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Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures Synthesis
Characterization Functionalization and Applications 1st
Edition Guldi Dirk M. (Ed.) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Guldi Dirk M. (ed.); Martin Nazario (ed.)
ISBN(s): 9783527629947, 3527629947
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 10.84 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
Edited by
Dirk M. Guldi and Nazario Martín

Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures

Synthesis, Characterization, Functionalization,

and Applications
Edited by
Dirk M. Guldi and
Nazario Martı́n

Carbon Nanotubes and

Related Structures
Further Reading

Martín, N., Giacalone, F. (eds.) Jorio, A.

Fullerene Polymers Raman Spectroscopy in

Synthesis, Properties and Applications Nanoscience and
2009 Nanometrology
ISBN: 978-3-527-32282-4 Carbon Nanotubes, Nanographite and
Graphene
Hierold, C. (ed.) ISBN: 978-3-527-40811-5

Carbon Nanotube Devices

Mittal, V. (ed.)
Properties, Modeling, Integration and
Applications Optimization of Polymer
2008 Nanocomposite Properties
ISBN: 978-3-527-31720-2
2010
ISBN: 978-3-527-32521-4
Yudin, A.K. (ed.)

Catalyzed Carbon-Heteroatom Monthioux, M.

Bond Formation Meta-Nanotubes -

2010 Modification of Carbon
ISBN: 978-3-527-32428-6 Nanotubes
2010
Kim, D.M.
ISBN: 978-0-470-51282-1
Introductory Quantum
Mechanics for Semiconductor Kumar, C. S. S. R. (ed.)

Nanotechnology Nanomaterials for the

2010 Life Sciences
ISBN: 978-3-527-40975-4 10 Volume Set
ISBN: 978-3-527-32261-9
Krüger, A.

Carbon Materials and Kumar, C. S. S. R. (ed.)

Nanotechnology Nanotechnologies for the
2010 Life Sciences
ISBN: 978-3-527-31803-2
10 Volume Set
ISBN: 978-3-527-31301-3
Edited by
Dirk M. Guldi and Nazario Martín

Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures

Synthesis, Characterization, Functionalization,

and Applications
The Editors All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully
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 V

Contents

Preface XV
List of Contributors XIX

1 Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures: Production and Formation 1

Mark H. Rümmeli, Paola Ayala, and Thomas Pichler
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Carbon Nanotube Production 3
1.2.1 Arc Discharge 3
1.2.2 Laser Ablation 4
1.2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 5
1.2.4 Miscellaneous Synthesis Methods 6
1.3 Catalysts 6
1.3.1 Metallic Catalysts 7
1.3.2 Ceramic Catalysts 7
1.3.3 Catalyst Free 8
1.4 Growth Enhancement 8
1.5 Growth Mechanisms 9
1.5.1 Floating Catalyst Methods 10
1.5.2 Supported Catalyst Routes 13
1.5.3 Catalyst-Free Routes 15
1.6 Functionalization 16
1.7 Purification 16
1.8 Future Perspectives 17
References 17

2 Theory of Electronic and Optical Properties of DNA–SWNT Hybrids 23

Slava V. Rotkin and Stacy E. Snyder
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Physical Structure and Bonding in Nanotube–DNA Hybrids:
A Short Review 24
2.3 Quantum Mechanical Modeling of the Hybrid Structure:
Tight Binding Band Structure Calculations 26
VI Contents

2.4 Self-Consistent Computation Scheme: Acting Potential 33

2.5 Screening Factor and the Dielectric Permittivity 34
2.6 Polarization Component of Cohesion Energy of
the SWNT–ssDNA Hybrid 35
2.7 Optical Absorption of SWNT–DNA Hybrids 40
2.8 Summary 47
References 48

3 Electrochemistry 53
Matteo Iurlo, Massimo Marcaccio, and Francesco Paolucci
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Electronic Properties of SWNTs 53
3.3 Electrode Potentials Versus Work Functions 54
3.4 Electrochemistry at SWNTs Versus Electrochemistry of SWNTs 56
3.5 Carbon Nanotubes for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices 59
3.6 Carbon Nanotubes for Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors 59
3.7 Electrochemistry of Carbon Nanotubes 61
3.8 Cyclic Voltammetric Investigations of Solutions
of Individual SWNTs 63
3.9 Vis–NIR Spectroelectrochemical Investigation of True
Solutions of Unfunctionalized SWNTs 66
3.10 Standard Redox Potentials of Individual SWNTs in Solution 67
3.11 Fermi Level and Excitonic Binding Energy of the Nanotubes 71
3.12 Conclusions and Perspectives 72
References 72

4 Photophysics 77
Tobias Hertel
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Molecular Nanoparticles: Carbon Nanotubes Have it All 77
4.3 Understanding Optical Properties 78
4.3.1 A Tight Binding Description 79
4.4 The Coulomb Interaction and Bound States 82
4.5 Colloidal Chemistry Facilitates Detailed Study of Nanotube
Optics 87
4.6 Excited State Dynamics and Nonlinear Optics 92
4.7 Outlook 98
References 98

5 Noncovalent Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 103

Ma Ángeles Herranz and Nazario Martín
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Early Insights in the Noncovalent Interaction of CNTs
with Solvents and Classical Macrocyclic Scaffolds 104
5.3 Noncovalent Interactions of CNTs with Small Aromatic Molecules 105
 Contents VII

5.3.1 Anthracene Derivatives 105

5.3.2 Pyrene Derivatives 107
5.3.3 Other Polyaromatic Derivatives 112
5.4 Noncovalent Interactions of CNTs with Heterocyclic
Polyaromatic Systems 114
5.4.1 Porphyrins, Phthalocyanines, and Sapphyrins 114
5.4.2 Metallic Coordination 116
5.5 Noncovalent Interactions of CNTs with Surfactants
and Ionic Liquids 118
5.6 Noncovalent Interactions of CNTs with Polymers 121
5.6.1 Polymeric Amphiphiles 121
5.6.2 Conjugated Polymers 123
5.6.3 Biopolymers 125
5.7 Optically Active SWCNTS 127
5.8 Noncovalent Interactions of CNTs with Nanoparticles 127
5.9 Summary and Conclusions 129
References 129

6 Covalent Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 135

Frank Hauke and Andreas Hirsch
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 Chemical Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 136
6.2.1 Derivatization Strategies 136
6.2.2 Topology and Reactivity of Carbon Nanotubes 138
6.3 Defect Group Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 140
6.3.1 Defect Types and Defect Generation 141
6.3.2 Functional CNT-Derivatives by Defect Functionalizing Sequences 143
6.3.2.1 Soluble CNT-Derivatives 143
6.3.2.2 Cofunctionalization of CNTs 145
6.3.2.3 Asymmetric End-Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 146
6.3.2.4 Nanoparticle and Quantum Dot: CNT Conjugates 147
6.3.2.5 Surface Attachment of CNTs 148
6.3.2.6 Molecular Electronic Devices Based on Carbon Nanotubes 149
6.3.2.7 Carbon Nanotubes as Integrated Unit in Donor/Acceptor
Assemblies 149
6.3.2.8 Functional CNT Composite Architectures 151
6.3.2.9 Carbon Nanotubes as Polymer Reinforcement Additives 153
6.3.2.10 Functional CNT Derivatives in the Biological Context 153
6.3.3 Functional Group Interconversion 153
6.4 Direct Sidewall Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 154
6.4.1 Fluorination and Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
of Fluorinated Carbon Nanotubes 155
6.4.2 Hydrogenation of Carbon Nanotubes 156
6.4.3 Epoxidation of Carbon Nanotubes 156
6.4.4 [2þ1]-Cycloaddition Reactions 157
VIII Contents

6.4.4.1 The Addition of Carbenes and Nitrenes 157

6.4.4.2 Nucleophilic Cyclopropanation: The Bingle Reaction 159
6.4.4.3 Silylation of Carbon Nanotubes 160
6.4.5 1,3-Cycloaddition Reactions 160
6.4.5.1 Cycloaddition of Zwitterionic Intermediates 160
6.4.5.2 Azomethine Ylide Addition 161
6.4.6 [4þ2]-Cycloaddition Reactions: Diels–Alder Reaction 164
6.4.7 Alkali Metal-Based Reduction of Carbon Nanotubes
with Subsequent Sidewall Functionalization 166
6.4.7.1 Naphthalenides as Electron Transfer Reagents 166
6.4.7.2 Reductive Alkylation of CNTs 166
6.4.7.3 Other Electron Transfer Mediators 168
6.4.8 Sidewall Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes Based
on Radical Chemistry 169
6.4.8.1 Carbon-Centered Free Radicals 169
6.4.8.2 Sulfur-Centered Free Radicals 171
6.4.8.3 Oxygen-Centered Free Radicals 171
6.4.8.4 Amination of Carbon Nanotube Sidewalls 172
6.4.8.5 Diazonium-Based Functionalization Sequences 172
6.4.9 Sidewall Functionalization Through Electrophilic Addition 175
6.4.10 Sidewall Functionalization Through Nucleophilic Addition 176
6.4.10.1 Carbon-Based Nucleophiles 176
6.4.10.2 Nitrogen-Based Nucleophiles 178
6.5 Conclusions 179
References 179

7 Carbon-Based Nanomaterial Applications in Biomedicine 199

Prabhpreet Singh, Tatiana Da Ros, Kostas Kostarelos, Maurizio Prato,
and Alberto Bianco
7.1 Introduction 199
7.2 Carbon Nanotubes 199
7.2.1 Structures, Characteristics, and Derivatization of Carbon
Nanotubes 199
7.2.2 Biological Applications of CNTs 201
7.2.2.1 Cell Penetration 202
7.2.2.2 Drug Delivery 203
7.2.2.3 Gene Delivery 205
7.2.2.4 Other Anticancer Approaches 206
7.2.2.5 Neuron Interactions with CNTs 208
7.2.2.6 Antioxidant Properties of CNTs 209
7.2.2.7 Imaging using Carbon Nanotubes 210
7.2.2.8 Various Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 211
7.2.3 Carbon Nanotube Toxicity 211
7.3 Carbon Nanohorns 213
7.3.1 Structure, Characteristics and Functionalization of SWCNHs 213
 Contents IX

7.3.2 Biomedical Applications of Carbon Nanohorns 215

7.3.2.1 Carbon Nanohorn as Potent Laser Therapeutic Agent 216
7.3.2.2 Carbon Nanohorn for Drug Delivery 216
7.3.2.3 Toxicity of Carbon Nanohorns 219
7.4 Carbon Nanodiamonds 219
7.4.1 Introduction 219
7.4.2 Carbon Nanodiamond as Delivery Vehicle 221
7.4.3 Carbon Nanodiamond as Biomarker for Cellular Imaging 222
7.4.4 Biocompatibility and Toxicity 224
7.5 Conclusions 224
References 225

8 Ground and Excited State Charge Transfer and its Implications 233
Vito Sgobba and Dirk M. Guldi
8.1 Introduction 233
8.2 Ground and Excited State Features 235
8.3 Ground State Charge Transfer – CNT
as Electron Acceptors 238
8.3.1 Chemical Reduction 238
8.3.2 Electrochemical Reduction 239
8.3.3 Reduction by Doping 241
8.3.4 Miscellaneous 242
8.4 Ground State Charge Transfer – CNT as Electron Donors 242
8.4.1 Chemical Oxidation 242
8.4.2 Electrochemical Oxidation 243
8.4.3 Oxidation by Doping 243
8.5 Excited State Charge Transfer – CNT as Excited State Electron
Acceptor 245
8.5.1 Covalent Electron Donor–Acceptor Conjugates 245
8.5.2 Noncovalent Electron Donor–Acceptor Hybrids 246
8.6 Excited State Charge Transfer – CNT as Ground
State Electron Acceptor 247
8.6.1 Covalent Electron Donor–Acceptor Conjugates 247
8.6.2 Noncovalent Electron Donor–Acceptor Hybrids 254
8.7 Excited State Charge Transfer – CNT as Ground
State Electron Donor 264
8.7.1 Noncovalent Electron Donor–Acceptor Hybrids 264
8.7.2 Charge Transfer Interactions – CNT and Polymers 266
8.8 Implications of Ground State Charge Transfer 269
8.8.1 Conducting Electrode Materials 269
8.8.2 Counter Electrodes for DSSC 270
8.9 Implications of Excited State Charge Transfer 271
8.9.1 Active Component in Photoactive Layer 271
8.9.2 Gas Sensors 273
References 274
X Contents

9 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Carbon Nanotubes

and Related Structures 291
Emmanuel Kymakis
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 Photovoltaic Cells Based on Carbon Nanotubes 292
9.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes as Electron Acceptors
in Organic PVs 292
9.2.2 Hole Collecting Electrodes 297
9.3 Related Structures 298
9.4 Future Directions 300
References 301

10 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Multifunctional Carbon Nanotube

Thin Films 305
Bong Sup Shim and Nicholas A. Kotov
10.1 Introduction 305
10.2 Structure and Properties of CNTs 306
10.3 Structural Organization in Multilayers of Carbon Nanotubes 307
10.4 Electrical Conductor Applications 309
10.5 Sensor Applications 311
10.6 Fuel Cell Applications 313
10.7 Nano-/Microshell LBL Coatings and Biomedical
Applications 314
10.8 Conclusions 315
References 316

11 Carbon Nanotubes for Catalytic Applications 321

Eva Castillejos and Philippe Serp
11.1 Introduction 321
11.2 Macroscopic shaping of CNTs 322
11.3 Specific Metal–Support Interaction 323
11.4 Dispersion of the Active Phase 327
11.4.1 Surface Area and Porosity of CNT 327
11.4.2 CNT Surface Activation to Improve Particle Dispersion 328
11.4.3 Specific Interactions of Metal Precursors with Surface Defects
of CNTs and CNFs 330
11.4.4 Influence of Catalyst Preparation Procedure on Metal Loading
and Dispersion 330
11.5 Electrically and Thermally Conductive Supports 332
11.5.1 Electrical Conductive Supports 332
11.5.2 Thermally Conductive Supports 334
11.6 Mass Transfer Limitations 335
11.7 Confinement Effect 338
11.8 Conclusion 342
References 343
 Contents XI

12 Carbon Nanotubes as Containers 349

Thomas W. Chamberlain, Maria del Carmen Gimenez-Lopez,
and Andrei N. Khlobystov
12.1 Introduction 349
12.2 Mechanisms of Nanotube Filling 350
12.3 Fullerenes as Guest Molecules 353
12.3.1 Fullerene C60 353
12.3.2 Higher Fullerenes 359
12.3.3 Endohedral Fullerenes 361
12.3.4 Functionalized Fullerenes 365
12.4 Other Types of Molecules 369
12.4.1 Molecules Without Metal Atoms 369
12.4.2 Organometallic and Coordination Compounds 372
12.5 Ionic Compounds 374
12.5.1 Salts 374
12.5.2 Oxides and Hydroxides 377
12.5.3 Other Inorganic Materials 378
12.6 Nanoparticles in Nanotubes 378
12.7 Concluding Remarks 380
References 380

13 Carbon Nanohorn 385

Masako Yudasaka and Sumio Iijima 385
13.1 Introduction 385
13.2 Production 385
13.3 Structure and Growth Mechanism 386
13.4 Properties 386
13.5 Functionalization 389
13.5.1 Material Incorporation and Release 389
13.5.2 Chemical Modification of Structure Defects 390
13.5.3 Chemical Functionalization at Hole Edges 391
13.5.4 Physical Modification 394
13.6 Toxicity 395
13.7 Drug Delivery Applications 397
13.8 Summary 398
References 399

14 Self-Organization of Nanographenes 405

Wojciech Pisula, Xinliang Feng, and Klaus Müllen
14.1 Introduction 405
14.1.1 Graphene, Graphene Nanoribbon, and Nanographene 405
14.1.2 Organization of Nanographenes 409
14.2 Single Sheets of Nanographenes 410
14.3 Organization in the Bulk State 412
14.3.1 Liquid Crystalline Columnar Phases 412
XII Contents

14.3.2 Helical Packing of Discotic Nanographenes 416

14.3.3 Complementary Interactions 419
14.4 Charge Carrier Transport Along Nanographene Stacks 423
14.5 Solution Aggregation and Fiber Formation 425
14.6 Solution Alignment on Surfaces 433
14.7 Thermal Processing 437
14.8 Nanographenes in Heterojunctions for Solar Cells 442
14.9 Processing of Nondiscotic Nanographenes 443
14.10 Conclusions 444
References 445

15 Endohedrals 455
Lai Feng, Takeshi Akasaka, and Shigeru Nagase
15.1 Introduction 455
15.2 Recent Investigations in the Synthesis of Endohedral
Metallofullerenes 456
15.2.1 The Reactive Gas Atmosphere 456
15.2.2 The Solid Additive 457
15.3 Advances in Nonchromatographic Techniques for Separation
of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 457
15.3.1 Separation by Electrochemical Method 457
15.3.2 Separation by Other Chemical Methods 458
15.4 Structures of Endohedral Metallofullerenes Determined
by X-Ray Crystallographic Method 460
15.4.1 Monometallofullerenes 460
15.4.2 Dimetallofullerenes 462
15.4.3 Metallic Carbide Fullerenes and Metallic Oxide Fullerenes 464
15.4.4 Trimetallic Nitride Fullerenes 465
15.5 Electrochemical Properties of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 468
15.6 Chemical Reactivities of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 471
15.6.1 Reductions and Oxidations 471
15.6.2 Cycloadditions 471
15.6.2.1 Diels–Alder Reaction 471
15.6.2.2 Prato Reactions 472
15.6.2.3 Carbene Reactions 473
15.6.2.4 Bis-Silylation 474
15.6.2.5 Cycloaddition via a Zwitterion Approach 474
15.6.3 Nucleophilic Addition 475
15.6.4 Radical Reactions 476
15.7 Applications of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 477
15.7.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Contrast Agents 477
15.7.2 Peapod and Nanorod 479
15.7.3 Electron Donor/Acceptor Conjugate 480
15.8 Concluding Remarks 480
References 481
 Contents XIII

16 Carbon Nanostructures: Calculations of Their Energetics,

Thermodynamics, and Stability 491
Zdenek Slanina, Filip Uhlík, Shyi-Long Lee, Takeshi Akasaka,
and Shigeru Nagase
16.1 Introduction 491
16.2 Energetics and Thermodynamics of Clusters 492
16.3 Stabilities of Empty Fullerenes 495
16.4 Stabilities of Metallofullerenes 497
16.5 Stabilities of Nonmetal Endohedrals 505
16.6 Kinetic Control 507
References 511

Index 525
 XV

Preface

Following Sumio Iijima’s groundbreaking discovery of multiwall carbon nanotubes

(MWCNTs) in 1991, carbon nanostructures – and in particular carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) – have been at the forefront of scientific research in physics, chemistry,
materials science, and so on. The discovery of single-wall carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) in 1993 set yet another milestone in an exponentially growing field.
Conceptually, these new nanoforms of carbon allotropes with cylindrical geometry
belong to the versatile family of fullerenes. In contrast to fullerenes with their
esthetically pleasing spherical shape, CNTs have a length to diameter ratio of up
to 28,000 : 1. Some CNTs reach lengths of up to several millimeters. From the very
beginning, scientists realized that CNTs are inhomogeneous materials giving rise to
different lengths, different diameters, and, most importantly, different structures.
The structural features depend, to a large extent, on the means by which individual
graphene sheets are wrapped around a chiral vector to form seamless cylinders.
According to the specific indices of the chiral vector, armchair, zigzag, and chiral
nanotubes are formed. However, they all exist together in a single sample without
being controllable (!). To this end, separation and selective formation of homoge-
neous CNTsamples constitute important challenges in contemporary CNTresearch.
Unless significant breakthroughs are achieved in the foreseeable future, potential
applications of these carbon materials will continue to be hampered by the lack of
pure, homogeneous, and reproducible samples.
The initial excitement – associated with the pioneering discovery of CNTs – was
based on their remarkable properties bearing enormous potential for applications in
nanotechnology, materials science, and biomedicine: the outstanding tensile
strength of CNTs or the fact that they reveal semiconducting and/or conducting
electrical properties – to name a few of the exceptional properties of CNTs. Further-
more, CNTs have been found to efficiently interact with living cells. As a matter of
fact, they function as transporters of molecules through cellular membranes and, in
turn, have opened new avenues for biomedicine.
Considering the sheer endless interest in these unique compounds, a large
number of authoritative reviews and comprehensive books have dealt with these
carbon allotropes. It is an understatement to say that research on carbon
XVI Preface

nanostructures is a very active field with an enormous number of original

studies published every year by groups from all over the world. This, in fact,
constitutes the major thrust of this book, that is, gathering an elite number of
world leading scientists from very different disciplines to highlight the recent
advances in the area of CNTs and other related carbon nanostructures. Needless
to emphasize the interdisciplinary nature of the different contributions – ran-
ging from theory and production to practical applications in the field of solar
energy conversion and biomedicine.
This book contains 16 contemporary chapters sharing one goal in common –
carbon nanostructures. To this end, aspects associated with the production and
formation of CNTs (M.H. Rümmeli, P. Ayala, and T. Pichler) are discussed in the
opening chapter of the first part of this book followed by a chapter dedicated to the
theory of electronic and optical properties (S.V. Rotkin and S.E. Snyder). Equally
important are the perspectives that arose around the electrochemistry (M. Iurlo,
M. Marcaccio, and F. Paolucci) and the photophysics (T. Hertel) of CNTs as compel-
ling complements to the former topics. Breakthroughs in the chemistry of CNTs are
covered in two matching contributions – one focusing exclusively on the covalent
chemistry of CNTs (F. Hauke and A. Hirsch) and the other surveying exhaustively
the field of noncovalent chemistry of CNTs (M.A. Herranz and N. Martín).
The objectives of the second part of this book are quite different. Here,
properties and potential applications in different areas stand at the forefront.
Biological applications and potential toxicity (P. Singh, T. Da Ros, K. Kostarelos,
M. Prato, and A. Bianco) are certainly some of them, which have been brought
together in one specific chapter. This is rounded out by several critical reviews
with regard to the use of CNTs in emerging fields in materials science. Emphasis
is placed, for example, on ground- and excited-state charge transfer (V. Sgobba
and D.M. Guldi), photovoltaics in general (E. Kymakis), and layer-by-layer
assembly (B.S. Shim and N. Kotov). Noteworthy are the additional two sections
that describe fundamental issues related to the use of CNTs for catalytic applica-
tions (E. Castillejos and P. Serp) and the fascinating function of CNTs as
containers (T.W. Chamberlain, M.d.C. Gimenez-Lopez, and A.N. Khlobystov).
As reflected in the multidisciplinary title of this book, other carbon nanostructures
–besides just CNTs – that have received similar attention throughout the scientific
communities, namely, nanohorns (M. Yudasaka and S. Iijima), nanographenes
(W. Pisula, X. Feng, and K. Müllen), and endohedral fullerenes (L. Feng, T. Akasaka,
and S. Nagase), are at the focus of the third part of this book. The closing statement
belongs, however, to a chapter that deals with the calculations on energetics,
thermodynamics, and general stability (Z. Slanina, F. Uhlik, S.-L. Lee, and
T. Akasaka).
We – as editors of this book – share the view that all chapters should prove very
useful to both students and researchers in different disciplines of carbon research.
Simply, the fact that all chapters are solid and offer comprehensive discussions on
the properties of carbon nanoforms assists in serving as a constructive tool for
specialists in various fields and an updated reference for the broad readership of
nonspecialists. In this regard, it is essential that each chapter begins with an
 Preface XVII

excellent introduction to the topic at hand and then turns to more details for the
expert in the area.
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 General Meusnier, who had been wounded near Cassel, on the 7th,
died on the 13th, and was buried the next day, within the new
fortifications, all the officers of the garrison, with the members of
the convention and clubs, attending.

Some fire ships were now completed, which a Dutch engineer had
conducted from Holland, to be employed by the besiegers in burning
the bridge of boats over the Rhine. It was thought, however, that
their explosion would damage the city unnecessarily, and they were
rejected. In the night of the 15th, one of these floated down the
river, whether by accident, or by the connivance of the inventor, is
not known; the inhabitants were in the utmost terror, but it struck
against the quay, and, being immediately boarded, did no damage.

The trenches were opened, in the night of the 16th and 17th, but,
the workmen having been ill conducted, were not covered in, at day-
light, and were compelled to retire, leaving their implements behind
them. Two nights afterwards, the work was renewed in good order
and without loss, the King of Prussia, his sons and the Duke of
Brunswick surveying them from a neighbouring height. The first balls
fell in a street near one of the gates, and all that part of the town
was presently deserted.

The 24th was a distressful day for the inhabitants. Four days
before, the King of Prussia had sent a general passport for such as
chose to come out, and 1500 persons, chiefly women and children,
had accepted his offer. A short time after the gate had been opened,
dismay was spread through the whole city by an account, that the
Prussians would suffer no more to pass and the French none to
return. The bridge was covered with these unhappy fugitives, who
had no food, or shelter, and who thought themselves within reach of
the Hockheim batteries, that played furiously upon the city. Two
children lost their senses through fright. At length, the French
soldiers took compassion upon them; they carried several persons
into the city under their cloaks, and, the next day, their
remonstrances against the inhumanity of the German clubbists, who
had shut the gates against this defenceless crowd, obliged them to
permit the return of the whole number.

For several succeeding nights, the garrison made sorties, with

various effect, interrupting, but not preventing the completion of the
parallel.

At sunset, on the 27th, the besiegers began a dreadful cannonade

and bombardment. On this night, the steeple of the church of Notre
Dame caught fire; and during the alarm, excited by an immense
volume of flame, arising in the midst of the city, the Austrians
completely carried the French posts, near Weissenau. The next night
was equally terrible to the inhabitants; the flames caught several
parts of the city, amongst others the cathedral; some of the
magazines took fire, and eleven hundred sacks of corn were burned.
The church, formerly belonging to the Jesuits, was much injured.
The French, intending to retaliate their last surprise upon the
Austrians, made a fruitless attack upon the Weissenau redoubt.

On the 29th of June, at mid-day, the French were driven from a

point of land, near the Main, called the Bleiau. In this affair, a vessel,
with 78 Prussians on board, drove from her anchor, owing to the
unskilfulness of the crew, and, during a fire, by which eight men
were killed, made towards the city. The Prussians were taken
prisoners, and exchanged the next day. At night, the bombardment
was renewed; the Domprobstei, or palace of the Provost, was
burned and several of the neighbouring residences; in other parts of
the city, some houses were reduced to ashes.

The next night, the church of the Franciscans and several other
public buildings were destroyed. A dreadful fire, on the night of the
2d and 4th of June, consumed the chapel of St. Alban. Families in
the southern part of the city now constantly passed the night in their
cellars; in the day-time, they ventured into their usual apartments;
for the batteries of the besiegers were by far the most terrible, at
night, when the whole city was a sufficient mark for them, though
their works could scarcely be discerned by the garrison. In the day-
time, the exactness of the French gunners frequently did great injury
to the batteries, which, at night, were repaired and used with equal
effect against the city.

St. Alban's fort was now demolished, so that the besieged

withdrew their cannon from it. Elizabeth fort was also much
damaged. A strong work, which the French had raised, in
prolongation of the glacis, divided the opinions of the Prussian
engineers. Some thought it should be preserved, when taken,
because it would command part of the town; others, that it should
be demolished. The latter opinion prevailed, and, in the night of the
5th and 6th, General Manstein was ordered to make the attack with
three battalions. He perfectly succeeded, as to the nearest part of
the work; but the other, on account of its solid foundation, could not
be entirely destroyed. In the mean time, two battalions were sent,
under cover of the darkness, to attack the Zahlbach fort, a part of
which they carried by storm; but the reinforcements, immediately
supplied by the garrison, obliged them to retire. Two Prussian
officers were killed; one wounded, and another, with one-and-thirty
men, taken. The Prussians lost in all 183 men; the French had
twelve killed and forty-seven wounded.

On the 6th of July, the French repaired the damaged fort, the
distance of it from the Prussians preventing the latter from hindering
them.

At night, General Kleist carried the fort, at Zahlbach, by a second

attack, and demolished it; at the same time, some batteries of the
second parallel were perfected. The French could not support the
loss of this fort; on the 7th, they attacked the scite; carried it, after a
severe contest; and rebuilt it. At night, they were driven back again
and the fort entirely destroyed. In the same night they were driven
from Kostheim, after a furious battle, by the Prussian General
Schonfield. During this engagement, the rapid succession of flashes
and explosion of bombs seemed to fill the air with flame. A Prussian
detachment having been posted on the road to Cassel, in order to
prevent the garrison of that place from sending succour to Kostheim,
this road was so strongly bombarded by the French, that seven
bombs were frequently seen in the air at once. The loss was great,
on both sides, in this engagement, after which the Council in the city
resolved, to make no more attempts upon Kostheim, on account of
the distance.

The following night, the fire was less than usual, but a few bombs
and grenades fell in the city, where the inhabitants had now learned
to extinguish such as grounded, before their fusees were consumed.
They also formed themselves into parties for the ready suppression
of fires. The next morning, the garrison saw the works of the
besiegers brought to within two hundred and fifty paces of the walls.

About this time, the sickliness of the garrison became apparent,

and General D'Oyré informed the Council, that, on account of this
and of the fatiguing service of the works, he feared the defence
could not be much longer continued. He lamented, that the troops of
the line were so few, and the others so inexperienced.

For several nights, the works of the besiegers were eagerly

pushed, but still they were not so forward, as had been expected.
Some of the besieging corps began to be sickly; the King of Prussia
having resolved to employ no more labourers, it was reckoned, that
the soldiers, for eight-and-forty hours of work, had only eighteen of
rest. On the other hand, they were assured, that the garrison must
be equally fatigued, since, in such an extensive fortification, none
could be left long unemployed.

The French had been, for some time, busied in forming what is
called a Fleche at the head of one of their forts, and this was
thought necessary to be destroyed. It was attacked in the night of
the 12th and 13th by the Austrians; but so much time was passed in
their operations, that the French fell upon them, in great force,
about two in the morning, and beat them away, with loss. The
Austrians were as little employed as possible in services of this fort.

On the 13th of July, another battery was stormed by the

Prussians; but, as the officer, unlike the Austrians, advanced with too
little caution, his party was much hurt by some pieces of concealed
cannon, and the enterprise failed.

The night of the 13th and 14th was passed in much agitation by
the garrison and inhabitants. Several of the public buildings were set
fire to and burned by grenades. The works of the besiegers were
now greatly advanced. The garrison made five sorties in this night,
and were repulsed in all, losing an hundred men, while the besiegers
lost eight killed and one-and-thirty wounded.

On the 14th of July, a cessation of arms took place from seven

o'clock in the morning till one. In the city, the French celebrated
their annual fête; General d'Oyré and the troops took the oath, and
Merlin delivered an address to them. In the Austrian camp, the
Prince de Condé was received with a feu de joye. During this
cessation, the soldiers upon the different outposts entered into
conversation with each other, and the French boasted of the
difficulties they laboured under from the length of the siege.

At night, an affair at the Fleche cost the allies, who succeeded in

part, ninety men; the French confessed, that this work cost them in
all three hundred. The inhabitants of the city were again greatly
alarmed, their streets being covered with a shower of grenades. The
laboratory and a part of the Benedictine abbey were burned, and
two explosions took place at the former. The whole city shook with
each report, and, in the nearer parts, all the windows were broken
and the doors burst open. The remainder of the hay and straw was
consumed in this fire; the whole stock of other forage was reduced
to a sufficiency for four days; and the surgeon's stores were much
damaged.
 Still the Fleche prevented the besiegers from completing their
second parallel. It was, therefore, again attacked, on the night of the
16th and 17th, Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia commanding at the
assault, in which he was one of twelve officers wounded. The Fleche
was then completely carried.

The next night was very industriously spent by the besiegers in

forming new batteries, and those of the second parallel were raised,
before there were cannon enough at hand to place upon them. The
French took advantage of this, and brought a part of theirs to bear,
so as to enfilade the parallel, with great effect; the Prussians almost
immediately losing an officer and forty men.

In the city, the sick had now increased so much, that six hundred
men were brought from Cassel, on the 17th, to re-inforce the
garrison. On the 18th, the commandant informed the Council, that
there was a want of fodder and such a loss of horses, by desertion,
that there were not cavalry enough left for service. The soldiers,
who knew the deficiency of medicines and other means of relief for
the wounded, were unwilling to be led to sorties. Though corn had
not failed, flour, it appeared, soon would, for some of the mills had
been rendered unserviceable, for the present, by shot, and others
were deserted by the millers.

At night, after an unsuccessful attempt upon the Fleche, it was

resolved, that the garrison, which had hitherto scarcely suffered a
night to pass, without making some sorties, should, for the future,
adhere solely to defensive measures. Some engineers proposed to
abandon the whole line of forts, and others, that two of the largest
should be blown up. The General and Council, at length, confessed,
that they could not continue the defence, and assured the
inhabitants, who had declared themselves in their favour, that a
longer delay of the surrender would produce a more severe
disposition of the besiegers towards them, without increasing the
chance of escaping it.
 A negotiation, relative to the surrender, was now begun by D'Oyré,
in a letter, which partly replied to one from the Prussian commander
Kalkreuth, upon the subject of the departure of aged persons and
children from the city. Their correspondence continued till the 20th,
and several letters were exchanged, chiefly upon the question of the
removal, or detention of the inhabitants, who had attached
themselves to the French; it was then broken off, upon a
disagreement, as to this and some other points. The firing, on both
sides, had in the mean time continued, and the besiegers carried on
the trenches, though these were now such an easy mark for the
garrison, that they lost an officer and five-and-twenty men, in the
night of the 19th and 20th. The next night, the Dominicans' church
in the city took fire, and six French soldiers were buried under its
ruins.

Upon a renewal of the intercourse, the fire slackened, on the 21st;

but, on some delays in the negotiation, was threatened to be
recommenced. At length, the conditions of the surrender were
settled, and the negotiation signed, on the 22d of July, by the two
Generals Kalkreuth and D'Oyré; the former having rendered the
capitulation somewhat easier than was expected for the garrison,
because the Duke of Brunswick had only nineteen thousand men to
cover the siege, and Custine had forty thousand, which were near
enough to attack him. General Kalkreuth's orders are supposed to
have been to obtain possession of the place, upon any terms, that
would give it him quickly.

At this time, the garrison, which, at the commencement of the

siege, had consisted of 22,653 men, was reduced to 17,038, having
had 1959 killed, 3334 wounded, or rendered unserviceable by
sickness, and having lost 322 by desertion.

The loss of the besiegers is stated at about 3000 men.

The consumption of ammunition, on the part of the French, was

found to have been
 681,850 pounds of powder,
106,152 cannon balls,
10,278 bombs,
6,592 grenades,
44,500 pounds of iron,
300,340 musquet cartridges;

and, during the siege, 107 cannon either burst, or were rendered
unserviceable by the besiegers' shot. Towards the conclusion, sixty
cannon also became useless by the failure of balls of the proper
calibre.

On the 24th and 25th, the garrison marched out, Merlin leading
the first column of 7500 men. The members of the Clubs, who would
have gone out with the troops, were pointed out by the other
inhabitants and detained; but the Elector had the magnanimity to
think of no other retaliation, than their imprisonment in a tower,
near the Rhine, where they have since remained.

There was now leisure to examine the city, and it was found, that
six churches were in ruins; that seven mansions of the nobility had
been burned, and that very few houses had escaped, without some
damage. The surrounding grounds were torn up by balls and
batteries. The works of Cassel were surrendered entire to the
conquerors, and are an important addition to the strength of Mentz,
already reckoned one of the strongest and largest fortifications in
Europe. Between Cassel and the ruins of Kostheim not a tree was to
be seen. All the neighbouring villages were more, or less, injured,
being contended for, as posts, at the commencement of the siege;
and the country was so much disfigured, that the proprietors of
lands had some difficulty to ascertain their boundaries.
 MENTZ.
Something has been already said of the present condition of this
city: upon a review it appears, that from the mention of churches,
palaces, burgesses, quays and streets, we might be supposed to
represent it as a considerable place, either for splendour, or
commerce, or for having its middle classes numerously filled. Any
such opinion of Mentz will be very incorrect. After two broad and
somewhat handsome streets, all the other passages in the city are
narrow lanes, and into these many of the best houses open, having,
for the most part, their lower windows barricadoed, like those of
Cologne. The disadvantage, with which any buildings must appear in
such situations, is increased by the neglected condition of these; for
a German has no notion, that the outside of his house should be
clean, even if the inside is so. An Englishman, who spends a few
hundred pounds in a year, has his house in better condition, as to
neatness, than any German nobleman's we saw; a Dutchman, with
fifty pounds a year, exceeds both.

The Elector's palace is a large turreted building of reddish stone,

with one front towards the Rhine, which it commands in a delightful
point of view; but we did not hear, that it was so much altered, by
being now used as a barrack, as that its appearance can formerly
have been much less suitable than at present to such a purpose.

On the quay there is some appearance of traffic, but not much in

the city; so that the transfer of commodities from vessels of other
districts to those of the Electorate may be supposed to contribute
great part of the show near the river. The commerce is not sufficient
to encourage the building of warehouses over the quay. The vessels
are ill rigged, and the hulls are entirely covered with pitch, without
paint. About thirty of these, apparently from forty to seventy tons
burthen, were lying near the quay; and the war could scarcely have
diminished their usual number, so many being employed in carrying
stores for the armies.
 The burgesses are numerous, and have some privileges, which
render their political condition enviable to the other inhabitants of
the Electorate. But, though these have invited manufacturers, and
somewhat encouraged commerce, there is not wealth enough in the
neighbouring country, to make such a consumption, as shall render
many traders prosperous. In point of wealth, activity and address,
the burgesses of Mentz are much below the opinion, which must be
formed, while German cities are described and estimated by their
importance in their own country, rather than by a comparison of
their condition with that of others. A trader, it will be allowed, is at
least as likely to appear to advantage in his business as in any other
state. His intelligence may surely be, in some degree, judged of by
those, who deal with him; and that we might know something of
those of Mentz, we passed some of the little time we were left to
ourselves in endeavouring to buy trifles at their shops.

The idleness and inadvertence we generally saw are difficult to be

conceived; perhaps, the trouble, experienced in purchasing a book,
may give an idea of them. We wanted the German pamphlet, from
which most of the above-mentioned particulars of the siege are
extracted; and, as it related to a topic so general within the place,
we smiled, when our friends said they would assist us to procure it,
during a walk. Two booksellers, to whom we applied, knew nothing
of it; and one supposed, that an engraved view of the works would
do quite as well. Passing another shop, a young German gentleman
enquired for it of the master, who was at the door, and heard, that
we might have it, upon our return, in half an hour. The door, when
we came back, was shut, and no knocking could procure it to be
opened; so that we were obliged to send into the dwelling-house.
When the shopman came, he knew nothing of the book; but, being
assured that his master had promised it, went away, and returned
with a copy in sheets. We paid for this, and left it to be sewed,
which was agreed to be done, in three hours. At that time, it was
not finished, but might be had in another hour; and, after that hour,
it was again promised, within two. Finally, it could not be had, that
night, but would be ready in the morning, and, in the morning, it
was still unfinished; we then went to Franckfort without it, and it
was sent after us by a friend. This was the most aggravated instance
we saw of a German trader's manners; but something like it may be
almost every where met with.

From such symptoms and from the infrequency of wealth among

the middle classes it is apparent, that Mentz could not have been
important, as to commerce, even if there had been no siege, which
is here mentioned as the cause of all deficiencies, and certainly is so
of many. The destruction of property, occasioned by it, will not be
soon remedied. The nobility have almost forsaken a place, where
their palaces have been either destroyed, or ransacked; the Prince
has no residence there; some of the Germans, who emigrated on
account of the last siege, fled into France; the war-taxes, as well as
the partial maintenance of the garrison, diminish what property
remains; and all expenditure is upon a reduced footing.

The contribution of the inhabitants towards a support of the

garrison is made by the very irksome means of affording them
lodging. At the best houses, the doors are chalked over with the
names of officers, lodged in them; which the servants dare not
efface, for the soldiers must know where to find their officers. In a
family, whom we visited, four officers and their servants were
quartered; but it must be acknowledged, that the former, so far from
adding to this inconvenience by any negligent conduct, were
constantly and carefully polite. We, indeed, never saw Prussian
officers otherwise; and can testify, that they are as much superior to
those Austrians in manners and intelligence, as they are usually said
to be in military qualities.

Another obstruction, which the siege has given to the prosperity of

Mentz, consists in the absence of many members of the Noble
Chapter; an institution, which, however useless, or injurious to the
country, occasions the expenditure of considerable sums in the
capital. That of Mentz is said to be one of the richest of many similar
Chapters in Germany. From such foundations the younger sons of
noble families derive sometimes very ample incomes, and are but
little restricted by their regulations from any enjoyment of temporal
splendour. Their carriages and liveries vie with those of the other
attendants at Court; they are not prohibited from wearing the
ornaments of orders of knighthood; are very little enjoined to
residence; are received in the environs of the Court with military
honours, and allowed to reside in their separate houses. They may
wear embroidery of gold, and cloths of any colours, except scarlet,
or green, which, as well as silver lace, are thought too gay. Being
thus permitted and enabled to become examples of luxury, their
residence in any city diffuses some appearance of prosperity over it.

One of the largest buildings in Mentz is the arsenal, which fronts

towards the river, and attracts the attention of those, who walk upon
the quay, by having armed heads placed at the windows of the first
floor, which seem to frown, with Roman sternness, upon the
passenger. In one of the principal rooms within, a party of figures in
similar armour are placed at a council-board. We did not hear who
contrived them; but the heads in the windows may be mistaken for
real ones, at the distance of fifty yards.

The Elector of Mentz, who is chosen by a Chapter of twenty-four

Canons, and is usually one of their number, is the first ecclesiastical
Prince in the empire, of which he is also the Arch-chancellor and
Director of the Electoral College. In the Diet, he sits on the right
hand of the Emperor, affixes the seal of the Empire to its decrees,
and has afterwards the custody of them among the archives. His
revenues, in a time of peace, are nearly 200,000l. annually; but,
during a war, they are much less, a third part of them arising from
tolls, imposed upon the navigation of the Rhine. The vineyards
supply another large part; and his subjects, not interested in them,
are but little taxed, except when military preparations are to be
made; the taxes are then as direct as possible, that money may be
immediately collected.
 The fortifications of his chief city are as much a misfortune to his
country as they are an advantage to the rest of the Empire. Being
always one of the first objects, on this side of the Rhine, since an
enemy cannot cross the river, while so considerable a fortress and so
large a garrison as it may contain, might, perhaps, check their
return, the Electorate has been often the scene of a tedious warfare.
From the first raising of the works by Louis the Fourteenth, their
strength has never been fully tried. The surrender in 1792 was partly
for the want of a proper garrison, and partly by contrivance; even in
1793, when the defence was so furious and long, the garrison, it is
thought, might have held out further, if their stores had been
secured in bomb-proof buildings. A German garrison, supported by
an army, which should occupy the opposite bank of the Rhine, might
be continually reinforced and supplied, so as to be conquered by
nothing but the absolute demolition of the walls.

The bridge of boats over the Rhine, which, both in peace and war,
is so important to the city, is now in a much better state than the
French found it, being guarded, at the eastern end, by the
fortifications of Cassel. Notwithstanding its great length and the
rapidity of the river, it is so well constructed, as to be much less
liable to injury, than might be supposed, and would probably sustain
batteries, which might defeat every attempt at destroying it by
fireships. It is 766 feet long, and wide enough for the passage of
two carriages at once. Various repairs, and the care of a daily
survey, have continued it, since 1661, when it was thrown over the
river.

The practice of modifying the names of towns so as to incorporate

them separately with every language, is no where more remarkable
than with respect to those of Germany, where a stranger, unless he
is aware of them, might find the variations very inconvenient. The
German name for what we call Mentz, is Maynz; the French, which is
most used, Mayence; and the Italian Magontio, by descent from the
Roman Magontiacum. The German synonym for Liege is Luttich; for
Aix la Chapelle, Achen; for Bois le Duc, Herzogenbusch; and for
Cologne, Cöln, which is pronounced Keln. The name borne by every
town in the nation to which it belongs, should surely be its name,
wherever it is mentioned; for the same reason, that words, derived
into one language from another, are pronounced according to the
authority of their roots, because the use of the primary term is
already established, and there can never be a decision between
subsequent varieties, which are cotemporary among themselves,
and are each produced by the same arrogance of invention.

FRANCKFORT.
We came hither by means of a passage boat, which we were told
would shew something of the German populace, but which displayed
nothing so much as the unskilfulness of the German sailors. Though
they make this voyage, every day, they went aground in the even
stream of the Maine, and during the calmest weather; fixing the
vessel so fast by their ill-directed struggle to get off, that they were
compelled to bring the towing horses to the side and tug backward
with the stream. There were an hundred people in the boat; but the
expedient of desiring them to remove from the part, which was
aground, was never used. We heard, that they seldom make the
voyage, without a similar stoppage, not against any shifting sand,
but upon the permanent shelves of the river.

The distance is about four-and-twenty miles, but we were nine

hours in reaching Franckfort, the environs of which afford some
symptoms of a commercial and opulent city, the banks of the Maine
being covered for nearly the last mile with country seats, separated
from each other by small pleasure grounds.

There are gates and walls to Franckfort, but the magistrates do

not oppress travellers by a military examination at their entrance.
Having seen the worthlessness of many places, which bear
ostentatious characters either for splendour or trade, we were
surprised to find in this as much of both as had been reported. The
quays were well covered with goods and labourers; the streets
nearest to the water are lined with shops, and those in the middle of
the city with the houses of merchants, of which nearly all are
spacious, and many magnificent. Some, indeed, might be called
palaces, if they had nobility for their tenants; but, though the
independence, which commerce spreads among the middle classes,
does not entirely deter the German nobility from a residence here,
the finest houses are the property of merchants.

In our way to the Cigne Blanc, which is one of the best inns, we
passed many of so good an appearance, that it was difficult to
believe there could be better in a German city. But Franckfort, which
is the pride of Germany, in this respect, has probably a greater
number of large inns than any other place of equal extent in Europe.
The fairs fill these, twice in a year, for three weeks, at each time;
and the order, which is indispensible then, continues at other
periods, to the surprise and comfort of strangers.

This city has been justly described by many travellers; and Doctor
Moore has treated of its inhabitants with the ease and elegant
animation of his peculiar manner. We shall not assume the
disadvantage of entering upon the same subject after him. The
inhabitants of Franckfort are very distinct, as to manners and
information, from the other Germans; but they are so far like to
those of our own commercial cities, that one able account leaves
scarcely any thing new to be seen, or told, concerning them.

All their blessings of liberty, intelligence, and wealth are observed

with the more attention, because they cannot be approached, except
through countries afflicted by arbitrary power, ignorance and
poverty. The existence of such a city, in such a situation, is little less
than a phenomenon; the causes of which are so various and minute
as to make the effect, at first sight, appear almost accidental. The
jealousy of the neighbouring Princes towards each other, is the
known, and, certainly, the chief cause of its exterior protection
against each; the continuance of its interior liberties is probably
owing to the circumstance, which, but for that jealousy, would
expose it to subjection from without,—the smallness of its territory.
Where the departments of government must be very few, very
difficult to be rendered expensive to the public, and very near to
their inspection, the ambition of individuals can be but little tempted
to contrive encroachments upon the community. So complexly are
the chief causes of its exterior and interior independence connected
with each other.

As to the first of these, it may, perhaps, be replied, that a similar

jealousy has not always been sufficient to protect similar cities; and
Dantzick is the recent instance of its insufficiency. But the jealousy,
as to Dantzick, though similar, was not equal to this, and the
temptation to oppose it was considerably greater. What would the
most capable of the neighbouring Princes gain by the seizure of
Franckfort? A place of strength? No. A place capable of paying
taxes? Yes; but taxes, which would be re-imposed upon
commodities, consumed partly by his own subjects, whose property
is his own already, and partly by those of his neighbours, to whose
jealousy they would afford an additional and an unappeasable
provocation. Dantzick, on the contrary, being a seaport, was, if not
strong, capable of supplying strength, and might pay taxes, which
should not fall entirely upon its neighbours, but upon the distant
countries, that traffick with it. And even to these considerations it is
unnecessary to resort, unless we can suppose, that despotism would
have no effect upon commerce; a supposition which does not
require to be refuted. If a severe taxation was introduced here, and,
in so small a district, taxation must be severe to be productive; if
such a taxation was to be introduced, and if the other advantage of
conquest, that of a forcible levy of soldiers, was attempted,
commerce would vanish in silence before the oppressor, and the
Prince, that should seize the liberties of Franckfort, would find
nothing but those liberties in his grasp.
 On the other hand, what are the advantages of permitting the
independence of such a city to the sovereigns, who have the power
of violating it? Those of a neutral barrier are well known, but apply
only to military, or political circumstances. The others are the
market, which Franckfort affords, for the produce and manufactures
of all the neighbouring states; its value as a banking depôt and
emporium, in which Princes may place their money, without
rendering it liable to the orders of each other, or from which they
may derive loans, by negotiating solely and directly with the lenders;
its incapacity for offensive measures; and its usefulness as a place of
meeting to themselves, or their ministers, when political connections
are to be discussed.

That the inhabitants do enjoy this independence without and

freedom within, we believe, not because they are asserted by
treaties, or political forms; of which the former might not have
survived the temporary interests, that concluded them, and the
latter might be subdued by corruption, if there were the means of it;
but because they were acknowledged to us by many temperate and
discerning persons, as much aloof from faction, as they were from
the affectation, or servility, that sometimes makes men boast
themselves free, only because they have, or would be thought to
have, a little share in oppressing others. Many such persons declared
to us, that they had a substantial, practical freedom; and we thought
a testimony to their actual enjoyments more valuable than any
formal acknowledgments of their rights. As to these latter securities,
indeed, Franckfort is no better provided than other imperial cities,
which have proved their inutility. It stands in the same list with
Cologne, but is as superior to it in government as in wealth.

The inhabitants having had the good sense to foresee, that

fortifications might render them a more desirable prize to their
neighbours, at the same time that their real protection must depend
upon other means, have done little more than sustain their antient
walls, which are sufficient to defend them against a surprise by small
parties. They maintain no troops, except a few companies of city-
guards, and make their contributions to the army of the Empire in
specie. These companies are filled chiefly with middle-aged men,
whose appearance bespeaks the plenty and peacefulness of the city.
Their uniforms, blue and white, are of the cut of those in the prints
of Marlborough's days; and their grenadiers' caps are of the same
peaked sort, with tin facings, impressed with the city arms.

In wars with France, the fate of Franckfort has usually depended

upon that of Mentz, which is properly called the key of Germany, on
the western frontier. In the campaign of 1792, Custine detached
3000 troops of the 11,000, with which he had besieged Mentz, and
these reached Franckfort, early in the morning of the 22d of October.
Neuwinger, their commander, sent a letter to the magistrates from
Custine, demanding a contribution of two millions of florins, which,
by a negotiation at Mentz, was reduced to a million and a half, for
the present. Notice was accordingly given in the city, that the
magistrates would receive money at four per cent. interest, and, on
the 23d, at break of day, it began to flow in to the Council-house
from all quarters. Part was immediately given to Neuwinger, but
payment of the rest was delayed; so that Custine came himself on
the 27th, and, by throwing the hostages into prison, obtained, on
the 31st of October, the remainder of the first million. For the
second, the magistrates gave security to Neuwinger, but it was never
paid; the Convention disavowed great part of the proceedings of
Custine, and the money was not again demanded.

The French, during the whole of their stay, were very eager to
spread exaggerated accounts of their numbers. Troops were
accordingly marched out at one gate of the city, with very little
parade, that they might enter with much pomp and in a longer
column, at the other. The inhabitants, who were not expert at
military numeration, easily believed, that the first party had joined
other troops, and that the whole amounted to treble their real
number. After the entry of the Prussians, this contrivance was
related by prisoners.
 The number of troops, left in the city by Custine, on his retirement
from the neighbouring posts, in the latter end of November, was
1800 men, with two pieces of cannon. On the 28th, when the
Prussian Lieutenant Pellet brought a summons to surrender, Helden,
the commander, having sent to Custine for reinforcements and
cannon, was answered, that no men could be spared; and that, as
to cannon, he might use the city artillery. Helden endeavoured to
remove this from the arsenal; but the populace, encouraged by the
neighbourhood of the Prussians, rose to prevent him; and there
might have been a considerable tumult, if Custine had not arrived,
on the 29th, and assured the magistrates, that the garrison should
retire, rather than expose the place to a siege. The city then became
tranquil, and remained so till the 2d of December, when the
inhabitants, being in church, first knew by the noise of cannon, that
the place was attacked.

General Helden would then have taken his two cannon to the gate,
which was contended for, but the inhabitants, remembering Custine's
promise, would permit no resistance; they cut the harness of the
horses, broke the cannon wheels, and themselves opened the gates
to the Prussians, or rather to the Hessians, for the advanced corps of
the assailants was chiefly formed of them. About 100 fell in this
attack. Of the French 41 were killed; 139 wounded; and 800 taken
prisoners. The remainder of the 1800 reached Custine's army. A
monument, erected without the northern gate of the city,
commemorates the loss of the 100 assailants, on the spot, on which
they fell.

Thus Franckfort, having happily but few fortifications, was lost and
regained, without a siege; while Mentz, in a period of six more
months, had nearly all its best buildings destroyed, by a similar
change of masters.

We stayed here almost a week, which was well occupied by visits,

but shewed nothing in addition to what is already known of the
society of the place. Manners, customs, the topics of conversation
and even dress, differ very slightly from those of London, in similar
ranks; the merchants of Franckfort have more generally the
advantages of travel, than those of England, but they have not that
minute knowledge of modern events and characters, which an
attention to public transactions renders common in our island.
Those, who have been in England, or who speak English, seem
desirous to discuss the state of parliamentary transactions and
interests, and to remedy the thinness of their own public topics, by
introducing ours. In such discussions one error is very general from
their want of experience. The faculty of making a speech is taken for
the standard of intellectual power in every sort of exertion; though
there is nothing better known in countries, where public speakers
are numerous enough to be often observed, than that persons may
be educated to oratory, so as to have a facility, elegance and force in
it, distinct from the endowments of deliberative wisdom; may be
taught to speak in terms remote from common use, to combine
them with an unfailing dexterity of arrangement, and to invest every
thought with its portion of artificial dignity, who, through the chaos
of benefits and evils, which the agitation of difficult times throws up
before the eye of the politician, shall be able to see no gleam of
light, to describe no direct path, to discern no difference between
greater and lesser evils, nor to think one wholesome truth for a
confiding and an honest country. To estimate the general intellectual
powers of men, tutored to oratory, from their success in the practice
of it, is as absurd as to judge of corporeal strength from that of one
arm, which may have been rendered unusually strong by exercise
and art.

Of the society at Franckfort, Messrs. Bethman, the chief bankers,

seem able to collect a valuable part; and their politeness to
strangers induces them to do it often. A traveller, who misses their
table, loses, both as to conversation and elegant hospitality, a
welcome proof of what freedom and commerce can do against the
mental and physical desolation otherwise spread over the country.
 The assistance, which the mutual use of languages gives to a
connection between distant places, we were happy to see existing
and increasing, to the advantage of England, at Franckfort. At the
Messrs. Bethmans', one day, French was nearly excluded, the
majority being able to converse with nine or ten English, who were
there, in their own language. Of the merchants, who have not been
in England, several speak English, without difficulty, and the rising
generation, it is said, will be generally accomplished in it.

One of the luxuries of Franckfort is a Cabinet Literaire, which is

open to strangers by the introduction of members. There the best
periodical publications of the Continent are received, and their titles
immediately entered in a book, so that the reading is not disturbed
by conversation with the librarian. It excited our shame to hear, that
some contrivance had, for several months, prevented the society
from receiving a very valuable English publication.

After this, the Theatre may seem to require some notice. It is a

modern, but not an elegant building, standing in an area, that
renders it convenient of access, and nearly in the middle of the city.
The interior, which has been gaudily decorated, contains a pit, three
rows of boxes, that surround the audience part, and a gallery over
them in the centre. It is larger than the Little Theatre in the
Haymarket, and, in form, resembles that of Covent Garden, except
that six or seven of the central boxes, in each tier, encroach upon
the oval figure by a projection over the pit. The boxes are let by the
year; the price of admission for non-subscribers, is a florin, for which
they may find places in the box, engaged by their friends, or in the
pit, which is in the same proportion of esteem as that at an Opera-
house.

The performances are plays and operas alternately; both in

German; and the music of the latter chiefly by German composers.
The players are very far beneath mediocrity; but the orchestra, when
we heard it, accorded with the fame of German musicians, for spirit
and precision. In these qualities even the wandering parties, that
play at inns, are very seldom deficient.

The stage was well lighted, but the other parts of the theatre were
left in duskiness, which scarcely permitted us to see the diamonds,
profusely worn by several ladies. Six o'clock is the hour of beginning,
and the performances conclude soon after nine.

The Cabinet Literaire and the Theatre are the only permanent
places of public amusement at Franckfort, which is, however, in want
of no more, the inhabitants being accustomed to pass much of their
time in friendly parties, at their houses. Though wealth is, of course,
earnestly and universally sought for in a place purely mercantile, we
were assured, that the richest persons, and there are some, who
have above half a million sterling, find no more attention in these
parties than others. This was acknowledged and separately boasted
of by some of the very rich, and by those who were comparatively
poor. We are so far able to report it for true, as that we could never
discern the least traces of the officiousness, or subserviency that, in
a corrupt and debased state of society, frequently point to the
wealthiest individuals in every private party.

These and many other circumstances would probably render

Franckfort a place of residence for foreigners, if the magistrates,
either dreading the increase of luxury, or the interference of
strangers with their commerce, did not prevent this by prohibiting
them from being lodged otherwise than at inns. It was with difficulty,
that an English officer, acting as Commissary to some of the German
regiments, lately raised upon our pay, could obtain an exemption
from this rule, at the request of the Hanoverian Minister.

Round the city, are several well-disposed walks, as pleasant as the

flatness of the nearer country will permit; and, at intervals, along
these, are the country houses of the merchants, who do not choose
to go beyond the city territories, for a residence. Saxenhausen, a
small town, on the other side of the Maine, though incorporated with
Franckfort, as to jurisdiction, and connected with it by a bridge, is
chiefly inhabited by watermen and other labourers.

We left Franckfort, after a stay of six days, fortified by a German

passport from M. de Swartzhoff, the Hanoverian Minister, who
obligingly advised us to be prepared with one in the native language
of the Austrian officers. At Mentz, the ceremonies of examination
were rendered much more troublesome than before, the Governor,
General Kalkreuth, happening to be in the great square, who chose
to make several travellers wait as if for a sort of review before him,
though, after all, nothing was to be said but "Go to the
Commandant, who will look at your passports." This Commandant
was M. de Lucadou, a gentleman of considerate and polite manners,
who, knowing our friends in Mentz, added to his confirmation of M.
de Swartzhoff's passport an address to M. de Wilde, the Intendant of
some salt mines in Switzerland, which he recommended to us to
see. These circumstances are necessary to be mentioned here,
because they soon led to a disagreeable and very contradictory
event in our journey.
 The next morning, we set out from Mentz, and were conducted by
our voiturier over a summer road, on the left bank of the Rhine,
then flowing with the melted snows of Switzerland.

OPPENHEIM.
This is the first town of the Palatinate, on arriving from the north;
and it bears marks of the devastation, inflicted upon that country, in
the last century, more flagrant than could be expected, when the
length of the intervening time, and the complete recovery of other
cities from similar disasters, are considered. Louis the Fourteenth's
fury has converted it from a populous city into little more than a
picturesque ruin. It was burned in 1668; and the walls, which remain
in double, or sometimes in treble circles, are more visible, at a
distance, than the streets, which have been thinly erected within
them. Above all, is the Landscroon, or crown of the country, a castle
erected on an eminence, which commands the Rhine, and dignifies
the view from it, for several miles. The whole city, or rather ruin,
stands on a brow, over this majestic river.

The gates do not now open directly into streets, but into lanes of
stone walls between vineyards and gardens, formed on the site of
houses, never restored, since the fire. The town itself has shrunk
from its antient limits into a few streets in the centre. In some of the
interstices, corn grows up to the walls of the present houses. In
others the ruins of former buildings remain, which the owners have
not been tempted to remove, for the sake of cultivating their sites.
Of the cathedral, said to have been once the finest on the Rhine,
nearly all the walls and the tower still exist; but these are the only
remains of grandeur in a city, which seems entirely incapable of
overcoming in this century the wretchedness it inherits from the last.
 Had the walls been as strong as they are extensive, this place
might not improbably have endured a siege in the present age,
having been several times lost and regained. It was surrendered to
the French, without a contest, in the campaign of 1792. After their
retreat from Worms, and during the siege of Mentz, it was occupied
by the Prussians; and, in December 1793, when the allies retired
from Alsace, the Duke of Brunswick established his head-quarters in
it, for the purpose of covering the fortress. His army ovens remained
near the northern gate, in July 1794, when we passed through it. In
October of the same year it fell again into the hands of the French.

No city on the banks of the Rhine is so well seated for affording a

view of it as this, which, to the north, overlooks all its windings as
far as Mentz, and, southward, commands them towards Worms. The
river is also here of a noble breadth and force, beating so
vehemently against the watermills, moored near the side, that they
seem likely to be borne away with the current. A city might be built
on the site of Oppenheim, which should faintly rival the castle of
Goodesberg, in the richness, though not in the sublimity of its
prospect.

From hence the road leads through a fertile country of corn and
vines, but at a greater distance from the river, to Worms, five or six
miles from which it becomes broad, straight, and bordered with
regularly-planted trees, that form an avenue to the city. Soon after
leaving Oppenheim, we had the first symptom of an approach to the
immediate theatre of the war, meeting a waggon, loaded with
wounded soldiers. On this road, there was a long train of carriages,
taking stores to some military depôt. The defacement of the
Elector's arms, on posts near the road, shewed also, that the
country had been lately occupied by the French; as the delay in
cutting the ripe corn did, that there was little expectation of their
return.
 WORMS.
The condition of Worms is an aggravated repetition of the
wretchedness of Oppenheim. It suffered something in the war, which
the unfortunate Elector, son-in-law of our James the First, provoked
by accepting the kingdom of Bohemia. Louis the Fourteenth came
upon it next, and, in 1669, burned every thing that could be
consumed. Nothing was restored, but on that part, which was the
centre of the antient city; and the walls include, as at Oppenheim,
corn and vineyards upon the ground, which was once covered with
houses, and which plainly appears to have been so, from the lanes
that pass between, and doors that open into the inclosures. A much
larger space is so covered, than at Oppenheim, for you are some
time in driving from the northern gate of the old city to the first
street of the present one.

On the right of the road stands the skeleton of the Electoral

palace, which the French burned in one of the late campaigns; and it
is as curious as melancholy to observe how the signs of antient and
modern desolation mingle with each other. On one hand is a palace,
burned by the present French; on the other, the walls of a church,
laid open by Louis the Fourteenth.

The first and principal street of the place leads through these
mingled ruins, and through rows of dirty houses, miserably
tenanted, to the other end of the city. A few others branch from it,
chiefly towards the Rhine, including sometimes the ruins, and
sometimes the repaired parts of churches; of which streets, narrow,
ill-paved and gloomy, consists the city of Worms. The French
General, that lately wrote to Paris, "We entered the fair episcopal
city of Worms," may be supposed to have derived his terms from a
geographical dictionary, rather than from a view of his conquest.

We were now in a place, occupied by part of the acting army of

the allies, which, if not immediately liable to be attacked, was to be
defended by the maintenance of posts, at a very short distance.
Troops passed through it daily, for the service of these posts. The
noise of every cannonade was audible, and the result of every
engagement was immediately known, for it might make an advance,
or a retreat necessary from Worms. The wounded men arrived, soon
after the intelligence, to the military hospitals of the Prussians. A
city, so circumstanced, seemed to differ but little from a camp; and
we were aware, for a few hours, of a departure from the security
and order of civil life.

The inn, which was not otherwise a mean building, was nearly
destitute of furniture; so that the owner was prepared to receive any
sort of guests, or masters. The only provision which we could obtain
was bread, the commonest sort of wine, and one piece of cold veal;
for the city was under military jurisdiction, and no guests were
allowed to have more than one dish at their table.

In the afternoon, we saw, for the first time, a crowd in a German

city. A narrow waggon, of which nearly all but the wheels was
basket-work, had arrived from the army, with a wounded officer,
who lay upon the floor, supported by his servant, but occasionally
rose to return the salutes of passengers. This was the Prince of
Anhalt Plessis, who had been wounded, in the morning, when the
French attacked all the neighbouring lines of the allies, and an
indecisive engagement ensued, the noise of which had been
distinctly heard, at Worms. He was hurt in the leg, and descended,
with much difficulty, from the waggon; but did not, for an instant,
lose the elegance of his address, and continued bowing through the
passage to his apartment. No doubt was entertained of his recovery,
but there seemed to be a considerable degree of sympathy,
attending this young man.

We had not time to look into the churches, or numerous

monasteries, that yet remain, at Worms; the war appeared to have
depopulated the latter, for not a monk was to be seen. The
cathedral, or church of St. Mary and St. Peter, is one of the most
antient sacred buildings in Germany, having been founded at least as
early as the commencement of the seventh century. One of the
prebends was established in 1033, another in 1058. The Dominicans,
Carmelites, Capuchins and Augustines have each a monastery, at
Worms; as have the Cistercians and the Augustines a nunnery. A
Protestant church was also consecrated, on the 9th of June 1744;
something more than two hundred years, after the ineffectual
conference held here of Protestant and Catholic divines, which
Charles the Fifth interrupted, when Melancthon, on one side, and
Echius, on the other, had engaged in it, ordering them to resume
their arguments, in his presence, at Ratisbon. This meeting was five
years previous to the celebrated diet of Worms, at which Charles,
having then estimated the temporal strength of the two parties,
openly shewed his animosity to the Protestants, as Maurice of
Saxony did his intriguing ambition, by referring the question to the
Council of Trent.

The Jews, at Worms, inhabit a separate street, and have a

synagogue, of great antiquity, their numbers having been once such
as to endanger the peace of the city; but, in 1689, when the French
turned their synagogue into a stable, they fled with the rest of the
opulent inhabitants to Holland. Those of the present day can have
very few articles of traffic, except money, the changing of which may
have been frequent, on account of the neighbourhood of France.

Worms is somewhat connected with English history, having been

occupied by the troops, which James the First uselessly sent to the
assistance of the proscribed Elector Palatine, when his just
abhorrence of continental wars was once, though tardily, overcome
by the entreaties of his daughter. Here too George the Second held
his head-quarters, from the 7th to the 20th of September 1743; on
the 14th of which month, Lord Carteret concluded, in his name, an
offensive and defensive treaty with the Ministers of Hungary and
Sardinia.

This city, like Cologne, retains some affectation of the Roman form
of government, to which it was rendered subject by Cæsar, with the
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