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Web Engineering The Discipline of Systematic
Development of Web Applications Gerti Kappel Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Gerti Kappel, Birgit Prýýll, Siegfried Reich, Werner
Retschitzegger
ISBN(s): 9780470028933, 0470028939
Edition: Desktop Edition
File Details: PDF, 2.93 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
Web Engineering
The Discipline of Systematic Development
of Web Applications

Edited by

Gerti Kappel, Birgit Pröll, Siegfried Reich,

Werner Retschitzegger
Web Engineering
Web Engineering
The Discipline of Systematic Development
of Web Applications

Edited by

Gerti Kappel, Birgit Pröll, Siegfried Reich,

Werner Retschitzegger
Copyright  2003 by dpunkt.verlag GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany.
Title of the German original: Web-Engineering
ISBN: 3-89864-234-8
Translation copyright  2006 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Web engineering / Gerti Kappel . . . [et al.].

p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-470-01554-4
ISBN-10: 0-470-01554-3
1. Web services. 2. Web site development. I. Kappel, Gerti.
TK5105.88813.W395 2006
006.7
6–dc22
2006001395

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-13: 978-0-470-01554-4
ISBN-10: 0-470-01554-3

Typeset in 10/12pt TimesNewRomanPS by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bell & Bain, Glasgow
This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry
in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.
 v

Contents

Preface xv

Foreword xvii

1 An Introduction to Web Engineering 1

Gerti Kappel, Birgit Pröll, Siegfried Reich, Werner Retschitzegger

1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Categories of Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Characteristics of Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3.1 Product-related Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Usage-related Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.3 Development-related Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.4 Evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.4 Objectives and Structure of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Requirements Engineering for Web Applications 23

Paul Grünbacher

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Where Do Requirements Come From? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Requirements Engineering Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3 RE Specifics in Web Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.4 Principles for RE of Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.5 Adapting RE Methods to Web Application Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

vi Contents

2.5.1 Requirement Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.5.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.3 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 Modeling Web Applications 39

Wieland Schwinger, Nora Koch

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.3 Modeling Specifics in Web Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.3.1 Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.2 Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.3 Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.4 Customization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.4 Modeling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.5 Content Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.5.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5.2 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.6 Hypertext Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.6.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.2 Hypertext Structure Modeling Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.3 Access Modeling Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6.4 Relation to Content Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.7 Presentation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.7.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7.2 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7.3 Relation to Hypertext Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.8 Customization Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.8.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8.2 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8.3 Relation to Content, Hypertext, and Presentation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.9 Methods and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Contents vii

3.9.1 Modeling Methods: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.9.2 Model-Driven Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.9.3 Tool Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.10 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4 Web Application Architectures 65

Christian Eichinger

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2.1 What is an Architecture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2.2 Developing Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2.3 Categorizing Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.3 Specifics of Web Application Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.4 Components of a Generic Web Application Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.5 Layered Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.5.1 2-Layer Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.2 N -Layer Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.6 Data-aspect Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.6.1 Database-centric Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.6.2 Architectures for Web Document Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.6.3 Architectures for Multimedia Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.7 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5 Technology-aware Web Application Design 85

Gerhard Austaller, Andreas Hartl, Markus Lauff, Fernando Lyardet, Max
Mühlhäuser

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5.2 Web Design from an Evolutionary Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2.2 Information Design: An Authoring Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2.3 Software Design: A Programming Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.4 Merging Information Design and Software Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
viii Contents

5.2.5 Problems and Restrictions in Integrated Web Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5.2.6 A Proposed Structural Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

5.3 Presentation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

5.3.1 Presentation of Nodes and Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3.2 Device-independent Development Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.4 Interaction Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

5.4.1 User Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4.2 User Interface Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4.3 Navigation Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.4.4 Designing a Link Representation: The Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.4.5 Designing Link Internals: The URL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.6 Navigation and Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.7 Structured Dialog for Complex Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4.8 Interplay with Technology and Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5.5 Functional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.5.1 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.5.2 Communication Paradigms and Middleware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.5.3 Distributed Cross-corporate Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.6.1 Context-aware Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6.2 Device-independent Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.6.3 Reusability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6 Technologies for Web Applications 111

Martin Nussbaumer, Martin Gaedke

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6.2.1 Markup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2.2 Hypertext and Hypermedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6.3 Client/Server Communication on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

6.3.1 SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.2 RTSP – Real Time Streaming Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.3 HTTP – HyperText Transfer Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.4 Session Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
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6.4 Client-side Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

6.4.1 Helpers and Plug-ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.4.2 Java Applets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.4.3 ActiveX Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

6.5 Document-specific Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.5.1 HTML – Hypertext Markup Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.5.2 SVG – Scalable Vector Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.5.3 SMIL – Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.5.4 XML – eXtensible Markup Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.5.5 XSL – eXtensible Stylesheet Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.6 Server-side Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

6.6.1 URI Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.6.2 Web Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.6.3 Middleware Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

6.7 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

7 Testing Web Applications 133

Christoph Steindl, Rudolf Ramler, Josef Altmann

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

7.2.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2.2 Quality Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2.3 Test Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.2.4 Test Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.2.5 Role of the Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7.3 Test Specifics in Web Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

7.4 Test Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

7.4.1 Conventional Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.4.2 Agile Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

7.5 Test Scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

7.5.1 Three Test Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5.2 Applying the Scheme to Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.5.3 Examples of Using the Test Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

7.6 Test Methods and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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7.6.1 Link Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

7.6.2 Browser Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.6.3 Usability Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.6.4 Load, Stress, and Continuous Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.6.5 Testing Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.6.6 Test-driven Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

7.7 Test Automation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

7.7.1 Benefits and Drawbacks of Automated Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.7.2 Test Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.7.3 Selecting Test Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

7.8 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

8 Operation and Maintenance of Web Applications 155

Arno Ebner, Birgit Pröll, Hannes Werthner

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

8.2 Challenges Following the Launch of a Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

8.3 Promoting a Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

8.3.1 Newsletters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.3.2 Affiliate Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.3.3 Search Engine Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3.4 Content-related Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.3.5 Domain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8.4 Content Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

8.4.1 Content Update Rate and Demand on Currency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.4.2 Content Syndication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

8.5 Usage Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

8.5.1 Usage Analysis Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.5.2 Statistical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.5.3 User Behavior Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

8.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

9 Web Project Management 171

Herwig Mayr

9.1 From Software Project Management to Web Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Contents xi

9.1.1 Objectives of Software Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

9.1.2 The Tasks of Software Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.1.3 Conflicting Areas in Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.1.4 Specifics of Web Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

9.2 Challenges in Web Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

9.2.1 General Challenges in Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.2.2 Development-related Challenges in Web Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.2.3 Product-related Challenges in Web Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

9.3 Managing Web Teams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

9.3.1 Software Development: A Human-centered Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.3.2 The Web Project Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.3.3 The Web Project Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

9.4 Managing the Development Process of a Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

9.4.1 Deploying the Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.4.2 Measuring Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9.4.3 Project Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.4.4 Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

9.5 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

10 The Web Application Development Process 197

Gregor Engels, Marc Lohmann, Annika Wagner

10.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

10.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

10.3 Requirements for a Web Application Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

10.3.1 Handling Short Development Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.3.2 Handling Changing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.3.3 Releases with Fixed Deadlines and Flexible Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.3.4 Parallel Development of Different Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.3.5 Reuse and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.3.6 Adapting to Web Application’s Complexity Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

10.4 Analysis of the Rational Unified Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

10.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.4.2 General Suitability for Web Application Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.4.3 Does RUP meet the Requirements of Web Applications? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
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10.5 Analysis of Extreme Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

10.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.5.2 Does XP meet the Requirements of Web Application Development? . . . . . . . . 214

10.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

11 Usability of Web Applications 219

Martin Hitz, Gerhard Leitner, Rudolf Melcher

11.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

11.2 What is Usability? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

11.3 What Characterizes the Usability of Web Applications? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

11.4 Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

11.4.1 Response Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.4.2 Interaction Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.4.3 Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.4.4 Text Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11.4.5 Page Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.4.6 Navigation Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.4.7 Multiculturality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.4.8 Confidence-generating Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.4.9 Other Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

11.5 Web Usability Engineering Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

11.5.1 Requirements Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.5.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.5.3 Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.5.4 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

11.6 Web Usability Engineering Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

11.6.1 Usability Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11.6.2 Mobile Usability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.6.3 Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

11.7 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

12 Performance of Web Applications 247

Gabriele Kotsis

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

12.2 What Is Performance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Contents xiii

12.3 What Characterizes the Performance of Web Applications? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

12.4 System Definition and Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

12.5 Characterizing the Workload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

12.6 Analytical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

12.6.1 Operational Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.6.2 Queuing Networks and Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
12.6.3 Measuring Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

12.7 Representing and Interpreting Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

12.8 Performance Optimization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

12.8.1 Acceleration Within a Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
12.8.2 Reducing Transmission Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
12.8.3 Server Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

12.9 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

13 Security for Web Applications 265

Martin Wimmer, Alfons Kemper, Stefan Seltzsam

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

13.2 Aspects of Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

13.3 Encryption, Digital Signatures and Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

13.3.1 Symmetric Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
13.3.2 Asymmetric Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.3.3 Digital Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
13.3.4 Certificates and Public Key Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

13.4 Secure Client/Server-Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

13.4.1 Point-to-Point Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
13.4.2 End-to-End Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
13.4.3 User Authentication and Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
13.4.4 Electronic Payment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

13.5 Client Security Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

13.5.1 Preserving Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
13.5.2 Mobile Code Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
13.5.3 Phishing and Web Spoofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
13.5.4 Desktop Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

13.6 Service Provider Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

 xiv Contents

13.6.1 Cross-Site Scripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

13.6.2 SQL Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
13.6.3 Security of CGI Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
13.6.4 Service Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
13.6.5 Host Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

13.7 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

14 The Semantic Web – The Network of Meanings in the Network

of Documents 293
Wernher Behrendt, Nitin Arora

14.1 Fundamentals of the Semantic Web. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

14.1.1 The Role of Software Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
14.1.2 The Role of Semantic Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
14.1.3 The Role of Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

14.2 Technological Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

14.2.1 Agents According to the FIPA Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
14.2.2 Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
14.2.3 Semantic Markup on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

14.3 Specifics of Semantic Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

14.3.1 Semantic Markup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
14.3.2 Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
14.3.3 Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
14.3.4 Semantic Web Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
14.3.5 Integration into Web Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

14.4 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

14.5 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Glossary 317

Author Biographies 329

Bibliography 337

Credits 357

Index 359
 xv

Preface

New scientific disciplines don’t emerge overnight. Years pass from the first manifestation of a
technical term to the establishment of a curriculum, even in the fast-paced field of informatics.
What’s often required is the growing together of different communities, and that just takes time.
Web Engineering as a scientific discipline follows this model and is directed towards
engineering-type development of Web applications. Nearly one decade has passed from the first
workshops about this issue at the ICSE Conference1 and the WWW Conference2 in 1998 to the
current curricula discussions.
This book contributes to the establishment of the Web Engineering discipline by bringing
together various communities with their modeling, programming, and design backgrounds. Our
goal was to jointly work out the essential characteristics of Web applications and to take a
comprehensive view on the Web Engineering issues based on traditional software engineering
activities.
What do we need a separate Web Engineering discipline for? Current practice towards
the development of Web applications is often characterized by an ad-hoc approach, lacking
engineering-type development methods. Since the complexity and the pace of the proliferation
of Web applications increase simultaneously, this approach has a negative impact on quality.
But are these really new facets of software development? Isn’t any software development project
accompanied by intense deadline pressure, changing customer requirements, developers lacking
experience, etc. from its very beginning? Yes, and no! The above facets are well-known in the
software development world. And still, there have always been huge differences in projects,
depending on the application domain (information systems, real-time systems, etc.). In this sense,
Web applications represent a new application domain with its very own challenges to software
development.
This book gives a comprehensive and practice-oriented introduction to the Web Engineering
discipline and tries to address the problem of poor methodology. Building on the lifecycle of
a Web application, it introduces concepts, techniques, methods, and tools for the systematic
development of Web applications.
This book is for readers in universities and the industry alike, who are interested in the
engineering-type development of Web applications beyond glazing user literature. The book
addresses scientists, lecturers, and students eager to gain a current insight into the issue,
and project managers and application developers in search for solutions to specific problems.

1 International Conference on Software Engineering, (http://www.icse-conferences.org).

2 International World Wide Web Conference, (http://www.iw3c2.org)
xvi Preface

Knowledge in the fields of traditional software engineering and Web application development is
a benefit, though we have tried to keep each chapter self-contained. Our readers can find material
additional to the book on the accompanying site at (http://www.web-engineering.at). The
editors welcome suggestions or comments.
In closing, we would like to thank all those people involved for their important contributions
to help this book come into being. First and foremost, we thank the participating authors who are
all proven experts in their respective fields. Their valuable specialist knowledge, motivation, and
enthusiastic readiness have helped keep within the unusually tight timeframe for such a book
project.
We particularly thank Jonathan Shipley, David Barnard and all their colleagues at Wiley
engaged in this book project for their great support and assistance. We would also like to express
our thanks to all the anonymous experts who have reviewed this book for their constructive
comments. We are grateful to Christa Preisendanz of dpunkt.verlag for establishing contact with
Wiley and Angelika Shafir for the excellent translation of the German version of this book. We
owe special thanks to Martina Umlauft, for carefully proof-reading the whole book, providing
us with valuable comments that led to significant improvements. Our special appreciation goes
to Birgit Hauer, who contributed greatly to making this book a success by her tireless work “in
the background”.
And last but not least, we gratefully acknowledge the support and help of all other “good
spirits” in alphabetical order: Werner Moser, Hubert Platzer, Sonja Willinger, and Herbert
Zaunmair.

Gerti Kappel, Birgit Pröll, Siegfried Reich, and Werner Retschitzegger

Vienna, Linz, and Salzburg, March 2006
 xvii

Foreword

We may eventually achieve an engineering discipline that will allow us to build, operate and maintain
large hypermedia sites in a systematic, disciplined and quantifiable way.

This sentence is taken from the foreword to a book I co-authored back in 1998. The book is
entitled Hypermedia – An Engineering Approach and the statement was made by John B. Smith,
Professor at Chapel Hill NC.
The Web, Web applications and the Web community overall have certainly come a long way
since then: with the Internet bubble burst, the Web 2.0 emerging, and the vision of the Semantic
Web on the horizon, it is ever more important to move away from ad hoc approaches and to
follow engineering principles. Therefore, this textbook is particularly appropriate at this time.
The book is also exceptionally interesting as it builds on existing software engineering
knowledge: to me, this more evolutionary rather than revolutionary approach fits well the overall
development of the community in the last decade. The authors based the structure of this book on
the well-established “Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge”, i.e. the individual
chapters follow the structuring of traditional Software Engineering. The first (and introductory)
chapter provides a definition for Web Engineering as a discipline, it categorises the various types
of Web applications and it presents the characteristics of Web applications. Each of the following
contributions then focuses on the special characteristics of the relevant topic in relation to the
Web.
The Web is, at the infrastructure level, an engineered space created via formally specified
languages and protocols. However, as humans are involved in the actual creation of pages
and using the links between them, their interactions form emergent patterns in the Web at a
macroscopic scale. These human interactions are in turn, governed by social conventions, policies
and laws. The development of Web applications is as a result a highly complex business and it is
essential that the engineering that underpins this development is very sound. Textbooks such as
this one to allow students and practitioners alike to engineer high-quality Web applications based
on tried and trusted software engineering principles are therefore of the utmost importance.

Prof. Wendy Hall

March 2006, Southampton, UK
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
The egg of the straw-belle moth, Aspillates gilvaria (Plate VI., No.
139), is delicately tinted, somewhat long and narrow, with sides
slightly flattened or rounded off, and irregularly serrated. The top is
convex, and the base a little indented, in which are seen the lid and
micropyle. The young worm, however, usually makes its way through
the upper convex side: the indentation represented in the drawing
shows the place of exit.

An example of those eggs possessing a good deal of natural colour

is presented in that of the common puss-moth, Cerura vinula, a
large spheroidal-shaped egg, having, under the microscope, the
appearance of a fine ripe orange; the micropyle exactly corresponds
to the depression left in this fruit on the removal of the stalk. The
surface is finely reticulated, and the natural colour a deep orange.

The egg of the mottled rustic moth, Caradina morpheus (No. 124), is
subconical, and equally divided throughout by a series of ribs, which
terminate in a well-marked geometrically-formed lid. The egg of the
tortoise-shell butterfly, Vanessa urticæ (No. 125), is ovoid and
divided into segments, the ribs turning in towards the micropyle. The
common footman, Lithosia campanula (No. 126), produces a
perfectly globular egg covered with fine reticulations of a delicate
buff colour. The egg of the shark moth, Cucullia umbratica (No.
127), is subconical in form, with ribs and cross-bars passing up from
a flattened base to the summit, and turning over to form the lid. No.
136 is the egg of blue argus butterfly, Polyommatus argus. That of
the small emerald moth, Jodis Vernaria (No. 134), is an egg of
singular form and beauty—an oval, flattened on both sides, of silvery
iridescence, and covered throughout with minute reticulations and
dots. It is particularly translucent, so much so that the yellow-brown
worm is readily seen curled up within. The lid or micropyle is not
detected until the larva eats its way out of the shell. It should be
noted that the series of eggs in Plate VII. are somewhat over-
coloured, and consequently lose much of their natural transparency.
The eggs of flies and parasites also present much variety in form,
colour, and construction. Many of their eggs are provided with a
veritable lid, which opens up with a hinge-like articulation. This lid is
seen in the egg of bot-fly, Plate VI., No. 144, from which the larva is
just escaping; No. 146, egg of Scatophaga; No. 147, egg of parasite
of magpie.86 Still more remarkable in the delicate and beautiful forms
are some of the parasities which infest birds in particular: Plate VI.,
No. 145, the egg of parasite of pheasant; No. 147, that of the
magpie, while that of the peacock is curiously interesting. In Fig. 407
the larvæ of the horn-bill are seen just about to emerge from their
eggs.

The larvæ of most

Hymenoptera are footless
grubs, furnished with a soft
head, and exhibiting but little, if
any, advance upon those of
Diptera (Plate VI., No. 141). In
the saw-fly, however, the larva,
instead of being as above
described, a mere footless
maggot, presents the closest
resemblance to the caterpillar
of the Lepidoptera; it is
provided with a distinct head,
with six thoracic legs, and in
Fig. 407.—Larvæ of the Hornbill emerging most cases from twelve to
from eggs.
sixteen pro-legs are appended
to the abdominal segments.

One other conspicuous object represented in Plate VI., No. 128, is

the maple Aphis, also known as the leaf-insect, averaging in size
about the one-fiftieth of an inch in length. Although recognised and
described under the name of the leaf-insect, nothing was known of
its origin and history, with the exception of what the Rev. J.
Thornton published in 1852, and to whom we owe its re-discovery
on the leaves of the maple. Subsequently it attracted the attention
of the Dutch naturalist, Van der Hoeven, who regarded it as the
larval form of a species of Aphis, and named it Periphyllus. It has
more recently engaged the attention of Dr. Balbiani and M. Siguoret,
whose united investigations will be found in “Comptes Rendus,”
1867. These observers assigned it definitely to Aphis. A brown
species is also met with during a great part of the year feeding upon
the young shoots of the maple. The female produces two kinds of
young, as do all the genus Aphis, one normal the other abnormal;
the first are alone capable of reproducing their species, while the
latter retain their original form, which is not changed throughout
their existence. They increase so slowly in size that it may appear
doubtful whether they eat, the mouth being rudimentary; they
undergo no change; do not acquire wings, and their antennæ always
retain the five joints peculiar to all young Aphides before the first
moult. Neither are they all of the same colour, some being of a
bright green, as represented in Plate VI., while others are of a
darker, or brownish-green colour. The brown-green embryos differ
from the adult female only in those characters analogous to all other
species, and this chiefly with regard to the minute hairs, which are
long and simple. In the green embryos, in the place of setæ, the
body is surrounded by transparent lamellæ, oblong in shape. These
scales not only cover the body, but also the anterior portion of the
head, the first joint of the antennæ, and the outer edge of the tibiæ
of the first pair of legs. The dorsal surface in these insects is covered
with a mosaic of hexagonal plates, very closely resembling the plates
of the carapace of the tortoise. In this particular my artist has fallen
into a slight error. Another peculiarity is that the body is much
flattened out, and looks so much like a scale on the surface of the
leaf that it requires considerable practice, as well as quickness of
sight, to detect the young maple Aphis. One of the lamellæ is seen
highly magnified at c, and a tenent-hair at b. The antennæ, tapering
off towards the apex, are serrate on both edges, and terminate in a
fine lancet (shown at a), with which it penetrates the leaf of the
plant. Beneath the insertions of the antennæ is a complex form of
sucking mouth, and on either side of the head are two brilliant
scarlet-coloured eyes.
Aphides, as is well known, live upon the juices of plants, which they
suck, and when they occur in great numbers cause considerable
damage to the gardener and farmer. Many plants are liable to be
attacked by swarms of these insects, when their leaves curl up, they
grow sickly, and their produce is either greatly reduced or utterly
ruined. One striking instance is presented in the devastation caused
by the hop-fly (Aphis humuli).

The Aphrophora bifasciata,

common frog-hopper, is a well-
known garden pest. The
antennæ of this insect are
placed between the eyes, and
the scutellum is not covered;
the eyes, never more than two
Fig. 408.—Aphrophora spumaria, Cuckoo-
spit. in number, are occasionally
wanting. These pests are
a. The frothy substance; b. The pupa. furnished with long hind legs,
that enable them to perform
most extraordinary leaping feats. The best-known British species is
the cuckoo-spit, froth-fly (Fig. 408). The names cuckoo-spit and
froth-fly both allude to the peculiar habit of the insect, while in the
larva state, of enveloping itself in a kind of frothy secretion,
somewhat resembling saliva.

Arachnidæ.—In this class of insects, spiders, scorpions, and mites

are included, all of which belong to a sub-class of Arthropoda, and
are appropriately placed between the Crustacea on the one hand
and the Insecta on the other. The highest Crustaceans have ten feet,
the Arachnidæ eight, and insects six. The Arachnidæ are wingless,
have no antennæ, and breathe by means of tracheal tubes, or
pulmonary sacs, these performing the function of lungs. As a rule
they have several simple eyes, have no proper metamorphosis, and
they are essentially predaceous, the females being larger than the
males. Most of the Arachnidæ live on insects, and may therefore be
regarded in the light of a friend to the florist and gardener.
The Epeira diadema is the best known member of the species; in
summer spiders abound on every shrub, and spin out their
wonderful webs from branch to branch.

Fig. 409.—A lengthways section through the body of female Epeira

diadema.

Explanation of reference.—ey. Eyes; p.g. Poison gland; ht. Heart;

in. Intestine, alimentary canal; l. Liver; r. Rectum or cloaca; dt. and
sp. Discharge tubes of spinnerets; o. Slit, or air opening; ov.
Ovipositor; ph. Pharynx; br. Brain; thr. Throat, or gullet, filled with
eggs; un. l. Under lip; m. Mouth; f. Fang, or claw; j. Jaw. The gills,
or breathing apparatus are situated at the air opening, o; and the
silk glands are above this. (Magnified 20 diameters.)

The body, seen in my illustration, Fig. 409, in section, consists of two

parts; the foremost is the cephalothorax, or head, upon which is
mounted four pairs of eyes (two of which are seen in section), while
to the thorax is attached eight jointed well-developed legs
terminating in feet, with claws adapted for climbing and holding on.
The other half consists, of the abdomen, together with spinnerets
and glands, which secrete the fluid out of which the web is spun,
and this, although it hardens to some extent on exposure to the air,
retains its viscid nature for the purpose of entangling its prey. The
spinnerets are the most interesting feature in the anatomy of the
Epeira (Figs. 410 and 411).

Fig. 410.

1. Spinnerets of Spider; 2. Extreme end of one of the upper pair of

spinnerets; 3. End of under pair of spinnerets; 4. Foot of Spider; 5.
Side view of eye; 6. The arrangement of the four pairs of eyes.

Five kinds of spinning glands are found in spiders. The glandulæ

aciniformes are those which consist of a proper tunica and an
epithelium; these exhibit in all parts the same reaction to staining
agents. The glandulæ pyriformes consist of a tunica proper and an
epithelium, which in their lower parts (or those near the efferent
ducts) stain more deeply than the upper. The glandulæ ampullaceæ
and glandulæ tubuliformes have similar coverings, the latter
terminating in a large spool. The glandulæ aggregatæ have a wide
and branched lumen, the efferent duct of which is provided with
cells and an accessory piece, which draws out to a tip. All the glands
have secreting portions, which serve as collecting cavities for the
spinning material. The spools are two-jointed basal and one-jointed
accessory pieces. In addition to the five glands enumerated, there
are also lobate and cribelleum glands; these are variously
distributed, and exercise different functions, one set preparing the
so-called moist filaments from the moist droplets, another spins the
egg-cocoon, as nearly all spiders envelop their eggs in a covering of
silken threads and store them up in some sheltered place awaiting
the warm weather of spring to hatch them out. The bag that holds
the eggs is not one of the least curious efforts of skill and care. The
mother uses her body as a gauge to measure her work, precisely as
a bird uses her body to gauge the size and form of its nest. The
spider first spreads a thin coating of silk as a foundation, taking care
to have this circular by turning its body round during the process. In
the same manner it spins a raised border round this till it takes the
form of a cup; it is at this stage of the work the female begins to lay
her eggs in the cup, and not content to fill it up to the brim, she also
piles up a heap as high as the cup is deep. Here, then, is a cup full
of eggs, the under half covered and protected by the silken sides of
the cup, but the upper still exposed to the air and the cold. She now
sets to work to cover this; the process is similar to the preceding—
that is, she weaves a thick web of silk all round the top, and instead
of a cup-shaped nest, like those of the bird tribe, the whole partakes
of the form of a ball much larger than the body of the spider.

The eight legs and feet of the spider (one only is represented Fig.
410, No. 4) are curiously constructed. Each foot, when magnified, is
seen to be armed with strong horny claws, with serrations on their
under-surface. By this arrangement the spider is enabled to regulate
the issue of its web from the spinnerets. In addition, a remarkable
comb-like claw is provided for the purpose of separating certain
threads which enter into the composition of the delicate web, so that
everything is arranged and planned in the most geometrical order,
while the mouth or jaws with their two movable poison-fangs
convert the Arachnidæ into formidable and dangerous foes. The
maternal industry and instincts of spiders, the ballooning habits of
others, the cave dwellers, with their limited vision, combined with an
increased delicacy of touch
and hearing, their disguise of
feigned death when a strong
enemy approaches, are all of
the most interesting
character.

One of the more remarkable,

the Argyroneta aquatica
(diving spider), weaves itself
a curious little bell-shaped
globule, which it takes with it
to the bottom of the water,
whither it retires to devour its
prey. Notwithstanding its Fig. 411.—Spinnerets of Spider greatly
aquatic habits, this, like the enlarged.
rest of its species, is fitted
only for aerial respiration; it therefore carries down, entangled
amongst the hairs of its body, a small bubble of air. This contrivance
presents us with the earliest form of diving-bell.

Mites and Ticks constitute a group which for diversity of structure,

number of species and individuals, and minuteness of size, has no
equal. The typical genus of the family—Ixodidæ—being wholly
parasitic in their habits, are so modified in organisation, so marked
by degeneration, that some authors have proposed to remove them
into a class by themselves. One leading character distinguishes the
whole: the abdomen rarely presents a trace of segmentation, but is
confluent with the cephalothorax, the fusion between the two being
so complete that, as in the harvest spiders belonging to Palpatores,
the anterior sternal plates of the abdomen are thrust far forward
between the coxæ of the cephalothoracic limbs. As in Arachnidæ,
however, the mouth is adapted for sucking, but the jaws are often
partially united, and form, with a plate termed the epistome and the
labium, a beak. The mandibles are either pincer-like, or simply
pointed at the tip, forming piercing organs; the palpi have their basal
segments, or maxillæ, united, which form a conspicuous plate, or
hypostomes, constituting the floor of the mouth. These organs are
often seen to be separated from the rest of the cephalothorax by a
membranous joint, and constitute a kind of head, the capitulum. In
most cases no trace of special respiratory organs can be found.
Another characteristic of value in separating ticks from harvest-
spiders is that in the former the young undergo a metamorphosis in
the course of growth, being hatched as six-footed larvæ, and
acquiring later in life a fourth pair of legs.

The Acariæ include a number

of families, all distinguished
by the position of the
respiratory stigmata and the
form of the mandibles and
palpi. In the velvety mites
(Trombidiidæ), the
integument is soft and
covered with variously-
Fig. 412. coloured fine hairs, and the
A. Atax spinipes, water mite seen from legs are adapted for walking,
below; B. Water Scorpion infested by Atax. running or swimming. The
latter live in fresh-water
ponds, creeping over the leaves of aquatic plants. The fresh-water
mites (Atax spinipes, Fig. 412) swim about freely by means of
vigorous strokes of their legs, which act as oars. In the adult the
body is more or less spherical, and usually of a bright red or
greenish colour. The males of one species have a curious blunt tail-
like prolongation from the hinder end of the abdomen. The eggs are
laid in the spring on the stems of water plants, and the six-footed
larvæ when hatched attach themselves to water-bugs (Nepa) or
water-beetles (Dytiscus) by means of a large sucker developed on
the front of the head.
 Fig. 413.—Ixodes ricinus or Sheep-tick (under surface). The small
circle encloses one life-size.

Of all the Acari, the best known and most troublesome are those
belonging to the family Ixodidæ; these infest the whole animal
creation. They are furnished with a long cylindrical beak, armed with
recurved hooks, formed of the two mandibles above and the long
slender labium below. They have no eyes, nor apparently any
dermaploptic sense, but there are various seemingly sensitive setæ
distributed over the body and on the appendages. The whole of the
mites will be found suitable objects for the study of development, as
the process is slow and their eggs do not require much care. The
segmentation of the eggs differs; some of the cells are distinguished
by their large nuclei, which stain feebly by carmine. During the
cleavage of the egg no division of the so-called yolk has been
observed, but later on this breaks up into several minute pieces.
 The accompanying Fig. 413
shows the under surface of
the body and the mouth parts
of the common English dog
and sheep tick, Ixodes
ricinus, with its six formidable
legs. The upper surface is
shown in Fig. 415; the head
(capitulum) and mouth
organs in Fig. 414, c, d, e, f,
g, together with the four
segments of the palpi; h the
labial process armed with
hooks forming the lower side
of the beak, and i indicating
the tips of the two mandibles
forming the upper side, and
projecting beyond the apex of
the labium. By means of this
beak, which is thrust to its
base into the integument, the
Fig 414.—Mouth organs of Sheep-tick.
tick adheres firmly to its host,
and in detaching them care
c. Capitulum; d, e, f, g. Segments of palpi; h. must be taken that the head
Labial process; i. Spiny beak formed of fused is not left behind buried in the
mandibles.—(Warne.)
skin. This tick is found in all
stages of growth; the
females, gorging themselves with blood, swell up to the size of a
pea, as seen in Fig. 413, but the male, formerly regarded as a
distinct species, is of a much smaller size. In distribution these pests
are almost cosmopolitan, and in tropical countries they grow to
much greater dimensions, the females sometimes attaining the size
of a large gooseberry.

The family of true mites is that of the Sarcoptidæ; these are either
free or parasitic. They have no breathing organs; the palpi are
basally fused to the rostrum, the mandibles are pincer-like, and the
tarsi are often furnished at their tips with a sucker. The most familiar
is the cheese mite, Tyroglyphus, which feeds upon decaying matter.

Fig. 415.

1. Female Sheep-tick; 2. Rat-tick; 3. Head of Cat-flea; 4. Larva of

Flea. (The life size is given in circles.)

The well-known cheese mite attains to a size plainly visible to the

naked eye, but when first hatched out from the egg (shown in its
several stages of development in Fig. 417), requires a moderate
amount of magnification. Its growth, however, is rapid and the
young begin to feed as soon as they leave the egg. The body is
partially covered over by setæ, or hairs, and the feet terminate in
hooklets, as seen in the full-grown acarus. The mandibles are
cutting, but as a rule they prefer soft and partially-decayed kinds of
food. It also feeds upon damaged flour, sugar, and other domestic
articles. The Dermestes lardarius, one of the minute beetle tribe
(Fig. 418), commits even greater depredations among insect and
other collections during the larval stage of its existence.

Fig. 416.

Tyroglyphus. 1. Pediculus vulgaris × 50 diameters; 2. Acarus

destructor under surface; 3. Sarcoptes scabici, Itch-insect,
magnified 350 diameters; 4. Demodex folliculorum from the human
skin in various stages of growth, from the egg upwards, magnified
400 diameters. (The small circles enclose the objects of the natural
size.)
Fig. 417.—The Cheese Mite, Acarus domesticus, seen in its several
stages of development.

Birds suffer much from

mites living parasitically
upon them belonging to
Sarcoptidæ; these
likewise infest mankind,
and give rise to a disease
known as the itch (Fig. Fig. 418.—Dermestes lardarius: larva, pupa, and
416, No. 3). This malady imago. (Natural size.)
and the irritation
accompanying it are caused by the mite excavating tunnels under
the skin. In these the eggs are laid and hatched, and the young then
start burrowing on their own account; their burrows are traced as
whitish lines on the surface of the skin.

Fig. 416, No. 4, Demodex folliculorum, is another remarkable

parasite found beneath the skin; this is usually obtained from a spot
where the sebaceous follicles or fat glands are abundant, such as
the forehead, the side of the nose, and the angles between the nose
and lip. If the part where a little black spot or a pustule is seen be
squeezed rather hard, the oily matter there accumulated will be
forced out in a globular form. This minute mite is less than one-
fiftieth of an inch in length; if it be laid on a glass slide, and a small
quantity of glycerine added to cause the separation of the harder
portions, the parasite in all probability will float out, and, by means
of a fine-pointed pencil or brush, can be transferred to a clean slide
and mounted in Canada balsam. An allied species is found in the
skin of dogs suffering from mange.

Fig. 419.

1. Parasite of Turkey; 2. Acarus of common Fowl, under surface; 3.

Parasite of Pheasant. (The small circles enclose each about life
size.)

The Stylopidæ are remarkable parasites, living upon the bodies of

wasps, bees, and bugs, and present a type of structure quite distinct
from beetles or the ticks described. The male (Xenos peckii, Fig.
420) is a winged insect with coarsely faceted eyes, large fan-shaped
wings, extremely small inconspicuous elytra, the two first thoracic
rings short, while the metathorax is elongated and covers the base
of the abdomen, and the hind legs are placed a long way behind the
middle pair. The female, on the other hand, is a grub-like creature,
without legs, wings, or eyes; she never leaves the body of her host,
and from her eggs active little larvæ develop and get carried into the
nests of bees and wasps.

Mites are very numerous, differ

in form, and are interesting
objects under the microscope.
The body of the common flea
(Fig. 421) is divided into
distinct segments, those about
the thorax being separated.
Although apterous, the flea has
the rudiments of four wings in Fig. 420.—Xenos peckii. 1. Male; 2. Female.
the form of horny plates on
both sides of the thoracic segments. Its mouth consists of a pair of
sword-shaped mandibles, finely serrated; these, with a sharp,
penetrating, needle-like organ, constitute the formidable weapons
with which it pierces through the skin.

The neck is distinctly separated, and the body covered with scales,
the edges of which are beset with short setæ; from the head project
a short pair of antennæ, below which are a proboscis and a lance-
shaped cutting apparatus. On each side of the head a large
compound eye is placed; it has six many-jointed powerful legs,
terminating in two-hooked claws; a pair of long hind legs are kept
folded up when the insect is at rest, which, in the act of jumping, it
suddenly straightens out with great muscular force. The female flea
(Fig. 421) lays a great number of eggs, sticking them together with
a glutinous secretion; the flea infesting the dog or cat glues its eggs
to the roots of the hairs. In about four days the eggs are hatched
out, and a small white larva or grub is seen crawling about, and
feeding most actively. Plate VI., No. 141, is a magnified view of one
covered with short hairs. After nine or ten days the larva assumes
the pupa form; this it retains four days, and in nine days more it
becomes a perfect flea. The head of the flea found in the cat (Fig.
415, No. 3) somewhat differs in form from that of the species
infesting the human being; its jaws are furnished with more
formidable-looking mandibles, and from between the first and
second joints behind the head short strong spines project.
 Fig. 421.

1. Female Flea; 2. Male Flea. (The small circles enclose fleas of

about life size.)

Fig. 422.

1. Parasite of Eagle; 2. Parasite of Vulture; 3. Parasite of Pigeon,

Sarcoptes palumbinus. (The circles enclose each about life size.)

Two small and obscure groups of the mites and ticks have been
associated with the latter, but for no better reason than that their
affinities are unknown. The first of these are the Tardigrada, or bear
animalcules, which comprise microscopical animals living in damp,
sandy, and mossy places; the body is long and oval in shape, and
possesses four pairs of bud-like unjointed appendages, each tipped
with claws: the last pair of legs project from the hinder part of the
body. The mouth is much subdued, and only a trace of jaws is found
as a pair of stylets; there appear to be no organs of respiration or
circulation, and, unlike what obtains in all true Arachnida, the sexes
are united in each individual. These curious infusorial creatures have
been found by myself in an infusion of cow manure.

Injurious Insects.—In describing some of the more interesting points

in connection with insect life, I have only quite incidentally referred
to the destructive habits of the larger number of insects and the
ravages annually inflicted, chiefly by the smaller parasitical tribes,
upon our cultivated crops of all kinds.

Here we have a wide field of research open to the microscopist,

whose investigations must be carried out systematically, day by day,
and for which a moderate power will effectually serve his purpose.

There are some ten or twelve species of injurious insects that attack
the hop plant. By way of example, I will select one of the least
known among them, the hop-flea, or beetle (Haltica concinna). This
is sufficiently minute to require the aid of the microscope, and very
closely resembles the turnip-flea proper, H. nemorum. Under the
microscope the former will be seen to differ considerably. Its colour
is brassy, whereas the colour of its congener is dusky or black, and
its wing-cases are striped. They both have wonderful powers of
jumping. H. concinna has a curious toothed formation of the tibia,
with a set of spines, while the tibia of the turnip-flea is without any
curve. It presents other points of difference. The hop-flea is, in fact,
a winged beetle, and passes the winter in the perfect state under
clods, tufts of grass, or weeds outside the hop-plantation, and here
it lays its eggs. In the early spring the larvæ are hatched out as a
little white maggot, which immediately makes its way to the hop-
plant and burrows into the young leaves and feeds upon its tissues.
Here we have an insect taken at random from among thousands of
others of the most destructive kinds which annually destroy crops of
enormous value to the nation.

Tuffen West, del. Edmund Evans.

Plate VII.
 CHAPTER V.

Vertebrata.
The most complicated condition in which matter exists is where,
under the influence of life, it forms bodies with a structure of tubes
and cavities in which fluids are incessantly in motion, and producing
continuous changes. These have been rightly designated “organised
bodies,” because of the various organs they contain. The two
principal classes into which organised bodies have been divided are
recognised as vegetable and animal. It was Bichat who taught that
our animal life is double, while our organic life is single. In organic
life, to stop is to die; and the life we have in common with
vegetables never sleeps, and if the circulation of the fluids within the
animal body ceases for a few seconds, it ceases for ever. In the
vertebrate body, however, the combination of organs attains to the
highest development, in striking contrast with that of the class we
have previously considered, the Invertebrata, the animal kingdom
being divided into Vertebrates and Invertebrates.

The Vertebrata are distinguished from all other animals by the

circumstance that a transverse and a vertical section of the body
exhibits two cavities completely separated from one another by a
partition. A still more characteristic feature separates the one from
the other; it is the specialisation of the chief nervous centres, and
their peculiar relation to the other systems of the body.

The dorsal cavity of the body contains the cerebro-spinal nervous

system, the ventral, the alimentary canal, the heart, and usually a
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