strange is
it that the Alpen rose, the Rhododendron ferrugineum, should be as
capricious a plant as it is. It luxuriates on the Alps, in the Pyrenees,
and in the Dauphiné Alps; but does not appear in the Cevennes, the
mountains of Auvergne, or Corsica. The great central plateau of
France, though the heights rise to considerable altitudes and the
constituent rocks are the same as those of the Pyrenees and the
Alps, yet are totally devoid of this beautiful shrub.
The earliest inhabitants of the chain of the Pyrenees have left
their traces in the limestone caverns. They were contemporary with
the reindeer, the cave-bear, and hyena. Hardly a grotto that has
been explored does not reveal that these men had lived there.
There are not many megalithic monuments to the north of the
chain, but sufficient remain to show us that the dolmen-builder
occupied the land from sea to sea. At Buzy, near the entrance to the
Val d’Ossau, is a fine dolmen. I saw it first in 1850; it had been
recently dug out by a treasure-seeker. A peasant told me that the
man who had rifled it had found a bar of gold so soft that he could
bend it. In fact, it consisted of pure gold without alloy. Near the
dolmen lay a slab of red sandstone, with circles carved on it, some
concentric, much like the carvings on the stones of Gavr’innis, in
Brittany, and in the great covered way at Drogheda, in Ireland. Not
having a drawing book with me nor a scale, all I could do at the time
was to sketch the sculpture on my cuff. Three weeks later I revisited
Buzy to make a careful drawing to scale of the slab, and found that
in the meantime it had been broken up by the road-menders.
The road from Pau to Tarbes traverses a vast plateau, rising 300
feet above the plain of the Adour. It is composed of marshy
moorland covered with fern and gorse. This is actually the old
moraine deposited by the glacier of Argelez. It is made up of angular
blocks brought down from the mountains, excellent material from
which to construct mortuary cells. And on this plateau we find tumuli
in remarkable abundance. This, as well as Lannemezan, must have
served as huge cemeteries. Of late these cairns have been
excavated, and prove to cover dolmens and covered avenues; one,
the Grande Butte of the lande of Pontacq, contains a megalithic
chamber, recalling the finest monuments of the kind in Brittany.
The tumulus of La Hallade had been violated in the Iron Age,
and used then as a place of interment; but underneath the cinerary
urns of the Early Gaulish period was discovered the prehistoric
monument intact—a long low gallery of stones set on edge and
covered with flat slabs. It was subdivided into eight cells, and
contained twenty-three vases, some of which contained burnt bones,
flakes of schist and quartz, a handful of turquoise beads, and a little
blade of gold.
That the people of the rude stone monuments have their
modern representatives in the Basques is probable. All this region
was held by the Vascones, who gave to it their name—Gascony.
They were driven over the Pyrenees by the Gauls, but in the sixth
century they forced their way back to their old dwelling places and
the tombs of their fathers, and falling on Novempopulania, as the
territory was then called, defeated the Duke Bladastus, in 581, and
settled down on the plains. But they were beaten in their turn, and,
abandoning the plains, settled in those districts known as Labourde,
Soule, and Lower Navarre.
The Basques are a people of great interest to the ethnologist, as
the last shrunken remains of that Iberian race that once occupied all
Western Europe from Scotland to Portugal and Spain, and, indeed,
overleaped the Straits and spread as Kabyles and Berbers in
Northern Africa. Although overlapped by other races this Basque
element forms the main constituent of the French race in the south-
west.
Every cook knows what “stock” is. It is the basis on which
almost every known kind of soup is built up, whether Julienne,
soupe claire, à la marquise, à la vermicelle, and Mrs. Beeton only
knows how many more. The Iberian has been the stock out of which
the English, Irish, Welsh, French, Italians, and Spaniards have been
concocted. In France there was a dash of Gaulish, a smack of the
Roman, a soupçon of Frank, et voilà; the Frenchman of to-day is at
bottom an Iberian.
This same Iberian was an accommodating personage. He was
ready to abandon his own rudimentary tongue and adopt the
language of his conquerors. He cast his agglutinative tongue behind
his back, took in as much Latin as he could swallow, and produced
the French language. In Wales he adopted the British tongue, in
Ireland the Gaelic.
He was wise in so doing, for his own language, as represented
by the Basque of the present day, is crude, unformed, and wanting
in flexibility. The first stage in the formation of speech is in the
utterance of nouns substantive. A child embraced by a stranger says,
“Man kiss baby.” Kiss is a noun substantive. The child has not as yet
arrived at the formation of a verb; and baby is a substantive, he has
not yet attained to the use of a personal pronoun. The Chinese
language remains in this primitive condition. In it the position of the
words in a sentence governs the signification.
The second stage is that reached by the agglutinative tongues,
where a differentiation of the parts of speech has taken place, and
pronouns and particles acting as prepositions are tacked on to the
nouns and verbs, but in such an elementary manner as never to
become fused into them so as to affect and alter them. Always their
separate existence is manifest. The third stage is where they are
united and interpenetrate each other. The soldering has been so
close that only a skilled eye can discover that an inflexion in a verb,
a case in a noun, are composite words.
Amo, amas, amat, are actually formed of the root ama, love,
with primitive pronouns welded on to them so as to distinguish the
person who loves.
 In Basque the auxiliary verbs alone undergo conjugation, and
they exhibit a peculiarity that deserves notice. Take an instance: the
auxiliary verb izan, to be. “I am” may be rendered in four different
ways, according to the person addressed. In speaking to a male
familiarly “I am” is nuk; but a woman addressed in like manner is
nun; “I am,” when used in address to a person highly respected of
either sex, is nuzu; “I am” spoken without any particular reference
to any one is niz. So “he or she is” may be rendered duk, dun, duzu,
da; and “we are” by gaituk, gaitun, gaituzu, gare.
The Basque language is capable of an incredible amount of
agglomeration in the formation of words, and of indefinite
modification of times, conditions, forms of words.
Etche is a house; argizagi is the moon; elhur is snow; chori is a
bird; sagar an apple; oski a shoe; aurhide a child; arrolze, an egg.
We feel at once that we meet here with a language which has
no relations that we can detect with any of the European tongues
with which we are familiar.
The Basque has not distinguished himself in literature. It is true
that a set of poems pretending to be ancient has been produced and
published as relics of Early Basque poetry, but they were forgeries,
like Macpherson’s Ossian.
The nucleus of the Basque country may be said to be S. Jean-
de-Luz. Formerly it was Ustaritz (i.e. the Oak of Judgment), where
the Elders assembled in Council; but at the French Revolution this
oak was cut down.
The Basque villages have a character of their own. Erected by a
people who do not feel eagerness to look in at one another’s
windows, a people pushing independence to fanaticism, the villages
consist rather of isolated buildings loosely united than of close
agglomeration of houses. Like the Welsh, the Basques love
whitewash, but paint their shutters brilliant red. The churches stand
in the midst of a clump of trees, their towers surmounted by three
points, symbolical of the Trinity. They are a healthy people, clean in