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Common Discrete Distributions
• Bernoulli(p) X indicates whether a trial that results in a success with probability
p is a success or not.
P{X = 1} = p
P{X = 0} = 1 − p
E[X] = λ, Var(X) = λ.
Notes.
1. A Poisson random variable X with parameter λ = np provides a good approxi-
mation to a Binomial(n, p) random variable when n is large and p is small.
2. If events are occurring one at a time in a random manner for which (a) the
number of events that occur in disjoint time intervals is independent and (b) the
probability of an event occurring in any small time interval is approximately λ
times the length of the interval, then the number of events in an interval of length
t will be a Poisson(λt) random variable.
• Hypergeometric(m, N − m, n) X is the number of white balls in a random sample
of n balls chosen without replacement from an urn of N balls of which m are white.
mN−m
i n−i
P{X = i} = N , i = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n
Preface xi
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following people who have graciously taken the time to
contact me with comments for improving the text: Amir Ardestani, Polytechnic
University of Teheran; Joe Blitzstein, Harvard University; Peter Nuesch, Univer-
sity of Lausaunne; Joseph Mitchell, SUNY, Stony Brook; Alan Chambless, actuary;
Robert Kriner; Israel David, Ben-Gurion University; T. Lim, George Mason Univer-
sity; Wei Chen, Rutgers; D. Monrad, University of Illinois; W. Rosenberger, George
Mason University; E. Ionides, University of Michigan; J. Corvino, Lafayette College;
xii Preface
1
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
Contents
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Multinomial Coefficients
1.2 The Basic Principle of Counting 1.6 The Number of Integer Solutions of
1.3 Permutations Equations
1.4 Combinations
1.1 Introduction
Here is a typical problem of interest involving probability: A communication system
is to consist of n seemingly identical antennas that are to be lined up in a linear order.
The resulting system will then be able to receive all incoming signals—and will be
called functional—as long as no two consecutive antennas are defective. If it turns
out that exactly m of the n antennas are defective, what is the probability that the
resulting system will be functional? For instance, in the special case where n = 4 and
m = 2, there are 6 possible system configurations, namely,
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
where 1 means that the antenna is working and 0 that it is defective. Because the
resulting system will be functional in the first 3 arrangements and not functional in
the remaining 3, it seems reasonable to take 36 = 12 as the desired probability. In
the case of general n and m, we could compute the probability that the system is
functional in a similar fashion. That is, we could count the number of configurations
that result in the system’s being functional and then divide by the total number of all
possible configurations.
From the preceding discussion, we see that it would be useful to have an effec-
tive method for counting the number of ways that things can occur. In fact, many
problems in probability theory can be solved simply by counting the number of dif-
ferent ways that a certain event can occur. The mathematical theory of counting is
formally known as combinatorial analysis.
1
2 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
Proof of the Basic Principle: The basic principle may be proven by enumerating all
the possible outcomes of the two experiments; that is,
#
#
#
(m, 1), (m, 2), . . . , (m, n)
where we say that the outcome is (i, j) if experiment 1 results in its ith possible
outcome and experiment 2 then results in its jth possible outcome. Hence, the set of
possible outcomes consists of m rows, each containing n elements. This proves the
result.
Example A small community consists of 10 women, each of whom has 3 children. If one
2a woman and one of her children are to be chosen as mother and child of the year,
how many different choices are possible?
Solution By regarding the choice of the woman as the outcome of the first experi-
ment and the subsequent choice of one of her children as the outcome of the second
experiment, we see from the basic principle that there are 10 * 3 = 30 possible
choices. .
When there are more than two experiments to be performed, the basic principle
can be generalized.
Example How many different 7-place license plates are possible if the first 3 places are to be
2c occupied by letters and the final 4 by numbers?
Solution By the generalized version of the basic principle, the answer is 26 · 26 ·
26 · 10 · 10 · 10 · 10 = 175,760,000. .
Example How many functions defined on n points are possible if each functional value is
2d either 0 or 1?
Solution Let the points be 1, 2, . . . , n. Since f (i) must be either 0 or 1 for each i =
1, 2, . . . , n, it follows that there are 2n possible functions. .
Example In Example 2c, how many license plates would be possible if repetition among letters
2e or numbers were prohibited?
Solution In this case, there would be 26 · 25 · 24 · 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 = 78,624,000
possible license plates. .
1.3 Permutations
How many different ordered arrangements of the letters a, b, and c are possible?
By direct enumeration we see that there are 6, namely, abc, acb, bac, bca, cab,
and cba. Each arrangement is known as a permutation. Thus, there are 6 possible
permutations of a set of 3 objects. This result could also have been obtained
from the basic principle, since the first object in the permutation can be any of
the 3, the second object in the permutation can then be chosen from any of the
remaining 2, and the third object in the permutation is then the remaining 1.
Thus, there are 3 · 2 · 1 = 6 possible permutations.
Suppose now that we have n objects. Reasoning similar to that we have just used
for the 3 letters then shows that there are
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1 = n!
Example How many different batting orders are possible for a baseball team consisting of 9
3a players?
Solution There are 9! = 362,880 possible batting orders. .
4 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
Example Ms. Jones has 10 books that she is going to put on her bookshelf. Of these, 4 are math-
3c ematics books, 3 are chemistry books, 2 are history books, and 1 is a language book.
Ms. Jones wants to arrange her books so that all the books dealing with the same
subject are together on the shelf. How many different arrangements are possible?
Solution There are 4! 3! 2! 1! arrangements such that the mathematics books are
first in line, then the chemistry books, then the history books, and then the language
book. Similarly, for each possible ordering of the subjects, there are 4! 3! 2! 1! pos-
sible arrangements. Hence, as there are 4! possible orderings of the subjects, the
desired answer is 4! 4! 3! 2! 1! = 6912. .
We shall now determine the number of permutations of a set of n objects when
certain of the objects are indistinguishable from one another. To set this situation
straight in our minds, consider the following example.
Example How many different letter arrangements can be formed from the letters PEPPER?
3d
Solution We first note that there are 6! permutations of the letters P1 E1 P2 P3 E2 R
when the 3P’s and the 2E’s are distinguished from one another. However, consider
any one of these permutations—for instance, P1 P2 E1 P3 E2 R. If we now permute the
P’s among themselves and the E’s among themselves, then the resultant arrangement
would still be of the form PPEPER. That is, all 3! 2! permutations
P1 P2 E1 P3 E2 R P1 P2 E2 P3 E1 R
P1 P3 E1 P2 E2 R P1 P3 E2 P2 E1 R
P2 P1 E1 P3 E2 R P2 P1 E2 P3 E1 R
P2 P3 E1 P1 E2 R P2 P3 E2 P1 E1 R
P3 P1 E1 P2 E2 R P3 P1 E2 P2 E1 R
P3 P2 E1 P1 E2 R P3 P2 E2 P1 E1 R
are of the form PPEPER. Hence, there are 6!/(3! 2!) = 60 possible letter arrange-
ments of the letters PEPPER. .
In general, the same reasoning as that used in Example 3d shows that there are
n!
n1 ! n2 ! · · · nr !
different permutations of n objects, of which n1 are alike, n2 are alike, . . . , nr are
alike.
A First Course in Probability 5
Example A chess tournament has 10 competitors, of which 4 are Russian, 3 are from the
3e United States, 2 are from Great Britain, and 1 is from Brazil. If the tournament
result lists just the nationalities of the players in the order in which they placed, how
many outcomes are possible?
Solution There are
10!
= 12,600
4! 3! 2! 1!
possible outcomes. .
Example How many different signals, each consisting of 9 flags hung in a line, can be made
3f from a set of 4 white flags, 3 red flags, and 2 blue flags if all flags of the same color
are identical?
Solution There are
9!
= 1260
4! 3! 2!
different signals. .
1.4 Combinations
We are often interested in determining the number of different groups of r objects
that could be formed from a total of n objects. For instance, how many different
groups of 3 could be selected from the 5 items A, B, C, D, and E? To answer this
question, reason as follows: Since there are 5 ways to select the initial item, 4 ways to
then select the next item, and 3 ways to select the final item, there are thus 5 · 4 · 3
ways of selecting the group of 3 when the order in which the items are selected is
relevant. However, since every group of 3—say, the group consisting of items A, B,
and C—will be counted 6 times (that is, all of the permutations ABC, ACB, BAC,
BCA, CAB, and CBA will be counted when the order of selection is relevant), it
follows that the total number of groups that can be formed is
5 · 4 · 3
= 10
3 · 2 · 1
In general, as n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1) represents the number of different ways that
a group of r items could be selected from n items when the order of selection is
relevant, and as each group of r items will be counted r! times in this count, it follows
that the number of different groups of r items that could be formed from a set of n
items is
n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1) n!
=
r! (n − r)! r!
n
and say that (read as “n choose r”) represents the number of possible
r
combinations of n objects taken r at a time.
n
Thus, represents the number of different groups of size r that could be
r
selected from a setof nobjects when the order of selection is not considered relevant.
n
Equivalently, is the number of subsets of size r that can be chosen from
r
n n n!
a set of size n. Using that 0! = 1, note that = = = 1, which is
n 0 0!n!
consistent with the preceding interpretation because in a set of size n there is exactly
1 subset of size n (namely, the entire set), and exactly
one subset of size 0 (namely
n
the empty set). A useful convention is to define equal to 0 when either r > n
r
or r < 0.
Example Consider a set of n antennas of which m are defective and n − m are functional
4c and assume that all of the defectives and all of the functionals are considered indis-
tinguishable. How many linear orderings are there in which no two defectives are
consecutive?
Solution Imagine that the n − m functional antennas are lined up among them-
selves. Now, if no two defectives are to be consecutive, then the spaces between the
A First Course in Probability 7
^1^1^1...^1^1^
1 5 functional
We shall present two proofs of the binomial theorem. The first is a proof by
mathematical induction, and the second is a proof based on combinatorial consider-
ations.
Letting i = k + 1 in the first sum and i = k in the second sum, we find that
n
n − 1
n−1
n − 1
n i n−i
(x + y) = xy + xi yn−i
i − 1 i
i=1 i=0
n−1
n−1
n − 1 i n−i n − 1 i n−i
= xy + xn + yn + xy
i − 1 i
i=1 i=1
⎡ ⎤
n−1
n − 1 n − 1
= xn + ⎣ + ⎦ xi yn−i + yn
i − 1 i
i=1
n−1
n
n
=x + xi yn−i + yn
i
i=1
n
n
= xi yn−i
i
i=0
where the next-to-last equality follows by Equation (4.1). By induction, the theorem
is now proved.
Its expansion consists of the sum of 2n terms, each term being the product of n fac-
tors. Furthermore, each of the 2n terms in the sum will contain as a factor either xi
or yi for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n. For example,
(x1 + y1 )(x2 + y2 ) = x1 x2 + x1 y2 + y1 x2 + y1 y2
Now, how many of the 2n terms in the sum will have k of the xi ’s and (n − k) of
the yi ’s as factors? As each term consisting of k of the xi ’s and (n − k) of the yi ’s
corresponds
to a choice of a group of k from the n values x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , there are
n
such terms. Thus, letting xi = x, yi = y, i = 1, . . . , n, we see that
k
n
n
(x + y)n = xk yn−k
k
k=0
A First Course in Probability 9
This result could also have been obtained by assigning either the number 0 or the
number 1 to each element in the set. To each assignment of numbers, there cor-
responds, in a one-to-one fashion, a subset, namely, that subset consisting of all
elements that were assigned the value 1. As there are 2n possible assignments, the
result follows.
Note that we have included the set consisting of 0 elements (that is, the null set)
as a subset of the original set. Hence, the number of subsets that contain at least 1
element is 2n − 1. .
corresponds to a division of the n items into the r groups in the following manner:
Let the permutation i1 , i2 , . . . , in correspond to assigning item 1 to group i1 , item 2 to
group i2 , and so on. For instance, if n = 8 and if n1 = 4, n2 = 3, and n3 = 1, then
the permutation 1, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 2, 1 corresponds to assigning items 1, 2, 6, 8 to the first
group, items 3, 5, 7 to the second group, and item 4 to the third group. Because every
permutation yields a division of the items and every possible division results from
some permutation, it follows that the number of divisions of n items into r distinct
groups of sizes n1 , n2 , . . . , nr is the same as the number of permutations of n items
of which n1 are alike, and n2 are alike, . . ., and nr are alike, which was shown in
n!
Section 1.3 to equal .
n1 !n2 ! · · · nr !
Notation
n
If n1 + n2 + · · · + nr = n, we define by
n1 , n2 , . . . , nr
n n!
=
n1 , n2 , . . . , nr n1 ! n2 ! · · · nr !
n
Thus, represents the number of possible divisions of n distinct
n1 , n2 , . . . , nr
objects into r distinct groups of respective sizes n1 , n2 , . . . , nr .
Example A police department in a small city consists of 10 officers. If the department policy is
5a to have 5 of the officers patrolling the streets, 2 of the officers working full time at the
station, and 3 of the officers on reserve at the station, how many different divisions
of the 10 officers into the 3 groups are possible?
10!
Solution There are = 2520 possible divisions. .
5! 2! 3!
Example Ten children are to be divided into an A team and a B team of 5 each. The A team
5b will play in one league and the B team in another. How many different divisions are
possible?
10!
Solution There are = 252 possible divisions. .
5! 5!
Solution Note that this example is different from Example 5b because now the order
of the two teams is irrelevant. That is, there is no A or B team, but just a division
consisting of 2 groups of 5 each. Hence, the desired answer is
10!/(5! 5!)
= 126 .
2!
The proof of the following theorem, which generalizes the binomial theorem, is
left as an exercise.
A First Course in Probability 11
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xr )n =
n n n
x1 1 x2 2 · · · xnr r
n1 , n2 , . . . , nr
(n1 , . . . , nr ) :
n1 + · · · + nr = n
That is, the sum is over all nonnegative integer-valued vectors (n1 , n2 , . . . , nr )
such that n1 + n2 + · · · + nr = n.
n
The numbers are known as multinomial coefficients.
n1 , n2 , . . . , nr
Example In the first round of a knockout tournament involving n = 2m players, the n players
5d are divided into n/2 pairs, with each of these pairs then playing a game. The losers
of the games are eliminated while the winners go on to the next round, where the
process is repeated until only a single player remains. Suppose we have a knockout
tournament of 8 players.
(a) How many possible outcomes are there for the initial round? (For instance,
one outcome is that 1 beats 2, 3 beats 4, 5 beats 6, and 7 beats 8.)
(b) How many outcomes of the tournament are possible, where an outcome gives
complete information for all rounds?
Solution One way to determine the number of possible outcomes for the initial
round is to first determine the number of possible pairings for that round. To do so,
note that the number of ways to divide the 8 players into a first pair, a second pair, a
8 8!
third pair, and a fourth pair is = 4 . Thus, the number of possible pair-
2, 2, 2, 2 2
8!
ings when there is no ordering of the 4 pairs is 4 . For each such pairing, there are
2 4!
2 possible choices from each pair as to the winner of that game, showing that there
8!24 8!
are 4 = possible results of round 1. [Another way to see this is to note that
2 4! 4!
8
there are possible choices of the 4 winners and, for each such choice, there are
4
8 8!
4! ways to pair the 4 winners with the 4 losers, showing that there are 4! =
4 4!
possible results for the first round.]
4!
Similarly, for each result of round 1, there are possible outcomes of round 2,
2!
2!
and for each of the outcomes of the first two rounds, there are possible outcomes
1!
of round 3. Consequently, by the generalized basic principle of counting, there are
8! 4! 2!
= 8! possible outcomes of the tournament. Indeed, the same argument
4! 2! 1!
can be used to show that a knockout tournament of n = 2m players has n! possible
outcomes.
Knowing the preceding result, it is not difficult to come up with a more direct
argument by showing that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of
12 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
Example
5e
2 2 2 0 0 2
(x1 + x2 + x3 ) = x1 x2 x3 + x01 x22 x03
2, 0, 0 0, 2, 0
2 0 0 2 2
+ x1 x2 x3 + x11 x12 x03
0, 0, 2 1, 1, 0
2 1 0 1 2
+ x1 x2 x3 + x01 x12 x13
1, 0, 1 0, 1, 1
= x21 + x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 .
x1 + x2 + . . . + xr = n (6.1)
To compute this number, let us start by considering the number of positive integer-
valued vectors x1 , . . . , xr that satisfy the preceding. To determine this number, sup-
pose that we have n consecutive zeroes lined up in a row:
0 0 0 ... 0 0
∗ Asterisks denote material that is optional.
A First Course in Probability 13
0^0^0^...^0^0
n objects 0
Note that any selection of r − 1 of the n − 1 spaces between adjacent zeroes (see
Figure 1.2) corresponds to a positive solution of (6.1) by letting x1 be the number of
zeroes before the first chosen space, x2 be the number of zeroes between the first
and second chosen space, . . ., and xn being the number of zeroes following the last
chosen space.
For instance, if we have n = 8 and r = 3, then (with the choices represented by dots)
the choice
0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0
n − 1
Proposition There are distinct positive integer-valued vectors (x1 , x2 , . . . , xr ) sat-
r − 1
6.1
isfying the equation
x1 + x2 + · · · + xr = n, xi > 0, i = 1, . . . , r
n+r−1
Proposition There are distinct nonnegative integer-valued vectors (x1 , x2 , . . . , xr )
r−1
6.2
satisfying the equation
x1 + x2 + · · · + xr = n
13
Thus, using Proposition 6.2, we see that there are = 286 possible outcomes
3
when a total of 10 Lake Ticonderoga fish are caught.
14 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
Example An investor has $20,000 to invest among 4 possible investments. Each investment
6b must be in units of $1000. If the total $20,000 is to be invested, how many different
investment strategies are possible? What if not all the money needs to be invested?
Solution If we let xi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4, denote the number of thousands invested in
investment i, then, when all is to be invested, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 are integers satisfying the
equation
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 20 xi Ú 0
23
Hence, by Proposition 6.2, there are = 1771 possible investment strategies. If
3
not all of the money needs to be invested, then if we let x5 denote the amount kept in
reserve, a strategy is a nonnegative integer-valued vector (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) satisfying
the equation
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 20
24
Hence, by Proposition 6.2, there are now = 10,626 possible strategies. .
4
Example How many terms are there in the multinomial expansion of (x1 + x2 + · · · + xr )n ?
6c
Solution
n n
n
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xr ) = x1 1 · · · xnr r
n1 , . . . , nr
Example Let us consider again Example 4c, in which we have a set of n items, of which m are
6d (indistinguishable and) defective and the remaining n − m are (also indistinguish-
able and) functional. Our objective is to determine the number of linear orderings
in which no two defectives are next to each other. To determine this number, let us
imagine that the defective items are lined up among themselves and the functional
ones are now to be put in position. Let us denote x1 as the number of functional
items to the left of the first defective, x2 as the number of functional items between
the first two defectives, and so on. That is, schematically, we have
x1 0 x2 0 · · · xm 0 xm+1
Now, there will be at least one functional item between any pair of defectives as long
as xi > 0, i = 2, . . . , m. Hence, the number of outcomes satisfying the condition is
the number of vectors x1 , . . . , xm+1 that satisfy the equation
y1 + · · · + ym+1 = n − 2m + 3
n − 2m + 2
Hence, from Proposition 6.1, there are such outcomes. .
m
Summary
The basic principle of counting states that if an experiment binomial coefficient because of its prominence in the bino-
consisting of two phases is such that there are n possible mial theorem, which states that
outcomes of phase 1 and, for each of these n outcomes, n
there are m possible outcomes of phase 2, then there are n
n
(x + y) = xi yn−i
nm possible outcomes of the experiment. i
i=0
There are n! = n(n − 1) · · · 3 · 2 · 1 possible linear
orderings of n items. The quantity 0! is defined to equal 1. For nonnegative integers n1 , . . . , nr summing to n,
Let
n n! n n!
= =
i (n − i)! i! n1 , n2 , . . . , nr n1 !n2 ! · · · nr !
when 0 … i … n, and let it equal 0 otherwise. This quan- is the number of divisions of n items into r distinct
tity represents the number of different subgroups of size i nonoverlapping subgroups of sizes n1 , n2 . . . , nr . These
that can be chosen from a set of size n. It is often called a quantities are called multinomial coefficients.
Problems
1. (a) How many different 7-place license plates are possi- 3. Twenty workers are to be assigned to 20 different jobs,
ble if the first 2 places are for letters and the other 5 for one to each job. How many different assignments are pos-
numbers? sible?
(b) Repeat part (a) under the assumption that no letter or
number can be repeated in a single license plate. 4. John, Jim, Jay, and Jack have formed a band con-
sisting of 4 instruments. If each of the boys can play
2. How many outcome sequences are possible when a die all 4 instruments, how many different arrangements are
is rolled four times, where we say, for instance, that the possible? What if John and Jim can play all 4 instru-
outcome is 3, 4, 3, 1 if the first roll landed on 3, the second ments, but Jay and Jack can each play only piano and
on 4, the third on 3, and the fourth on 1? drums?
16 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
5. For years, telephone area codes in the United States and 13. How many different letter permutations, of any length,
Canada consisted of a sequence of three digits. The first can be made using the letters M O T T O. (For instance,
digit was an integer between 2 and 9, the second digit was there are 3 possible permutations of length 1.)
either 0 or 1, and the third digit was any integer from 1 to
9. How many area codes were possible? How many area 14. Five separate awards (best scholarship, best leadership
codes starting with a 4 were possible? qualities, and so on) are to be presented to selected stu-
dents from a class of 30. How many different outcomes
6. A well-known nursery rhyme starts as follows: are possible if
“As I was going to St. Ives (a) a student can receive any number of awards?
I met a man with 7 wives. (b) each student can receive at most 1 award?
Each wife had 7 sacks.
Each sack had 7 cats. 15. Consider a group of 20 people. If everyone shakes
Each cat had 7 kittens. . .” hands with everyone else, how many handshakes take
place?
How many kittens did the traveler meet?
16. How many 5-card poker hands are there?
7. (a) In how many ways can 3 boys and 3 girls sit in a row?
(b) In how many ways can 3 boys and 3 girls sit in a row if 17. A dance class consists of 22 students, of which 10 are
the boys and the girls are each to sit together? women and 12 are men. If 5 men and 5 women are to be
(c) In how many ways if only the boys must sit together? chosen and then paired off, how many results are possible?
(d) In how many ways if no two people of the same sex are
18. A student has to sell 2 books from a collection of
allowed to sit together?
6 math, 7 science, and 4 economics books. How many
choices are possible if
8. When all letters are used, how many different letter
arrangements can be made from the letters (a) both books are to be on the same subject?
(a) Fluke? (b) the books are to be on different subjects?
(b) Propose?
19. Seven different gifts are to be distributed among 10
(c) Mississippi? children. How many distinct results are possible if no child
(d) Arrange? is to receive more than one gift?
9. A child has 12 blocks, of which 6 are black, 4 are red, 1 20. A committee of 7, consisting of 2 Republicans, 2
is white, and 1 is blue. If the child puts the blocks in a line, Democrats, and 3 Independents, is to be chosen from a
how many arrangements are possible? group of 5 Republicans, 6 Democrats, and 4 Independents.
How many committees are possible?
10. In how many ways can 8 people be seated in a row if
21. From a group of 8 women and 6 men, a committee con-
(a) there are no restrictions on the seating arrangement?
sisting of 3 men and 3 women is to be formed. How many
(b) persons A and B must sit next to each other? different committees are possible if
(c) there are 4 men and 4 women and no 2 men or 2 women
(a) 2 of the men refuse to serve together?
can sit next to each other?
(b) 2 of the women refuse to serve together?
(d) there are 5 men and they must sit next to one another?
(c) 1 man and 1 woman refuse to serve together?
(e) there are 4 married couples and each couple must sit
together? 22. A person has 8 friends, of whom 5 will be invited to a
party.
11. In how many ways can 3 novels, 2 mathematics books,
and 1 chemistry book be arranged on a bookshelf if (a) How many choices are there if 2 of the friends are feud-
ing and will not attend together?
(a) the books can be arranged in any order?
(b) How many choices if 2 of the friends will only attend
(b) the mathematics books must be together and the nov- together?
els must be together?
(c) the novels must be together, but the other books can 23. Consider the grid of points shown at the top of the
be arranged in any order? next column. Suppose that, starting at the point labeled
A, you can go one step up or one step to the right at each
12. How many 3 digit numbers xyz, with x, y, z all ranging move. This procedure is continued until the point labeled
from 0 to 9 have at least 2 of their digits equal. How many B is reached. How many different paths from A to B are
have exactly 2 equal digits. possible?
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Samassa rupesi raskaitten kultalankaisten uudinten läpi kaukaa
kuulumaan teorban säveliä. Jokin miehenääni alkoi sen säestyksellä
hyräillä tuttua laulua:
— Ja mitä sinä pelkäät? Jos sinä käsket, niin en minä liiku tästä
ovelta. Minä olen orjasi. Minä jään istumaan tänne kynnykselle ja
vain katselen sinua silmiin. Minä en tahdo sinulle pahaa, miksi sinä
siis minua vihaat? Sinä työnsit omalla kädelläsi Barissa veitsen
ruumiiseesi, vaikka sinä jo kauvan olet tuntenut minut ja tiesit, että
minä tulen sinua puolustamaan. Enhän minä ole sinulle vieras
ihminen, vaan sydämellinen ystävä ja kuitenkin sinä työnsit veitsen
ruumiiseesi, ruhtinatar!
Ruhtinattaren kalpeat kasvot punehtuivat.
Ruhtinatar vaikeni.
— Mitä sinä olet tehnyt minulle, sitä en tiedä. Mutta sen tiedän,
että jos minä olen sinulle onnettomuus, niin olet sinäkin
onnettomuus minulle. Jos minä en olisi rakastunut sinuun, niin olisin
vapaa kuin aron tuuli, vapaa sydämeltä ja sielulta, olisin kunniakas
kuin itse Konasewicz Sahajdaczny. Sinun kasvosi ovat olleet minun
onnettomuuteni, sinun silmäsi ovat olleet minun onnettomuuteni. Ei
ole minulle rakas vapaus eikä kasakan kunnia. Mitä on minulle
merkinnyt naisten kauneus, senjälkeen kun sinä lapsesta olit
kasvanut neidoksi. Kerran minä valloitin galeerin, joka kuljetti
sulttaanille mitä kauneimpia tyttöjä eikä yksikään niistä voittanut
minun sydäntäni. Kasakkaveljet leikittelivät heillä ja sitten minä
käskin sitoa jokaiselle kiven kaulaan ja oikopäätä veteen! Ennen en
pelännyt ketään, en välittänyt mistään, kävin sotaa pakanoita
vastaan, otin saalista ja olin arolla kuin ruhtinas linnassaan! Ja mitä
olen tänään? Kas täällä istun nyt orjana, kerjään sinulta hyvää sanaa
enkä vain saa, enkä ole koskaan kuullut sitä huuliltasi, en edes
silloin, kun veljesi ja tätisi kosivat minun puolestani. Oi jospa sinä,
tyttö, olisit minulle toisenlainen, jos sinä olisit toisenlainen, niin ei
olisi tapahtunut, mikä on tapahtunut. En olisi surmannut sinun
omaisiasi, en olisi ottanut osaa kapinaan enkä veljeillyt talonpoikien
kanssa. Mutta sinun tähtesi olen minä kadottanut järkeni. Sinä olisit
voinut johdattaa minut minne olisit tahtonut ja minä olisin sinun
tähtesi antanut vereni ja henkeni. Mutta nyt olen minä kokonaan
tahrattu aatelisverellä, ja ennen minä surmasin vain tatareja ja toin
saalista sinulle, jotta sinä kävisit kullassa ja jalokivissä kuin Jumalan
kerubi. Miksi et sinä silloin rakastanut minua? Oi raskas, raskas on
ollakseni, sääli toki sydän-raukkaani, sääli sydän-raukkaani! En saa
elää sinun kanssasi enkä voi elää ilman sinua, en saata olla kaukana
sinusta enkä lähellä sinua, en mäellä enkä laaksossa, sinä minun
kyyhkyläiseni, sinä minun sydänkäpyseni! Oi, anna minulle anteeksi,
että tulin Rozlogiin hakemaan sinua kasakan tapaan sapelilla ja
tulella. Mutta minä olin juovuksissa vihasta ruhtinaita kohtaan ja olin
matkalla juonut viinaa, minä onneton ryöväri! Ja kun sinä sitten
pakenit minulta, niin ulvoin sinun jälkeesi niinkuin koira, haavojani
pakotti eikä ruoka maistunut ja minä rukoilin Kuolemaa, että hän
ottaisi minut luokseen. Ja nyt sinä tahdot, että minä antaisin sinut
pois ja kadottaisin sinut jälleen, sinä kyyhkyläiseni, sydänkäpyseni!
Bohun nousi.
— Enkä minä anna sitä takaisin, sillä sinun täytyy tulla minun
omakseni! huudahti kasakka.
— En koskaan.
— No, tiedätkö, jollet sinä nyt olisi haavoitettu, niin minä
senjälkeen, mitä olet minulle sanonut, lähettäisin kiireesti, vielä tänä
päivänä, muutamia miehistäni Raszkowiin väkivallalla noutamaan
tänne munkin ja huomenna minä olisin sinun miehesi. Niin, ja eikö
ole kuin olekin niin, että on synti olla rakastamatta ja hyväilemättä
miestään… Oo, sinä olet muka jalosukuinen neito, sinua loukkaa ja
suututtaa kasakan rakkaus. Mutta mikä sinä itse asiassa olet että
minun pitäisi olla sinun talonpoikaisorjasi? Missä ovat sinun linnasi,
pajarisi ja sotamiehesi? Mitä sinä vihastut ja mikä sinua loukkaa?
Minä olen valloittanut sinut sodassa, sinä olet minun vankini. Oo,
jospa minä olisinkin talonpoika, niin ruoskanlyönti sinun valkeille
olkapäillesi opettaisi sinulle järkeä. Minä kyllästyttäisin itseni sinun
kauneudellasi ilman pappiakin, jos olisin, talonpoika enkä ritari.
— Tulen. Kuinka en olisi hyvä, sanoi hän. — Mutta ole sinäkin hyvä
atamanille. Hän on haukka, hän on kuuluisa urho, hän sinulle…
— Ja milloin palaat?
— No, no, tiedänhän minä, ettet sinä ole minua varten. Bohun
katsahti vaahtoavaan veteen myllynpyörässä, ikäänkuin olisi itse
tahtonut povata.
— Mikäs on?
— Kun minä lähden, niin tuleeko hän ikävöimään minua?
— Jos hän vain olisi terve, niin kyllä minä silloin tietäisin mitä
tekisin. Minä tuottaisin papin Raszkowista ja käskisin vihkiä itseni.
Mutta nyt minä pelkään, että hän kuolee, jos hän pelästyy. Olethan
itsekin nähnyt hänen tilansa.
— Anna hänen aluksi olla rauhassa ja mitäs sinä sitten teet papilla
ja vihkimisellä? Et sinä ole oikea kasakka, et. Minä vain en tänne
tahdo pippiä enkä pappia. Raszkowissa on Dobruczan tatarilaisia.
Saisit vielä heidät sieltä niskaamme. Ja jos he tulisivat, niin vähänpä
sinä enään saisit nähdä ruhtinatarta. Mikä sinun päähäsi on
pistänytkin? Ratsasta sinä pois vain ja palaa sitten takaisin.
— No mitä?
— Entä ruhtinatar?
— Häntä ei näy. Taas minä näen, että joku on sinun luonasi, joku
joka pettää sinut, sinun vilpillinen ystäväsi.
— Mikä ystävä?
— Ehkäpä se on vanha.
— Se olen minä.
— Se olen minä.
Taas syntyi hetken vaitiolo, pyörä humisi niin että koko mylly
vapisi.
— Niin näin.
— Mutta mistä sinä tiedät, että minä olen tuo haukka? Minähän
kerroin sinulle tuosta nuoresta ljahista, aatelismiehestä. Ehkäpä se
on hän?
Bohun tosin ei osannut lukea, mutta hän häpesi sitä sanoa, sillä
hän ei tahtonut käydä oppimattomasta miehestä.
— Lähde siis, sanoi noita. — Sinä olet onnellinen, sinusta tulee
hetmani, minähän näin kolme hevoshäntälippua sinun yläpuolellasi,
näin yhtä selvästi kuin näen nuo sormeni.
— Sitä ette te tiedä, mutta minä vaikkapa vannon, että hän tiesi
tytön olevan Barissa. Muu ei ole mahdollista. Vain se on voinut
tapahtua, että hän on pelastanut tytön teurastuksesta ja vienyt
hänet jonnekin.
— Ette kertomuksellanne anna meille paljoakaan lohdutusta, sillä
herra Skrzetuskin sijassa toivoisin minä pikemmin, että neito olisi
saanut surmansa kuin että hänen olisi pitänyt jäädä Bohunin
inhoittaviin käsiin.
— Siltä se voi tuntua teistä, mutta entä sitten minusta, joka olen
pitänyt hänestä isän rakkaudella ja joka olen johtanut hänet pois
kauheasta kuilusta — entä sitten minusta!
— Miksikä se on mahdotonta?
— Tulee.
— Ruhtinaan luota.
— Kauvaksiko?