ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

ISLAMABAD

STUDENT NAME:

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COURSE CODE: 8604-1

SEMESTER: Spring 2024

ASSIGNMNET NO.1
QUESTION NO. 1
Discuss scientific method as a tool of acquiring knowledge.

Compare it with various steps in the research process.

ANSWER

Scientific Method as a Tool of Acquiring Knowledge:

The scientific method is a systematic approach used to acquire

knowledge, test hypotheses, and make discoveries in various fields of
study. It is characterized by empirical and measurable evidence subject
to specific principles of reasoning. Here is an overview of the scientific
method and its comparison to the steps in the research process:
Scientific Method
1. Observation: Gathering data and noticing patterns or phenomena
that spark curiosity.
2. Question: Formulating a question based on observations.
3. Hypothesis: Proposing a tentative explanation or prediction that
can be tested.
4. Experimentation: Designing and conducting experiments to test
the hypothesis.

 Controlled Experiments: Manipulating variables to

determine cause-and-effect relationships.
 Data Collection: Gathering quantitative or qualitative data
during experiments.

5. Analysis: Analyzing the data to determine if the hypothesis is

supported or refuted.
 6. Conclusion: Drawing conclusions based on the analysis of the
data.
7. Communication: Sharing findings with the scientific community
for validation and further exploration.
8. Replication: Repeating experiments to verify results and ensure
reliability.

Steps in the Research Process

The research process shares many similarities with the scientific method
but can be more flexible depending on the field of study. Here are the
typical steps in the research process:

1. Identifying the Research Problem: Recognizing and articulating

a problem or area of interest that needs investigation.
2. Review of Literature: Conducting a comprehensive review of
existing research to understand the current state of knowledge and
identify gaps.
3. Formulating Research Questions/Hypotheses: Developing
specific research questions or hypotheses based on the literature
review.
4. Research Design: Choosing an appropriate methodology (e.g.,
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods) to address the research
questions.

 Sampling: Selecting a representative sample from the

population of interest.
 Instrumentation: Developing or choosing tools and
techniques for data collection.

5. Data Collection: Gathering data through experiments, surveys,

interviews, observations, or other methods.
6. Data Analysis: Analyzing the collected data using statistical or
thematic analysis methods.
 7. Interpretation of Results: Interpreting the findings in the context
of the research questions and the existing body of knowledge.
8. Conclusion and Recommendations: Drawing conclusions and
making recommendations based on the research findings.
9. Dissemination: Communicating the research results through
reports, publications, presentations, or other channels.
10. Evaluation and Feedback: Receiving feedback from peers
and revising the research if necessary. This step also includes
considering implications for future research.

Comparison with Various Steps in the Research Process:

The scientific method can be compared to various steps in the research

process, including:

1. Problem formulation: The scientific method’s initial step, making

observations, is similar to problem formulation in the research process.

Both involve identifying a research question or problem that needs to be

addressed.

2. Literature review: The scientific method’s hypothesis formulation

step is similar to the literature review step in the research process. Both

involve reviewing existing research and theory to inform the research

design.

3. Data collection: The scientific method’s experimentation step is

similar to data collection in the research process. Both involve gathering

data through various methods, such as surveys, interviews, or

experiments.

4. Data analysis: The scientific method’s data analysis step is similar to

data analysis in the research process. Both involve analyzing data to

identify patterns, trends, and correlations.

5. Conclusion drawing: The scientific method’s conclusion drawing

step is similar to drawing conclusions in the research process. Both

involve summarizing findings and drawing conclusions based on the

evidence.

Key Differences:

While the scientific method and the research process share some

similarities, there are key differences:

1. Goals: The scientific method is primarily focused on developing and

testing scientific knowledge, whereas the research process is often

focused on answering specific research questions or solving practical

problems.
2. Methodology: The scientific method emphasizes experimentation and

data analysis, whereas the research process may involve a range of

methods, including qualitative and quantitative approaches.

3. Objectivity: The scientific method places a high value on objectivity,

whereas the research process may involve more subjective

interpretations and value judgments.

Conclusion:

The scientific method is a powerful tool for acquiring knowledge by

providing a systematic and structured approach to inquiry. While it

shares similarities with various steps in the research process, there are

key differences between the two. By understanding the scientific method

and its relationship to the research process, researchers can develop

more effective and efficient approaches to acquiring knowledge.

References:
Lectures of tutor during workshop
Different videos of YouTube
Books
Newspaper
Library
 QUESTION NO. 2

Compare and contrast the types of research. Why and where

we use these types (basic, applied action) research to discuss

educational phenomena

ANSWER

Types of Research: Basic, Applied, and Action Research

Basic Research (Pure Research)
Definition: Basic research is conducted to increase fundamental
knowledge and understanding of phenomena without any immediate
application in mind. It aims to expand scientific theories and principles.

Characteristics:
 Theoretical Focus: Concentrates on generating new ideas,
principles, and theories.
 Driven by Curiosity: Researchers pursue knowledge for its own
sake.
 Long-term Impact: May not have immediate practical
applications but provides a foundation for applied research.
 Example: Investigating the cognitive processes involved in
learning new languages.
Use in Education:
 Why: To develop a deeper understanding of learning processes,
educational theories, and student behavior.
 Where: Academic institutions and research universities, often
funded by government grants or educational foundations.

Applied Research
Definition: Applied research is conducted to solve practical problems
and improve the human condition by applying existing theories and
knowledge.

Characteristics:
 Practical Focus: Aims to find solutions to specific problems.
 Immediate Application: Results are intended for immediate use to
improve practices or policies.
 Example: Developing new teaching methods to enhance student
engagement in STEM subjects.

Use in Education:
 Why: To address specific educational challenges, improve
teaching strategies, and develop effective educational
interventions.
 Where: Educational institutions, policy-making bodies, and
private research organizations.

Action Research
Definition: Action research is a participatory and iterative form of
research that involves practitioners working collaboratively to solve
problems and improve practices within their own context.
Characteristics:

 Collaborative Focus: Involves educators, administrators, and

sometimes students in the research process.
 Reflective Cycle: Includes cycles of planning, acting, observing,
and reflecting.
 Practical and Immediate: Aimed at improving specific practices
or addressing issues in real-time.
 Example: Teachers working together to develop and test new
classroom management strategies to reduce disruptive behavior.

Use in Education:
 Why: To empower educators to take ownership of their
professional development and directly apply research findings to
their practice.
 Where: Schools and educational institutions, often as part of
professional development programs.

Where and Why These Types of Research Are Used in

Education
Basic Research

Where: Primarily in universities and research institutions. Why:

 To build a foundation of knowledge that can inform applied

research and practice.
 To understand fundamental aspects of learning, cognition, and
development.

Applied Research
Where: Educational institutions, policy-making organizations, and
research agencies. Why:
  To develop and refine educational tools, programs, and policies.
 To address specific challenges faced by educators, students, and
administrators.

Action Research
Where: Schools, colleges, and educational organizations. Why:

 To enable educators to systematically investigate and improve their

own practice.
 To create a culture of continuous improvement and professional
development within educational settings.

Comparison and Contrast:

Basic research is concerned with understanding the underlying

mechanisms of a phenomenon, while applied research is focused on

solving specific problems. Action research is a collaborative approach

that aims to bring about change and improvement in a specific context.

Basic research is often conducted in controlled laboratory settings, while

applied research may involve surveys or interviews in naturalistic

settings. Action research typically involves collaboration with

stakeholders and takes place in the context of everyday practice.

Conclusion:
Each type of research has its own strengths and weaknesses, and is

suited to different purposes. Basic research provides a deeper

understanding of underlying mechanisms, while applied research

addresses practical problems. Action research brings about change and

improvement in specific contexts. By understanding the different types

of research, researchers can choose the most appropriate approach for

their study and make meaningful contributions to the field of education.

QUESTION NO. 3

Define the concepts of history and historical research. What

is the important of internal and external criticism in

historical research? Also, distinguish primary source of data

from the

secondary source of data with examples?

ANSWER

Concepts of History and Historical Research

History:

 Definition: History is the study of past events, particularly in

human affairs. It involves the examination and interpretation of
records and artifacts to understand how societies and cultures have
evolved over time.
 Purpose: The aim is to gain insights into how past events and
conditions shape the present and influence the future.

Historical Research:
 Definition: Historical research involves the systematic collection,
analysis, and interpretation of data from past events to understand
and interpret historical phenomena.
 Methodology: It uses various sources such as documents, artifacts,
and other records to reconstruct and explain past occurrences.
 Goals: The primary goals include understanding the context of
historical events, evaluating the causes and effects of those events,
and constructing narratives that accurately reflect the past.

Importance of Internal and External Criticism in Historical

Research
Internal Criticism:
 Definition: Internal criticism evaluates the content of a historical
document to determine its accuracy, reliability, and relevance. It
involves scrutinizing the credibility, perspective, and intent of the
source.
 Purpose: Ensures that the information within the document is
consistent, logical, and factual.
 Example: Analyzing a diary entry to determine whether the
author’s account of an event is plausible based on their perspective
and circumstances.

This involves examining the:

  Author’s intentions and biases

 Context in which the source was created

 Methods used to collect and record data

 Consistency and coherence of the information.

External Criticism:
 Definition: External criticism assesses the authenticity of a
historical document. It involves examining the physical aspects of
the source, such as the material, handwriting, and provenance.
 Purpose: Verifies that the document is genuine and not a forgery
or a later reproduction.
 Example: Testing the age of a manuscript using carbon dating or
examining the ink and paper to confirm it matches the purported
time period.

This involves examining the:

 Relationship between different sources and narratives

 Consistency with other historical evidence

 Influence of external factors, such as cultural or social biases

 Impact of historical events on the interpretation of past events

Distinction Between Primary and Secondary Sources of Data

Primary Sources:
Primary sources are original documents, artifacts, or records from the

time period being studied.

Examples include:

 Original letters or diaries

 Photographs or artworks

 Government records or documents

 Audio or video recordings

Secondary Sources:

Secondary sources are written accounts, interpretations, or analyses of

the past written by others.

Examples include:

 Historical books or articles

 Scholarly journals or academic papers

 Online encyclopedias or Wikipedia entries

 Podcasts or documentaries about historical events

Examples:
Primary source: A letter written by George Washington in 1776 to

discuss the American Revolution.

Secondary source: A book written by a historian in 2000 about the

American Revolution, based on primary sources like Washington’s

letter.

Primary source: A photograph taken by a soldier during World War I.

Secondary source: A documentary film about World War I that includes

interviews with historians and uses archival footage.

Importance:

Internal and external criticism are crucial in historical research as they

help to:

 Ensure the accuracy and reliability of historical information

 Identify potential biases and limitations

 Build a more comprehensive understanding of historical events and

processes

 Facilitate informed decision-making and policy-making

By understanding primary and secondary sources, historians can develop

a more nuanced understanding of the past and its significance for the

present.

References:
Lectures of tutor during workshop
Different videos of YouTube
Books
Newspaper
Library

QUESTION NO. 4

Distinguish experimental research from non-experimental

research studies How experimental research is conducted?

And why do we use experimental studies to address the

social

issues?

ANSWER
Distinguishing Experimental Research from Non-
Experimental Research Studies
Experimental Research:
 Definition: Experimental research is a method where the
researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) and
controls/randomizes the rest of the variables to observe the effect
on another variable (dependent variable).
 Key Features:

 Manipulation: Deliberate change of the independent

variable to observe its effect.
 Control: Keeping other variables constant or controlled to
isolate the effect of the independent variable.
 Randomization: Assigning subjects randomly to
experimental and control groups to minimize bias.

 Example: A study to test the effect of a new drug on blood

pressure, where participants are randomly assigned to receive
either the drug or a placebo.

Non-Experimental Research:
 Definition: Non-experimental research involves observation and
analysis without manipulating variables. It seeks to find
relationships or correlations between variables.
 Key Features:

 Observation: Collecting data without intervention or

manipulation.
 Correlation: Identifying relationships between variables
rather than cause-and-effect.
 Natural Setting: Often conducted in real-world settings
without artificial manipulation.
  Example: A study examining the relationship between exercise
frequency and mental health status through surveys and
observational data.

Conducting Experimental Research:

1. Formulate research question and hypothesis: Identify the

research question and formulate a hypothesis stating the expected

relationship between the IV and DV.

2. Select participants: Choose a sample of participants who are

representative of the population being studied.

3. Assign participants to groups: Randomly assign participants to

either a control group or an experimental group.

4. Manipulate the independent variable: Implement the

experimental treatment (IV) in the experimental group, while

keeping the control group unchanged.

5. Measure the dependent variable: Collect data on the DV for both

groups.
 6. Data analysis: Compare the means of the DV between groups to

determine if there is a significant difference.

7. Drawing Conclusions: Interpret the results, confirm or refute the

hypothesis, and draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect

relationship.

8. Reporting Findings:

Share the results through reports, publications, or presentations,

ensuring that the methodology and findings are transparent and

reproducible.

9. Controlling for Confounding Variables:

Implement measures to control or eliminate the influence of

extraneous variables that could affect the outcome.

10. Collecting Data:

Gather data systematically from both the experimental and control

groups.

Why Experimental Studies are Used:

1. Establish causality: Experimental studies allow researchers to

establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

2. Control for extraneous variables: Experimental studies can control

for extraneous variables that may influence the outcome, ensuring a

more accurate measure of the IV’s effect.

3. Increased precision: Experimental studies can provide more precise

estimates of the effect size due to the controlled environment.

4. Generalizability: Experimental studies can be used to test hypotheses

across different populations and settings.

5. Addressing social issues: Experimental studies can be used to

evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, policies, or programs aimed

at addressing social issues, such as:

+ Evaluating the impact of education programs on student

achievement

+ Assessing the effectiveness of job training programs on

employment outcomes

+ Testing the efficacy of health interventions on disease prevention

and treatment
Example:

Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the effectiveness of a new

math program on student achievement. The researcher conducts an

experimental study by:

1. Formulating a hypothesis: “The new math program will improve

student achievement in math compared to traditional teaching methods.”

2. Selecting participants: 100 students are randomly selected from a

local school district.

3. Assigning participants to groups: 50 students are assigned to the

experimental group, while 50 students are assigned to the control group.

4. Manipulating the independent variable: The experimental group

receives the new math program, while the control group receives

traditional teaching methods.

5. Measuring the dependent variable: Student achievement in math is

measured using standardized tests before and after the intervention.

6. Data analysis: The results show that students in the experimental

group significantly outperform those in the control group.

This study demonstrates how experimental research can be used to

establish causality and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed

at addressing social issues.

QUESTION NO. 5

Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen

your answer with the example of Case Studies, Causal Comparative

studies and correlation studies.

ANSWER

Strengthening Descriptive Research with Examples

1. Case Studies:

 Methodology: The researcher collects data through interviews,

observations, and document analysis.

  Goals: To provide an in-depth understanding of the marketing

strategy’s impact on the business and its customers.

 Example: A researcher conducts a case study on a company that

successfully implemented a four-day workweek. The study
includes interviews with employees and managers, analysis of
productivity data, and observations of workplace dynamics.
 Strength: Provides a deep understanding of the implementation
process, the experiences of employees, and the outcomes of the
new work schedule, offering rich qualitative data that can inform
future policies.

2. Causal-Comparative Studies:
Methodology: The researcher collects data on student performance and

demographics from both public and private schools.

Goals: To identify any differences in academic performance between

students from public and private schools.

 Example: Researchers conduct a causal-comparative study to

explore the impact of socioeconomic status on student
performance. They compare test scores of students from high-
income families with those from low-income families.
 Strength: Helps in identifying potential causes of differences in
performance and provides insights that can lead to targeted
interventions or policies aimed at reducing educational disparities.

3. Correlation Studies:
  Methodology: The researcher collects data on exercise frequency

and BMI from participants.

 Goals: To identify any patterns or correlations between exercise

frequency and BMI.

 Example: A correlation study examines the relationship between

physical activity levels and mental health among adolescents.
Surveys are used to collect data on the amount of physical activity
and self-reported mental health status.
 Strength: Identifies significant associations that can inform health
promotion strategies, suggesting that increasing physical activity
could potentially improve mental health among young people.

Example:

Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the relationship between social

media usage and mental health in teenagers. The researcher conducts a

correlation study:

1. Collects data on social media usage (hours per week) and mental

health symptoms (anxiety, depression) from a sample of 100 teenagers.

2. Analyzes the data to identify any correlations or patterns between

social media usage and mental health symptoms.

3. Finds a significant positive correlation between social media usage

and mental health symptoms, indicating that increased social media

usage may be associated with increased mental health symptoms.

This study demonstrates how descriptive research can be used to identify

patterns and relationships in a phenomenon, without attempting to

manipulate or control variables.

Conclusion
Descriptive research plays a crucial role in providing comprehensive
insights into various phenomena by focusing on describing the "what"
aspect. Its major forms, including case studies, causal-comparative
studies, and correlation studies, offer diverse methods for gathering and
analyzing data. Each form has its unique strengths and applications,
contributing valuable knowledge that can guide further research, policy-
making, and practical interventions in different fields.

References:
Lectures of tutor during workshop
Different videos of YouTube
Books
Newspaper
Library