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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 P R E FACE vii

Contents
Preface xxvii

Module 1
The Psychology of Reflective Studying 1
What’s in It for You?—More Than You Might Reflective Note Taking—LISAN Up! 8
Think 1 Using and Reviewing Your Notes 8
A Psychologist’s Skill Set 2
Reflective Study Strategies—Making
How This Book Will Help You
a Habit of Success 9
with Skill Development 3
Strategies for Studying 9
Reflective Learning: The Most
Strategies for Taking Tests 9
Important Ingredient 4
Procrastination: Don’t Be Late! 11
Reflective Reading—How to Tame a Text- The Whole Human: Psychology and You 12
book 5 Summary 12
How to Use Psychology: Modules Knowledge Builder 13
for Active Learning 5
Going Digital 7

Module 2
Introducing Psychology: Psychology, Critical Thinking, and Science 14
Psychology—Behave! 14 Scientific Research—How to Think Like
Answering Questions in Psychology 14 a Psychologist 20
The Six Steps of the Scientific Method 20
Critical Thinking—Take It with a Grain
Research Ethics 22
of Salt 17
Critical Thinking Principles 18 Summary 22
Knowledge Builder 23

Module 3
Introducing Psychology: Psychology Then and Now 24
A Brief History of Psychology—Psychology’s The Psychological Perspective 32
Family Album 24 The Sociocultural Perspective 32
Structuralism 25 A Broader View of Diversity 33
Functionalism 25 Psychologists—Guaranteed Not to Shrink 33
Behaviorism 26 Helping People 36
Gestalt Psychology 27 Other Mental Health Professionals 36
Psychoanalytic Psychology 27
Humanistic Psychology 28 Summary 37
The Importance of Diversity in Psychology 29 Knowledge Builder 38

Psychology Today—Three Complementary

Perspectives on Behavior 31
The Biological Perspective 32
vii
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viii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 4
Introducing Psychology: The Psychology Experiment 39
The Experimental Method—Where Cause Researcher Bias 43
Meets Effect 39 Summary 44
Variables and Groups 40 Knowledge Builder 45
Double-Blind—On Placebos and Self-Fulfilling
Prophecies 42
Research Participant Bias 42

Module 5
Introducing Psychology: Nonexperimental Research Methods 46
Naturalistic Observation 46 Case Studies 49
Limitations 47
Survey Method 50
Correlational Method 47 Summary 52
Correlation Coefficients 48 Knowledge Builder 53

Module 6
Introducing Psychology Skills in Action: Information Literacy 54
Psychology in the Media—Who Can You Summary 57
Trust? 54 Knowledge Builder 57
Summary 56

Module 7
Brain and Behavior: The Nervous System 58
The Nervous System—Wired for Action 58 Neural Networks 65
The Peripheral Nervous System 60 Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis—The
Neurons—Biocomputer Building Blocks 60 Dynamic Nervous System 67
Parts of a Neuron 60 Neurogenesis 67
Neural Function 61 Summary 68
Synaptic Transmission and Neural Networks— Knowledge Builder 69
Wiring the Biocomputer 63
Neurotransmitters 64

Module 8
Brain and Behavior: Brain Research 70
Mapping Brain Structure—Pieces of PET Scan 73
the Puzzle 70 fMRI 73
CT Scans 70 Summary 74
MRI 71 Knowledge Builder 74
Exploring Brain Function—What Do
the Parts Do? 71
EEG 72

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g ix

Module 9
Brain and Behavior: Hemispheres and Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 75
The Cerebral Cortex—Bigger Is Not Better 75 The Parietal Lobes 82
The Cerebral Hemispheres 76 The Temporal Lobes 82
The Occipital Lobes 83
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex—Hey, You,
Four Lobes! 80 Summary 83
The Frontal Lobes 80 Knowledge Builder 84

Module 10
Brain and Behavior: The Subcortex and Endocrine System 85
The Subcortex—At the Core of the The Endocrine System—My Hormones
(Brain) Matter 85 Made Me Do It 89
The Hindbrain 86 Glands of the Endocrine System 90
The Cerebellum 86 Summary 91
Locked-In Syndrome 87 Knowledge Builder 92
The Forebrain 87
The Whole Human 88

Module 11
Brain and Behavior Skills in Action: Self-Regulation 93
Mind Control: Control Yourself! 93 Summary 96
Knowledge Builder 96
From Marshmallows to Retirement Funds 94

Module 12
Human Development: Heredity and Environment 97
Nature and Nurture—It Takes Two Summary 105
to Tango 97 Knowledge Builder 106
Heredity and Maturation 98
Environment and Maturation 99
Maturation in Infancy 101

Module 13
Human Development: Emotional and Social Development in Childhood 107
Emotional Development in Infancy—Curious, Parenting Styles 110
Baby? 107 Maternal and Paternal Influences 112
Ethnic Differences: Five Flavors
Social Development—Baby, I’m Stuck on of Parenting 113
You 108
Day Care 110 Summary 114
Knowledge Builder 115
Parental Influences—Life with Mom and
Dad 110
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x P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 14
Human Development: Language and Cognitive Development in Childhood 116
Language Development—Who Talks Baby Piaget Today 122
Talk? 116 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 123
Language and the Terrible Twos 117 Summary 124
The Roots of Language 117 Knowledge Builder 125
Cognitive Development—Think Like a Child 118
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 119

Module 15
Human Development: Adolescence and Adulthood 126
The Story of a Lifetime—Rocky Road or Garden Adulthood—You’re an Adult Now! 132
Path? 126 Challenges of Adulthood 132
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 127 Successful Aging 133
Adolescence—The Best of Times, the Worst of Death and Dying—The Final Challenge 134
Times 129 Reactions to Impending Death 134
Puberty 129 Summary 135
The Search for Identity 129 Knowledge Builder 136
Moral Development—Growing a Conscience 130
Moral Emotions 131
Moral Thinking 131

Module 16
Human Development Skills in Action: Behaving Ethically 137
Thinking About Ethics—Valuing Values 137 Summary 140
Knowledge Builder 140
Ethical Behavior–Truth or Consequences 138
Preparing to Behave Ethically 138

Module 17
Sensation and Perception: Sensory Processes 141
Sensory Systems—The First Step 141 Summary 146
Psychophysics 142 Knowledge Builder 147
Selective Attention—Tuning In and Tuning
Out 145

Module 18
Sensation and Perception: Vision 148
Vision—Catching Some Rays 148 Seeing in the Dark 153
Structure of the Eye 149 Summary 154
Rods and Cones 150 Knowledge Builder 155
Color Vision 151

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xi

Module 19
Sensation and Perception: The Nonvisual Senses 156
Hearing—Good Vibrations 156 The Somesthetic Senses—Flying by the Seat of
How We Hear Sounds 157 Your Pants 162
The Skin Senses 162
Smell and Taste—The Nose Knows When the
The Vestibular System 165
Tongue Can’t Tell 160
The Sense of Smell 160 Summary 166
Taste and Flavors 161 Knowledge Builder 167

Module 20
Sensation and Perception: Perceptual Processes 168
Perception—The Second Step 168 Depth Perception—What If the World
Illusions 169 Were Flat? 174
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing 170 Binocular Depth Cues 176
Gestalt Organizing Principles 171 Monocular Depth Cues 176
Perceptual Constancies 173 Summary 179
Knowledge Builder 180

Module 21
Sensation and Perception: Perception and Objectivity 181
Perception and Experience—Believing The Whole Human: Perceptual Accuracy 186
Is Seeing 181 The Value of Paying Attention 187
Motives, Emotions, and Perception 181 How to Become a Better
Perceptual Expectancies 182 “Eyewitness” to Life 187
Perceptual Learning: Do They See What We See? 182 Summary 188
Becoming a Better Eyewitness to Life —Pay Knowledge Builder 188
Attention! 185
Implications 186

Module 22
Sensation and Perception Skills in Action: Communication 189
Tell Me! 189 What’s the Best Communication Style? 191
Say What You Mean 190 Summary 192
Receiving Information: Reading and Listening 190 Knowledge Builder 192
Providing Information: Writing and Speaking 190

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xii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 23
Consciousness: States of Consciousness 193
States of Consciousness—The Many Faces of Meditation and Mindfulness—Chilling, the
Awareness 193 Healthy Way 198
Disorders of Consciousness 194 Meditation 198
Altered States of Consciousness 194 The Whole Human: Mindfulness and Well-Being 200
Hypnosis—Look into My Eyes 195 Summary 200
Theories of Hypnosis 196 Knowledge Builder 201
The Reality of Hypnosis 197

Module 24
Consciousness: Sleep and Dreams 202
Sleep Patterns and Stages—The Nightly Roller Sleep Troubles—The Sleepy Time Blues 209
Coaster 202 Insomnia Disorder 209
Sleep Patterns 202 Sleepwalking, Sleeptalking,
Sleep Stages 203 and Sleepsex 211
Nightmare Disorder and Night Terrors 211
Functions of Sleep—Catching a Few ZZZs 205
Sleep Apneas 211
The Need for Sleep 205
Narcolepsy 212
Sleep and Memory 206
Hypnopompic Hallucinations 212
Dreams—A Separate Reality? 207 Summary 213
Dream Theories 207
Knowledge Builder 214
Dream Worlds 208

Module 25
Consciousness: Psychoactive Drugs 215
Drug-Altered Consciousness—The High and Downers—Narcotics, Sedatives, Tranquilizers,
Low of It 215 and Alcohol 223
Patterns of Psychoactive Drug Use 216 Narcotics 223
Psychoactive Drugs and the Brain 217 Barbiturates 224
Drug Dependence 217 GHB 224
Tranquilizers 224
Uppers—Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA,
Alcohol 224
Caffeine, Nicotine 220
Amphetamines 220 Hallucinogens—Tripping the Light Fantastic 226
Cocaine 220 LSD and PCP 227
MDMA (“Ecstasy”) 221 Marijuana 227
Caffeine 221 Summary 228
Nicotine 222 Knowledge Builder 229

Module 26
Consciousness Skills in Action: Metacognition 230
Thinking About Thinking—The Examined The Examined Life—Worth Living? 232
Life 230 Summary 233
Do You Know What You Don’t Know? 231 Knowledge Builder 233

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xiii

Module 27
Conditioning and Learning: Associative and Cognitive Learning 234
Learning—One Way or Another 234 Discovery Learning 238
Associative Learning—About Dogs, Rats, and Observational Learning—Do as I Do, Not as
Humans 235 I Say 239
Types of Associative Learning 235 Modeling 239
Latent Learning 236 Modeling and the Media 240
Cognitive Learning—Beyond Conditioning 237 Summary 242
Feedback 237 Knowledge Builder 243

Module 28
Conditioning and Learning: Classical Conditioning 244
Classical Conditioning—Does the Name Pavlov Conditioned Emotional Responses 248
Ring a Bell? 244 Vicarious, or Secondhand, Conditioning 249
Pavlov’s Experiment 244 Summary 250
Principles of Classical Conditioning 246 Knowledge Builder 250
Classical Conditioning in Humans—An
Emotional Topic 248

Module 29
Conditioning and Learning: Operant Conditioning 251
Operant Conditioning—Ping-Pong Playing Punishment 255
Pigeons? 251 Stimulus Control—Red Light, Green
Positive Reinforcement 252 Light 256
Acquiring an Operant Response 252 Generalization 257
The Timing of Reinforcement 253 Discrimination 257
Shaping 254
Operant Extinction 255 Summary 258
Negative Reinforcement 255 Knowledge Builder 258

Module 30
Conditioning and Learning: Reinforcement and Punishment in Detail 259
Reinforcement—What’s Your Pleasure? 259 Consequences of Punishment—Putting the
Primary Reinforcers 259 Brakes on Behavior 264
Secondary Reinforcers 260 Variables Affecting Punishment 264
The Downside of Punishment 265
Partial Reinforcement—Las Vegas, a Human
Using Punishment Wisely 265
Skinner Box? 261
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement 262 Summary 267
Knowledge Builder 268

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xiv P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 31
Conditioning and Learning Skills in Action: Behavioral Self-Management 269
Just Say No! 269 Extra Techniques to Break Bad Habits 271
Behavioral Self-Management—A Rewarding Summary 272
Project 270 Knowledge Builder 272
Create a Management Plan 270

Module 32
Memory: Memory Systems 273
Stages of Memory—Do You Have a Mind Like Long-Term Memory—A Blast from the Past 277
a Steel Trap? Or a Sieve? 273 Encoding and Culture 278
Sensory Memory 274 Storage in Long-Term Memory 278
Short-Term Memory 274 False Memories 279
Long-Term Memory 274 Organizing Memories 280
The Relationship Between STM and LTM 274 Redintegration 281
Types of Long-Term Memory 282
Short-Term (Working) Memory—Do You Know
the Magic Number? 275 Summary 284
Storage and Rehearsal in Short-Term (Working) Knowledge Builder 284
Memory 276
The Capacity of Short-Term (Working) Memory 276

Module 33
Memory: Measuring Memory 285
Measuring Memory—The Answer Is on the Tip Relearning Information 287
of My Tongue 285 Explicit and Implicit Memories 287
Recalling Information 286 Summary 288
Recognizing Information 286 Knowledge Builder 289

Module 34
Memory: Forgetting 290
Forgetting—Why We, Uh, Let’s See. . . . Why We, Memory and the Brain—Some “Shocking”
Uh . . . Forget! 290 Findings 296
When Memory Encoding Fails 291 Consolidation 296
When Memory Storage Fails 292 Long-Term Memory and the Brain 298
When Memory Retrieval Fails 293 Summary 299
Interference 294 Knowledge Builder 300
Repression and Suppression of Memories 295

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xv

Module 35
Memory: Exceptional Memory 301
Exceptional Memory—Wizards of Recall 301 Create Acrostics 305
Create Mental Images 305
Improving Memory—Some Keys to (Memory) Create Stories or Chains 306
Success 302
Encoding Strategies 302 Summary 306
Retrieval Strategies 304 Knowledge Builder 307

Mnemonic Devices—Tricks of the (Memory)

Trade 305

Module 36
Memory Skills in Action: Giving Memorable Presentations 308
From Pictures to PowerPoint 308 Help the Audience Integrate Information 310
Practice 310
Start Talking! 309
Help the Audience Select Important Information 309 Summary 310
Help the Audience Organize Information 310 Knowledge Builder 311

Module 37
Cognition and Intelligence: Modes of Thought 312
What Is Thinking?—Brains over Brawn 312 Language—Say What? 316
Some Basic Units of Thought 313 Linguistic Relativity: What’s North
of My Fork? 317
Mental Imagery—Does a Frog Have Lips? 314
Semantics 317
The Nature of Mental Images 314
The Structure of Language 318
Concepts—I’m Positive, It’s a Gestural Languages 319
Whatchamacallit 316 Animal Language 320
Forming Concepts 316
Summary 321
Types of Concepts 316
Knowledge Builder 322

Module 38
Cognition and Intelligence: Problem Solving 323
Problem Solving—Go Figure 323 Insightful Solutions 324
Algorithmic Solutions 323 Common Barriers to Problem Solving 326
Solutions by Understanding 324 Summary 328
Heuristics 324 Knowledge Builder 328

Module 39
Cognition and Intelligence: Creative Thinking and Intuition 329
Creative Thinking—Down Roads Less Intuitive Thought—Mental Shortcut?
Traveled 329 or Dangerous Detour? 332
Tests of Creativity 330 Errors in Intuitive Thought 333
Stages of Creative Thought 331 Summary 335
The Whole Human: The Creative Personality 332 Knowledge Builder 335

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xvi P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 40
Cognition and Intelligence: Intelligence 336
Human Intelligence—The IQ and You 336 Questioning Intelligence—More Questions
Defining Intelligence 337 Than Answers? 343
The Stanford-Binet 337 Artificial Intelligence 343
The Wechsler Tests 338 Culture and Intelligence 344
Group Tests 338 Multiple Intelligences 345
Intelligence Quotients 338 IQ and Heredity 345
IQ and Environment 346
Variations in Intelligence—Curved Like
The Whole Human: Wisdom 348
a Bell 340
The Mentally Gifted 340 Summary 348
Intellectual Disability 341 Knowledge Builder 349

Module 41
Cognition and Intelligence Skills in Action: Creativity and Innovation 350
Making Creative Juices 350 Seek Varied Input Through Networking 352
Observe and Experiment 353
The DNA of Innovation 351
Make Associations 351 Summary 354
Ask Questions 351 Knowledge Builder 354

Module 42
Motivation and Emotion: Overview of Motives and Emotions 355
Motivation—Forces That Push and Pull 355 Inside an Emotion—Caught in That
A Model of Motivation 355 Feeling? 360
Biological Motives and Homeostasis 357 Basic Emotions 361
Circadian Rhythms 357 Summary 362
Motives in Perspective—A View from the Knowledge Builder 363
Pyramid 358
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 359
Turning Play into Work 359

Module 43
Motivation and Emotion: Motivation in Detail 364
Hunger—Pardon Me, My Hypothalamus Stimulus Motives—Monkey Business 372
Is Growling 364 Arousal Theory 373
Internal Factors in Hunger 364 Peak Performance 373
External Factors in Hunger and Obesity 367 Coping with Test Anxiety 374
Dieting 368
Learned Motives—The Pursuit
Eating Disorders 369
of Excellence 375
Biological Motives Revisited—Thirst, Pain, The Need for Achievement 375
and Sex 371 The Need for Power 376
Thirst 371 Summary 376
Pain 371 Knowledge Builder 377
The Sex Drive 372
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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xvii

Module 44
Motivation and Emotion: Emotion in Detail 378
Physiology and Emotion—Arousal Theories of Emotion—Several Ways
and Lying 378 to Fear a Bear 384
Fight or Flight 379 The James-Lange Theory 384
Lie Detectors 380 The Cannon-Bard Theory 384
Emotion and the Brain 381 Schachter’s Cognitive Theory of Emotion 384
Emotional Appraisal 385
Expressing Emotions—Making Faces
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis 386
and Talking Bodies 382
A Contemporary Model of Emotion 387
Facial Expressions 382
Cultural Differences Summary 388
in Expressing Emotion 382 Knowledge Builder 389
Gender Differences in Expressing Emotion 383
Body Language 383

Module 45
Motivation and Emotion Skills in Action: Positivity and Optimism 390
Don’t Give Up Hope! 390 Summary 393
Knowledge Builder 393
Facing Adversity 391
Becoming More Optimistic 391

Module 46
Human Sexuality: Sex and Gender 394
Sexual Development—Circle One: Acquiring Gender Identity 400
XX or XY? 394 Androgyny—A Bit of Both 402
Dimensions of Sex 395 Psychological Androgyny 402
Sexual Orientation—Who Do You Love? 396 When Sex and Gender Do Not
The Stability of Sexual Orientation 396 Match—The Binary Busters 403
Sexual Orientation Today 398
Summary 404
Gender Identity—It Begins Early 399 Knowledge Builder 405
Gender Roles 399

Module 47
Human Sexuality: The Human Sex Drive, Response, and Attitudes 406
The Human Sex Drive and Sexual Response— Satisfying Relationships—Keeping It Hot 414
Gotta Have It 406 Bridges to Sexual Satisfaction 415
Human Sexual Response 408 Intimacy and Communication 415
Contemporary Sexual Attitudes and Summary 416
Behavior—Anything Goes? 411 Knowledge Builder 417
Contemporary Sexual Behavior 411
Sex Among the Young 412
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xviii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 48
Human Sexuality: Sexual Problems 418
The Crime of Rape—No Means No 418 Atypical Sexual Behavior—Fifty Shades
Forcible Rape 418 of Unusual 423
Acquaintance Rape 419 Paraphilic Disorders 423
Gender Role Stereotypes
STDs and Safer Sex—Choice, Risk, and
and Rape Myths 419
Responsibility 425
Sexual Dysfunctions—When Intimacy Fails 420 HIV/AIDS 427
Desire Disorders 420 Behavioral Risk Factors for STDs 427
Arousal Disorders 420 Safer Sex 428
Orgasm Disorders 422 Summary 428
Sexual Pain Disorders 423 Knowledge Builder 429

Module 49
Human Sexuality Skills in Action: Diversity and Inclusion 430
Living with Diversity 430 Summary 433
Knowledge Builder 433
Tolerance and Acceptance 431
Being Open to Openness 431

Module 50
Personality: Overview of Personality 434
The Psychology of Personality—Do You Have Interviews 438
Personality? 434 Direct Observation and Rating Scales 439
Traits 434 Personality Questionnaires 440
Types 435 Projective Tests of Personality 442
Self-Concept 436 Summary 443
The Whole Human: Personality Theories 437 Knowledge Builder 444
Personality Assessment—Psychological
Yardsticks 438

Module 51
Personality: Trait Theories 445
The Trait Approach—Describe Yourself The Big Five 449
in 18,000 Words or Less 445 Summary 451
Predicting Behavior 446 Knowledge Builder 451
Classifying Traits 447

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xix

Module 52
Personality: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories 452
Psychoanalytic Theory—Id Came to Maslow and Self-Actualization 458
Me in a Dream 452 The Whole Human: Thriving 459
The Structure of Personality 453 Carl Rogers’s Self Theory 459
The Dynamics of Personality 454 Humanistic View of Development 461
Personality Development 454 Summary 462
The Neo-Freudians 456 Knowledge Builder 463
Humanistic Theory—Peak Experiences
and Personal Growth 457

Module 53
Personality: Behavioral and Social Learning Theories 464
Learning Theories of Personality—Habit I Seen Traits and Situations—The Great Debate 468
You Before? 464 Do We Inherit Personality? 468
How Situations Affect Behavior 465 Personality and Environment 469
Personality 5 Habitual Behavior 466 Summary 471
Social Learning Theory 466 Knowledge Builder 471
Behaviorist View of Development 467

Module 54
Personality Skills in Action: Leadership 472
Follow the Leader—Made, Not Born 472 Be Innovative and Challenge the Process 474
Promote Strong Relationships and Individual Talent 474
Becoming a Good Leader—
Learning to Lead 473 Summary 475
Be Inspiring and Commit to a Shared Vision 473 Knowledge Builder 475

Module 55
Health Psychology: Overview of Health Psychology 476
Health Psychology—Here’s to Community Health 481
Your Good Health 476 Stress 481
Behaviors and Illness 477 The Whole Human: Subjective Well-Being 482
Health-Promoting Behaviors 478 Summary 483
Early Prevention 480 Knowledge Builder 483

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xx P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 56
Health Psychology: Stressors 484
Stress—Threat or Thrill? 484 Acculturative Stress—Stranger in a Strange Land 489
Appraising Stressors 485 Frustration 490
Poverty and Health 486 Conflict 492
Managing Conflicts 494
Types of Stressors—The Good, the Bad,
and the Ugly 487 Summary 494
Life Events and Stress 487 Knowledge Builder 495
The Hazards of Hassles 489

Module 57
Health Psychology: Coping with Stress 496
Coping Styles—Making the Best of It 496 Learned Helplessness 500
Coping With Traumatic Stress 497 Depression 501
The College Blues 502
Psychological Defense—Mental Karate? 498
Summary 503
Learned Helplessness and Depression—Is Knowledge Builder 504
There Hope? 500

Module 58
Health Psychology: Stress and Health 505
Stress and Health—Unmasking a Personality and Health 506
Hidden Killer 505 Summary 508
Psychosomatic Disorders 506 Knowledge Builder 509

Module 59
Health Psychology Skills in Action: Stress Management 510
Here’s to Your Good Health! 510 Counteracting Upsetting Thoughts 513
De-Stress! 511 Summary 514
Managing Bodily Effects 511 Knowledge Builder 514
Modifying Ineffective Behavior 512

Module 60
Psychological Disorders: Defining Psychopathology 515
Normality—What’s Normal? 515 Diagnosing Mental Illness—Attaching a Label to
Mental Disorders Are Maladaptive 517 the Person 523
Abnormal Behavior and the Law 518 Types of Symptoms 523
Classifying Mental Disorders—Problems by the Causes of Mental Illness—What Went
Book 518 Wrong? 523
Comorbidity 518 Biological Factors 523
Mental Illness in Other Cultures 519 Psychosocial Factors 525
The Fluidity of Psychiatric Categories 519 Summary 525
The Impact of Psychiatric Labels 519 Knowledge Builder 526
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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxi

Module 61
Psychological Disorders: Psychotic Disorders 527
Psychotic Disorders—Loss of Contact 527 Causes of Schizophrenia 531
The Stress-Vulnerability Hypothesis 533
Delusional Disorders—An Enemy Behind Every
Tree 528 Summary 534
Paranoid Psychosis 529 Knowledge Builder 535

Schizophrenia—Shattered Reality 529

Symptoms of Schizophrenia 529

Module 62
Psychological Disorders: Mood Disorders 536
Mood Disorders—Peaks and Valleys 536 Suicide—Too Permanent a Solution? 539
Depressive Disorders 536 Summary 540
Bipolar and Related Disorders 537 Knowledge Builder 541
Causes of Mood Disorders 537

Module 63
Psychological Disorders: Anxiety, Anxiety-Related, and Personality Disorders 542
Anxiety Disorders—When Anxiety Rules 542 Personality Disorders—Blueprints for
Anxiety Disorders 543 Maladjustment 550
Anxiety Disorders—Four Pathways to Trouble 544 Maladaptive Personality Patterns 550
Antisocial Personality 550
Anxiety-Related Disorders—Also Anxious? 546
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders 546 Summary 552
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders 547 Knowledge Builder 553
Dissociative Disorders 548
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders 548

Module 64
Psychological Disorders Skills in Action: Emotional Intelligence 554
Emotional Intelligence—The Fine Art Summary 556
of Self-Control 554 Knowledge Builder 557
Reading Emotions 555

Module 65
Therapies: Treating Psychological Distress 558
Origins of Therapy—Bored Out of Your Individual versus Group Therapy 561
Skull 558 Face-to-Face versus Distance Therapy 562
Psychotherapy Since Freud 559 Therapies—An Overview 564
Dimensions of Therapy—The Many Paths to Core Features of Psychotherapy 564
Health 560 Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 565
Insight versus Action Therapy 560 Summary 566
Directive versus Nondirective Therapy 561 Knowledge Builder 566
Open-Ended versus Time-Limited Therapy 561
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xxii P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 66
Therapies: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Cognitive Therapies 568
Psychodynamic Therapies—The Gestalt Therapy 571
Talking Cure 568 Cognitive Therapies—Think Positive! 572
Psychoanalysis 568 Cognitive Therapy for Depression 572
Psychoanalysis Today 569 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy 572
Humanistic Therapies—Liberating Cognitive Behavior Therapy 574
Human Potential 569 Summary 575
Client-Centered Therapy 570 Knowledge Builder 576
Existential Therapy 570

Module 67
Therapies: Behavior Therapies 577
Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning— Nonreinforcement and Operant Extinction 582
Healing by Learning 577 Reinforcement and Token Economies 582
Aversion Therapy 578 Summary 583
Exposure Therapy 579 Knowledge Builder 584
Operant Therapies—All the World Is
a Skinner Box? 581

Module 68
Therapies: Medical Therapies 585
Medical Therapies—Psychiatric Care 585 Hospitalization 588
Drug Therapies 585 Community Mental Health Programs 589
Brain Stimulation Therapy 587 Summary 590
Psychosurgery 588 Knowledge Builder 591

Module 69
Therapy Skills in Action: Managing Mental Health Problems 592
Studying Therapies—Treatments Getting Counseling 594
that Work 592 Summary 597
Admitting Weakness—Can’t Complain 593 Knowledge Builder 598
Talking About Problems: Basic Counseling Skills 593

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 C ONTE NTS M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g xxiii

Module 70
Social Psychology: Social Behavior and Cognition 599
Humans in a Social Context—Mind Forming Attitudes 604
Your Manners 599 Attitudes and Behavior 605
Social Roles 600 Attitude Change—When the Seekers
Group Structure, Cohesion, and Norms 600 Went Public 605
Social Comparisons and Attributions—Behind Persuasion 606
Our Masks 602 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 606
Social Comparison 602 Summary 608
Attribution Theory 603 Knowledge Builder 609
Attitudes—Got Attitude? 604

Module 71
Social Psychology: Social Influence 610
Social Influence—Follow the Leader 610 Coercion—Brainwashing and Cults 616
Mere Presence—Just Because You Are There 611 Assertiveness—Stand Up for Your Rights 617
Conformity—Don’t Stand Out 611
Compliance—A Foot in the Door 612 Summary 618
Obedience—Would You Electrocute a Stranger? 614 Knowledge Builder 619

Module 72
Social Psychology: Prosocial Behavior 620
Affiliation and Attraction—Come Together 620 Helping Others—The Ultimate Kindness 625
Interpersonal Attraction 620 Bystander Intervention 626
Self-Disclosure 622 Who Will Help Whom? 627
Interpersonal Attraction and Love—The Love Summary 628
Triangle 622 Knowledge Builder 629
Interpersonal Attraction, Love, and Attachment 623
Evolution and Mate Selection 624

Module 73
Social Psychology: Antisocial Behavior 630
Aggression—The World’s Most The Prejudiced Personality 634
Dangerous Animal 630 Intergroup Conflict—The Roots
Biology 631 of Prejudice 635
Frustration 631 Experiments in Prejudice 637
Social Learning 632 Combatting Prejudice 638
Preventing Aggression 633
Summary 640
Prejudice—Attitudes That Injure 633 Knowledge Builder 641
Sources and Forms of Prejudice 633
Becoming Prejudiced 634

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xxiv P SYCHOLO GY M o d u leS Fo r Active leAr n i n g

Module 74
Social Psychology Skills in Action: Teamwork 642
Teamwork—The Dream Team 642 Summary 644
Knowledge Builder 644
Benefiting from Teamwork—Team Up! 643
Becoming a Team Player 643

Module 75
Applied Psychology: Industrial/Organizational Psychology 645
Industrial/Organizational Psychology— Job Satisfaction 648
Psychology at Work 645 Organizational Culture 650
Theory X Leadership 646 Personnel Psychology 651
Theory Y Leadership 646 Summary 653
Leadership Strategies 648 Knowledge Builder 654

Module 76
Applied Psychology: Environmental Psychology 655
Environmental Influences on Behavior— Conservation 662
No Talking! 655 Social Dilemmas 664
Personal Space 656 A Look Ahead 665
Environmental Influences on Behavior 657 Summary 665
Environmental Problem Solving 659 Knowledge Builder 666
Human Influences on the Natural
Environment—Sustaining Our Earth 661

Module 77
Applied Psychology: The Psychology of Law, Education, and Sports 667
Psychology and Law—Judging Juries 667 Sports Psychology—Psyched! 671
Jury Behavior 667 The Whole Human: Peak Performance 673
Jury Selection 668 A Look Ahead 674
Educational Psychology—An Summary 674
Instructive Topic 669 Knowledge Builder 675
Elements of a Teaching Strategy 670
Universal Design for Instruction 671

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 He said that the operations were mere flea bites and that since
the purpose of the work was to determine the effectiveness of
sulfanilamide on bullet wounds it would be necessary to inflict actual
bullet wounds on the patients. He ordered that the next series of
experiments to be undertaken should be in accordance with these
directions. That same evening, I discussed these orders of Dr.
Grawitz with Professor Gebhardt and we both agreed that it was
impossible to carry them out, but that a procedure would be
adopted which would more nearly simulate battlefield conditions
without actually shooting the patients.
The normal result of all bullet wounds was a shattering of tissue,
which did not exist in the initial experiments. As a result of the
injury, the normal flow of blood through the muscle is cut off. The
muscle is nourished by the flow of blood from either end. When this
circulation is interrupted, the affected area becomes a fertile field for
the growth of bacteria; the normal reaction of the tissue against the
bacteria is not possible without circulation.
This interruption of circulation usual in battle casualties could be
simulated by tying off the blood vessels at either end of the muscle.
Two series of operations, each involving 10 persons, were begun
following this procedure. In the first of these, the same bacterial
cultures were used as were developed in the third and fourth series,
but the glass and wood were omitted. In the other series,
streptococci and staphylococci cultures were used. In the series
using the gangrenous culture a severe infection in the area of the
incision resulted within 24 hours.
Eight patients out of ten became sick from the gangrenous
infection. Cases which showed symptoms of an unspecific or specific
inflammation were operated on in accordance with the doctrine and
manner of septic surgery. The Lexer doctrine formed the basis of the
procedure. The technique is that an incision in the area of the
gangrene is made, from healthy tissue to healthy tissue on either
side. The wound and fascian corners were laid open, the gangrenous
blisters swabbed, and a solution of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) was
poured over them. The inflamed extremity was immobilized in a
cast. With most patients it was possible to improve the gangrenous
condition of the entire infected area in this manner.
In the series in which banal cultures of streptococci and
staphylococci were used, the severe resultant infection with
accompanying increase in temperature and swelling did not occur
until 72 hours later. Four patients showed a more serious picture of
the disease. In the case of these patients, the normal professional
technique of orthodox medicine was followed as outlined above, and
the inflamed swelling split. Due to the slight virulence of the bacteria
it was possible in the case of all patients except one to prevent the
threatened deadly development of the disease.
The incisions were made on the lower part of the leg only in all
series to make an amputation possible. It was not made on the
upper thigh because then no area for amputation would remain.
However, in this series the inflammation was so rapid that there was
no remedy and no amputations were made.
Since after the tying up of the circulation of the muscles, a very
severe course of infection was to be expected, 5 grams of
sulfanilamide were given intravenously in the amount of 1 gram
each, beginning 1 hour after the operation. After the wound was laid
open to expose all its corners, sulfanilamide was shaken into the
entire area and the area was drained by thick rubber tubes.
The infection normally reached an acute stage over a period of 3
weeks, during which time I changed the bandages daily. After the
period of 3 weeks the condition was normally that of a simple wound
which was dressed by the camp physicians rather than by me.
The procedure prescribed for the post-operative treatment of the
patients was to give them three times each day 1 cc. of morphine,
and when the dressings were changed, to induce an esthesia by the
use of evipan.
In all the series of experiments, except the first, sulfanilamide
was used after the gangrenous infection appeared. In each series
two persons were not given sulfanilamide as a control to determine
its effectiveness. When sulfanilamide and the bacteria cultures
together were introduced into the incision no inflammation resulted.
 My behavior towards all patients was very considerate, and I was
very careful in the operations to follow standard professional
procedure.
In May 1943, on the occasion of the Fourth Conference of the
Consulting Physicians of the Wehrmacht, a report was made by
Professor Gebhardt and myself as to these operations. This medical
congress was called by Professor Handloser, who occupied the
position of Surgeon General of the Armed Forces, and was attended
by a large number of physicians, both military and civilian.
In my lecture to the meeting I reported on the operations frankly,
using charts which demonstrated the technique used, the amount of
sulfanilamide administered, and the condition of the patients. This
lecture was the focal point of the conference. Professor Gebhardt
spoke about the fundamentals of the experiments, their performance
and their results, and then asked me to describe the technique. He
began his lecture with the following words: “I bear the full human,
surgical, and political responsibility for these experiments.”
This lecture was followed by a discussion. No criticism was
raised. I am convinced that all the physicians present would have
acted in the same manner as I.
Subsequent to my repeated urgent requests, I went to the front
as surgeon immediately after this conference. Only after I was
wounded did I return as a patient to Hohenlychen. I never entered
the Ravensbrueck camp again. I protested vigorously against these
experiments on human beings, endeavored to prevent them, and to
limit their extension after they had been ordered. In order not to be
forced to participate in these experiments, I repeatedly volunteered
for front-line service. Insofar as it was in my power, I tried to
dissuade Doctor Koller and Doctor Reissmayer from performing these
experiments. I declined habilitation at the University of Berlin
because I felt that it might result in my being obliged to carry on
additional experiments at Ravensbrueck. After I succeeded in
scientific discoveries of the highest practical importance, that is, the
solution of the cancer problem and its therapy, I did not
communicate this fact to Professor Gebhardt and did not publish this
work in order not to be ordered again to carry out experiments.
 Fritz Ernst Fischer

TRANSLATION OF DOCUMENT NO-472

PROSECUTION EXHIBIT 234

AFFIDAVIT OF THE DEFENDANT FISCHER, 21 OCTOBER 1946,

SUPPLEMENTING HIS AFFIDAVIT CONCERNING SULFANILAMIDE
EXPERIMENTS

3. At the conference of May 1943, which I described on page 12

of my affidavit (last paragraph) the following officials were present
to the best of my recollection: Dr. Paul Rostock as chairman of the
conference; Dr. Siegfried Handloser, who was then the Chief of the
Medical Service of the German Armed Forces, who had sent out the
invitations to the meeting; Professor Karl Brandt, who sat in the
center of the front row; Dr. Leonardo D. Conti, the Reich Health
Leader; Professor Dr. Sauerbruch; Dr. Frey; and Professor Heubner.
The Medical Service of the Luftwaffe was represented by Dr. Hippke,
who was the Chief of the Medical Service of the Luftwaffe; and by
Dr. Oskar Schroeder. The Medical Service of the Waffen SS was
represented by its chief, Dr. Karl Genzken. Dr. Helmut Poppendick,
who was the Chief of Staff of the Reich Physician SS and Police, and
Dr. Grawitz were also present.

5. It was made perfectly clear during the speeches made by Dr.

Gebhardt and myself that the experiments were conducted on
inmates of a concentration camp.
6. Six months after this, the 10th anniversary of the hospital at
Hohenlychen was celebrated. Dr. Karl Brandt, Dr. Siegfried Handloser,
Dr. Leonardo D. Conti, and Professor Dr. Sauerbruch were invited to
the celebrations.
7. When the sulfanilamide experiments started, I was told by
Professor Gebhardt, my military and medical superior, that these
experiments were being carried out by order of the Chief of the
Medical Office of the Wehrmacht and the Chief of the State Medical
Office, with the initial order from Hitler, and I must therefore carry
out these orders.
8. Dr. Herta Oberheuser and Dr. Schiedlausky assisted me in the
sulfanilamide experiments.
9. As a result of these experiments, three people died.
[Signed] Fritz Ernst Fischer

TRANSLATION OF GEBHARDT, FISCHER, OBERHEUSER

DOCUMENT 21
GEBHARDT, FISCHER, OBERHEUSER DEFENSE EXHIBIT 20

EXTRACT FROM AFFIDAVIT OF DR. KARL FRIEDRICH BRUNNER, 14

MARCH 1947
I only heard of the sulfanilamide experiments on human beings
at Ravensbrueck after their conclusion through the public report
made by Professor Gebhardt and Dr. Fischer before the Third
Conference East of Consultant Specialists of 24 and 26 May 1943 at
the Military Medical Academy, Berlin. I attended this conference as
Stabsarzt in the army from a military reserve hospital in Berlin. Later
on I read a report in the directives. Professor Dr. Gebhardt did not
speak to us about this point subsequently. On the other hand, the
existence of this sulfanilamide experiment was known and was not
kept secret, although even foreigners were continuously to be found
among the assistants, as, for instance, the Swiss surgeon, Dr. Meyer,
during my time.

TRANSLATION OF GEBHARDT, FISCHER, OBERHEUSER

DOCUMENT 1
GEBHARDT, FISCHER, OBERHEUSER DEFENSE EXHIBIT 6
 EXTRACT FROM REPORT ON THE FIRST CONFERENCE EAST OF
CONSULTING SPECIALISTS ON 18 AND 19 MAY 1942 AT THE
MILITARY MEDICAL ACADEMY, BERLIN

Directives for the chemo-therapy of wound infections

The treatment of war wounds with sulfanilamide preparations in

order to combat wound infections seems to have prospects. In stock
now in the medical stores are: prontalbin-marfanil powder, prontosil,
neo-uleron-albucid, eubasinum, sulfapyridine-cibazol, and eleudron
pills.
Traumatic tetanus cannot be prevented by these preparations;
tetanus antitoxin must therefore be given as usual.
Chemotherapeutics are not a safe precaution against gas
oedemata. The collection of further experiences in this field is
especially desirable.
When treating war wounds, an operative arrangement of the
wound must first be made by removing the dead tissue and opening
all cavities of the wound. Then the remedy is applied with a powder
distributor or with dredging boxes, in dosages of from 5-20 grams
according to the size of the wound. This is repeated whenever a
change of dressing is necessary. Independently of the change of
dressing, and spread evenly over the day, the patient is given 8
grams on the first day, 6 grams on the second day, 5 grams on the
third day and on each of the fourth, fifth, and sixth days, 4 grams of
sulfanilamide preparations per os (if necessary, rectal or intravenous
injections). Then the drug treatment is discontinued and started
again if necessary. The earlier this treatment is begun the better are
its chances.
Local treatment with the available sulfanilamide powders
together with an internal treatment with albucid, cibazol, eleudron,
eubasinum, globucid (particularly for gas oedema), marfanil-
prontalbin, protosil is suggested.
If, in rare cases, secondary reactions occur such as nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, buzzing in the ears, headaches, skin rashes, or
icterus, these remedies must be discontinued at once. A blood
transfusion may be useful.

PARTIAL TRANSLATION OF GEBHARDT, FISCHER,

OBERHEUSER DOCUMENT 3
GEBHARDT, FISCHER, OBERHEUSER DEFENSE EXHIBIT 10

EXTRACTS FROM REPORT ON THE THIRD CONFERENCE EAST OF

CONSULTING SPECIALISTS ON 24 TO 26 MAY 1943 AT THE
MILITARY MEDICAL ACADEMY, BERLIN

5. SS Gruppenfuehrer and Major General, Professor Gebhardt,

and F. Fischer.
Special Experiments on Sulfanilamide Treatment

CONCLUSIONS
“1. The development of suppuration on the soft parts
caused by bacteriae cannot be prevented, even if
sulfanilamides are applied immediately, locally, or internally.
“2. It could not be proved that the course of an
inflammatory illness caused by aerobic organisms on
abscesses and phlegmons of the limbs was influenced by
sulfanilamides. We were of the impression that combined
gas gangrene therapy took a milder course under the
influence of sulfanilamides.
“3. Surgical measures are indispensable for a successful
treatment of inflammations.”
Additional Remarks
The sprinkling of sulfanilamide powder on wounds can be
injurious, if, by so doing, the fundamentals of surgery are infringed,
if, for instance, the powder basis is not dissolved by the tissue fluids,
and if the discharge of secretions is hampered by coagulation. The
wounds treated with sulfanilamide powder show a slight tendency to
exudation.
Hypothesis of Functions
The inflammation on the mesodermal soft parts shows a
tendency towards necrosis at an early stage. The necrosis is the seat
of the bacterial culture. Its surroundings show thrombosed vessels.
Access to it by chemo-therapeutic reagents is very difficult.

Directives for the Application of Sulfanilamides

Experiments (Gebhardt-Fischer) showed the following results:

Even the immediate internal and external application of sulfanilamide
preparations cannot prevent a suppuration of the soft parts due to
ordinary suppurative organisms. It could not be proved that the
course of the inflammatory disease caused by anaerobions is
influenced by sulfanilamides. The sulfanilamides seemed to have an
easing effect on the course of combined gangrene therapy.
Disorders caused by sulfanilamides (Randerath) are relatively
rare. They occur directly as liver disorders including acute yellow
liver atrophy, as kidney disorders, and as agranulocytosis. Therefore,
as far as is possible under front-line conditions, the white and red
blood count should be controlled. The decrease of the body
temperature caused by an infection of the central regulatory system
may be looked upon as an indirect disorder, so that the temperature
curve permits no conclusions as to the development of the wound
infection. Furthermore, local powder treatment may lead to an
occasional increase in the depth of the wound infection. Direct injury
to the tissue at the spot where the preparations were applied was
not observed.
The endolumbal application of the sulfanilamides (Mueller) must
also be rejected for the treatment of meningitis, since it leads to
serious disturbances in the region of the spinal cord and may result
in paralysis.
The clinical discourse (Frey) emphasized the decrease of
optimistic and the increase of critical opinions. The clinical doctor
considers the principal disorders to be anorexia, nausea, and
increasing exhaustion. Early application in the wound itself is
essential for the efficacy. The enteral or parenteral inducing of
sulfanilamide drugs cannot prevent wound infections, but can
favorably influence its course.
The following rules for practice therefore result: All surface
wounds, that is, grazing shot wounds, sulcus-shaped wounds and
large gaping wounds of the soft parts should be sprinkled as soon as
possible with sulfanilamide powder. The powder treatment is of no
use if the depths of the wound are not reached. It is ineffective to
powder the small wounds caused by the penetration and exit of the
bullet. The powdering of the skin is senseless and may cause
eczema. Deeper wounds must be treated in the quickest and most
thorough manner. After this, the wound can be additionally treated
with sulfanilamide powder which must reach the deepest cavities. It
is not advisable to powder granulating wounds.
If the powder treatment cannot be applied during the first hours
or does not seem to suffice, a pororal application of sulfanilamides
should take its place or be performed supplementarily. Front-line
conditions will not always allow intravenous injections. According to
the danger of a wound infection, the wound should be treated for a
short time with large doses of sulfanilamides (6-10 grams during 3-4
days, not more than a total of 50 grams). On the whole, small doses
are insufficient and therefore have no influence on the course of an
infection, but if applied too long they may be injurious. Suitable
preparations are preferably eleudron, cibazol, and globucide. If
possible, the treatment should be applied by a medical officer.
Wounds endangered by gas oedema—and this means all large
and deep muscle wounds—should, in addition to the local and oral
treatment with sulfanilamide, also be treated with gangrene serum.
At subsequent operations, for example resection of the ribs,
empyema of the chest, secondary sutures, and late amputations, the
new wound caused by the operation may be powdered adequately
with sulfanilamides when bleeding has stopped.
The thoroughness of the surgical wound treatment should in no
way be lessened even by the additional application of sulfanilamides.
 Abdominal gunshot wounds can also be treated with
sulfanilamide powder (about one tablespoon) or the sulfanilamide
may be induced into the abdominal cavity in the form of an
emulsion.

EXTRACTS FROM THE TESTIMONY OF PROSECUTION WITNESS

JADWIGA DZIDO[40]
DIRECT EXAMINATION

Mr. Hardy: Witness, what is your full name?

Witness Dzido: Jadwiga Dzido.
Q. Do you spell that J-a-d-w-i-g-a, last name spelled D-z-i-d-o?
A. Yes.
Q. Witness, you were born on 26 January 1918?
A. Yes.
Q. You are a citizen of Poland?
A. Yes.
Q. Have you come here to Nuernberg voluntarily to testify?
A. Yes.
Q. Would you kindly tell the Tribunal your present home address?
A. Warsaw, Garnoslonska 14.
Q. Witness, are you married?
A. No.
Q. Are your parents living?
A. No.
Q. What education have you received?
A. I finished elementary school and high school at Warsaw. In
1937 I started to study pharmacology at the University of Warsaw.
Q. Did you graduate from the University in Warsaw?
A. No.
Q. What did you do after you had finished school in the
University of Warsaw?
A. I started studying pharmacology at the University, and then
when I was studying the second year, the war broke out.
Q. What did you do after the war broke out?
 A. In 1939 I was working in a pharmacy during the holidays.
Q. Were you a member of the Resistance Movement?
A. In the autumn of 1940 I entered the Resistance Underground.
Q. What did you do in the Resistance Movement?
A. I was a messenger.
Q. Then were you later captured by the Gestapo and placed
under arrest?
A. I was arrested by the Gestapo on 28 March 1941.
Q. What happened to you after your arrest by the Gestapo?
A. I was interrogated by the Gestapo in Lublin, Lukow, and
Radzin.
Q. And what happened after that?
A. In Lublin, I was beaten while naked.
Q. Did you then receive any further treatment from the Gestapo,
or were you released?
A. I stayed in Lublin 6 weeks in the cellar of the Gestapo
building.
Q. Then were you sent to the Ravensbrueck concentration camp?
A. On 23 September 1941, I was transported to the
Ravensbrueck concentration camp.
Q. Were you told why you were sent to the concentration camp
in Ravensbrueck?
A. No, I was not told.
Q. Were you ever given a trial in any German court?
A. Never.
Q. Who sent you to Ravensbrueck concentration camp?
A. All the prisoners in the prison at Lublin were sent there, and I
went with them.
Q. Now will you tell the Court, Miss Dzido, in your own words
what happened to you after you arrived at Ravensbrueck?
A. When I arrived in the Ravensbrueck concentration camp, I
thought that I would stay there till the end of the war. The living
conditions in the prison were such that we could not live there any
longer. In the camp we had to work, but in the camp it was not so
dirty, and there were not so many lice as used to be in the prison.
Q. What work did you do in the camp, Witness?
 A. I did physical work inside or outside the camp.
Q. Were you ever operated on in the Ravensbrueck concentration
camp?
A. I was operated on in November 1942.
Q. Will you kindly explain the circumstances of this operation to
the Tribunal?
A. In 1942 great hunger and terror reigned in the camp. The
Germans were at the zenith of their power. You could see
haughtiness and pride on the face of every SS woman. We were told
every day that we were nothing but numbers, that we had to forget
that we were human beings, that we had nobody to think of us, that
we would never return to our country, that we were slaves, and that
we had only to work. We were not allowed to smile, to cry, or to
pray. We were not allowed to defend ourselves when we were
beaten. There was no hope of going back to my country.
Q. Now, Witness, did you say that you were operated on in the
Ravensbrueck concentration camp on 22 November 1942? [See
photographs, pp. 898-908.]
A. Yes.
Q. Now, on 22 November 1942, the day of this operation, will
you kindly tell the Tribunal all that happened during that time?
A. That day the policewoman, camp policewoman, came with a
piece of paper where my name was written down. The policewoman
told us to follow her. When I asked her where we were going, she
told me that she didn’t know. She took us to the hospital. I didn’t
know what was going to happen to me. It might have been an
execution, transport for work, or operation.
Dr. Oberheuser appeared and told me to undress and examined
me. Then I was X-rayed. I stayed in the hospital. My dress was
taken away from me. I was operated on 22 November 1942 in the
morning. A German nurse came, shaved my legs, and gave me
something to drink. When I asked her what she was going to do
with me she did not give me any answer. In the afternoon I was
taken to the operating room on a small hospital trolley. I must have
been very exhausted and tired and that is why I don’t remember
whether I got an injection or whether a mask was put on my face. I
didn’t see the operating room.
When I came back I remember that I had no wound on my leg,
but a trace of a sting. From that time I don’t remember anything till
January. I learned from my comrades who lived in the same room
that my leg had been operated on. I remember what was going on
in January, and I know that the dressings had been changed several
times.
Q. Witness, do you know who performed the operation upon
your leg?
A. I don’t know.
Q. Now, you say that you had dressings changed. Who changed
the dressings on your leg?
A. The dressings were changed by Drs. Oberheuser, Rosenthal,
and Schiedlausky.
Q. Did you suffer a great deal while these dressings were being
changed?
A. Yes, very much.
Q. Witness, will you step down from the witness box and walk
over to the defendants’ dock and see if you can recognize anyone in
that dock as being at Ravensbrueck concentration camp during the
period and during the time that you were operated on?
A. (Witness points.)
Q. Will you point to the person again that you recognized,
Witness?
A. (Witness points.)
Q. And who is that, Witness?
A. Dr. Oberheuser.
Mr. Hardy: May we request that the record so show that the
witness has identified the defendant Oberheuser?
Presiding Judge Beals: The record will so show.
Mr. Hardy: Do you recognize anyone else in that dock, Witness?
Witness Dzido: Yes.
Q. Point out who else you recognize, Witness?
A. (Witness points.)
Q. Who is that, Witness?
 A. This man I saw only once in the camp.
Q. Do you know who that man is, Witness?
A. I know.
Q. Who is that man, Witness?
A. Dr. Fischer.
Mr. Hardy: Will the record so show that the witness has properly
identified the defendant Fischer as being at the Ravensbrueck
concentration camp?
Presiding Judge Beals: The record will so show.
Mr. Hardy: Witness, do you have any other details to tell the
Tribunal about your operation?
Witness Dzido: (No answer.)
Q. Witness, how many times were you operated on?
A. Once.
Q. When Dr. Oberheuser attended you, was she gentle in her
treatment toward you?
A. She was not bad.
Q. Witness, have you ever heard of a person named Binz in the
Ravensbrueck concentration camp?
A. I know her very well.
Q. Do you remember what time your friends were called to be
operated on in August of 1943?
A. Yes.
Q. Will you kindly tell the Tribunal some of the details there and
the names of the persons who were to be operated on?
A. In the spring of 1943 the operations were stopped. We
thought that we could live like that till the end of the war. On the
15th of August a policewoman came and called ten girls. When she
was asked what for, she answered that we were going to be sent to
work. We knew very well that all prisoners belonging to our
transport were not allowed to work outside the camp. The chief of
the block where we were living was forbidden under capital
punishment to let us outside the camp. That’s why we know that it
was not true. We didn’t want to let our comrades out of the block.
The policewoman came, and the assistants, the overseers, and with
them Binz. We were driven out of the block into the street. We stood
there in line 10 at a time and Binz herself read off the names of 10
girls. When they refused to go because they were afraid of a new
operation and were not willing to undergo a new operation, she
herself gave her word of honor that it was not going to be an
operation and she told them to follow her.
We remained standing before the block. Then several minutes
later our comrades ran to us and told us that SS men have been
called for in order to surround them. The camp police arrived and
drove our comrades out of the line. We were locked in the block.
The shutters were closed. We were 3 days without any food and
without any fresh air. We were not given parcels that arrived in the
camp at that time. The first day the camp commandant and Binz
came and made a speech. The camp commandant said that there
had never been a revolt in the camp and that this revolt must be
punished. She believed that we would reform and that we would
never repeat it. If it were to happen again, she had SS people with
weapons. My comrade, who knew German, answered that we were
not revolting, that we didn’t want to be operated on because five of
us died after the operation and because six had been shot down
after having suffered so much. Then Binz replied: “Death is victory.
You must suffer for it and you will never get out of the camp.” Three
days later, we learned that our comrades had been operated on in
the bunker.
Q. Now, Witness, how many women, approximately, were
operated on at Ravensbrueck?
A. At Ravensbrueck 74 women were operated on. Many of them
underwent many operations.
Q. Now, you have told us that five died as a result of the
operations, is that correct?
A. Yes.
Q. And another six were shot down after the operation, is that
correct?
A. Yes.
Q. Do you know why those other six were shot, Witness?
A. I don’t know.
 Q. Witness, were any of these victims asked to volunteer for
these operations?
A. No.
Q. Were any of them promised freedom if they would submit to
operations?
A. No.
Q. When you were operated on, did you object?
A. I could not.
Q. Why?
A. I was not allowed to talk and our questions were not
answered.
Q. Do you still suffer any effects as a result of the operation,
Witness?
A. Yes.
Q. Were you ever asked to sign any papers with respect to the
operation?
A. Never.
Q. When did you finally leave Ravensbrueck?
A. On 27 April 1945.
Q. Have you ever received any treatment since you have left
Ravensbrueck in the last year?
A. Yes.
Q. Tell us what treatment you have received.
A. Dr. Gruzan in Warsaw transplanted tendons on my leg.
Q. When did he do that?
A. On 25 September 1945.
Q. Do you have to wear any special shoes, now, Witness?
A. Yes, I should wear them, but I can’t afford to buy them.
Q. What are you doing now, Witness? Are you working now, or
what is your occupation?
A. I am now continuing my studies which I started before the
war.
Q. I see. I will ask the witness to identify these pictures.
Mr. Hardy: This is Document NO-1082a, b, and c. I will pass
these up to the Tribunal for your perusal. Were these photographs
taken of you in Nuernberg in the last day or two, Witness?
 Witness Dzido: Yes.
Q. Witness, would you kindly take your stocking and shoe off
your right leg, please, and will you step out to the side and show the
Tribunal the results of the operations at Ravensbrueck? (Witness
complies.) That’s all, Witness, you may sit down.
Mr. Hardy: I have no further question on direct examination, your
Honor.
Presiding Judge Beals: Is there any defense counsel who desires to
cross-examine this witness?
Dr. Seidl (counsel for defendants Gebhardt, Oberheuser, and
Fischer): I do not want to cross-examine the witness; however, I do
not wish the conclusion to be drawn that my clients admit all the
statements made by the witness.

EXTRACTS FROM THE TESTIMONY OF THE PROSECUTION EXPERT

WITNESS DR. LEO ALEXANDER[41]
DIRECT EXAMINATION

Mr. Hardy: Dr. Alexander, have you examined Miss Dzido before
today?
Witness Dr. Alexander: Yes, sir, I did, on several occasions during
the last 3 days.
Q. During your examination, did you have X-rays made of the
patient’s legs?
A. I did, sir.
Mr. Hardy: At this time I will introduce Document NO-1091 which
is the X-ray of the witness, Miss Dzido. We will pass two copies to
the Tribunal and one copy to the Secretary General. Dr. Alexander, in
the course of your diagnosis of these X-rays, will you kindly diagnose
this X-ray in English and then repeat in German for the benefit of the
defendants?
Witness Dr. Alexander: Yes, sir.
Q. Doctor, will you identify that X-ray which carried Document
NO-1091?
 A. Yes. This is the X-ray which included the lower two-thirds of
the thigh bone, the femur, and the knee joint, and—
Mr. Hardy: I offer this X-ray as Prosecution Exhibit 215.

Q. Doctor, this X-ray you are referring to now is Document NO-

1092?
A. This is Document NO-1091. The arrow points to the
osteoporotic atrophy of the tibia. Document NO-1092 is the X-ray of
the leg. It shows the fibula which is the smaller of the two larger
bones of the leg, about in the middle between the area just
mentioned under the bracket called “B”. On the side, looking toward
the tibia is the osteoperiostitis of the periosteum. This group of
marks is particularly severe in the smaller area which I have marked
with the bracket “A”, which indicates a smaller area of the shaft of
the tibia within the larger area of the disturbance marked as “B”.
This alteration is indicative and consists of an ordinary inactive Coxa,
which in view of the osteoperiostitis of the periosteum was probably
an osteomyelitis process. However, there is no active osteomyelitis at
the present examination of the right foot. In pictures 1093 and
1094, it shows arthritic changes of the cuniform navicula joints with
narrowing of the joint spaces and increased marginal sclerosis. This
has been marked in the X-ray with an arrow pointing to the joint.
The other prints are the same. The prints have come out too dark,
but it shows the condition clearly in the film.
This arthritis is due to the immobilization of the right foot.
Secondary to the muscles and especially the paralysis of the perineal
nerve. It is evidently arthritis of an immobilization nature which one
sees also by inspection of the patient’s foot.
Q. Doctor, can you determine from your examination——
A. (Interposing) 1094—have I mentioned it?—shows the same as
1093 in a slightly different exposure. The marks are the same
pointing to the most marked arthritis between the cuniform navicular
joints.
Q. Doctor, in your opinion, from your examination of this patient
can you determine what was the purpose of the experiment?
 A. It appears that in this experiment a highly infectious agent
was implanted, probably without the addition of a bacteria static
agent such as sulfanilamide, and for that reason the infection got
out of hand and became very extensive.

EXTRACTS FROM THE TESTIMONY OF DEFENDANT GEBHARDT[42]

DIRECT EXAMINATION

Dr. Seidl: The experiments on Polish internees were carried out

in such a way that, first of all, three series of experiments were
performed on three groups of 12 persons each. Is that correct?
Defendant Gebhardt: Yes. What I wanted to solve by means of this
second experimental group was the task given me in my orders,
namely, the testing of the drugs prescribed. I definitely hoped in
these experiments, which produced gangrene, that if there was
anything in the sulfanilamide drugs, which I had reason to hope,
then the advantages connected with one or the other drug would
become apparent, and I would be able to discontinue the
experiments. Of course, I could not stop at the initial instructions. I
really had to go on to a localized and definite infection, and for that
there is an internationally known precept, not discovered by us,
which is to produce a locus minoris resistentia—that is to say, the
place of least resistance—where germs combine with contact
substances. So we did not insert dirt, glass, or earth, cruelly; the dirt
in the wound was represented by sterile glass silicate; soil and
textiles which would enter a wound were replaced by us through
sterile cellulose, finely ground. You all know that if you cut yourself
and a nonsterile piece of glass remains in the wound, if you do not
move the spot, it will heal with the glass inside without any
aggravated symptoms. The only effect it has is to produce a catalysis
for the germs and a local obstruction to the flow of blood, and
possibly to damage a few cells slightly. In other words, we produced
inflammation in the safest way possible for such an experiment. That
is an unquestionable scientific train of thought in this sphere. We
proceeded in just that manner and in addition, we gave our
sulfanilamide, or zeibazol 1., eleutron, and nitron. Two control
persons, however, were not without protection, because they were
taken care of in the old established way.
Now, don’t suggest that I should know the schedule or that there
was some schedule regarding the supply of sulfanilamide used. A
schedule is always bad in medicine because it is no longer original.
One thing is characteristic, however, with sulfanilamides and that is
that you give a big dose at the beginning, and here there is a
question of whether it is correct to introduce it locally or to leave it
open. Someone might mix it, somebody else might have a different
combination and that is how we did it. I would be a bad scientist if I
were to write down for you now that I knew exactly that they were
all given in a certain manner on the third day, or that they are all like
this and this now. It states expressly in Thomas’ statement, of
course, that any prearranged table for the administration is wrong,
and that we also cannot prescribe the correct way to apply these
drugs. It was obviously clear that there was a strong impression
made by sulfanilamides and, even in the first group, we were
astonished to find a certain result, which is useful for the idea as
such, but not for practical purposes. Among other things we
immediately and simultaneously sprinkled a mixture of germs
together with sulfanilamide powder into the wound. That was the
only exception made in the first group and it didn’t produce any
results at all. Now, if I were a bad scientist then I would have
assumed that that, in itself, was a success. No matter whether it was
the ultrasepsis or the powder we had used, I would have been
satisfied, and I would have said, “Everybody now has to take a little
bag of sulfanilamide along with him and powder the wounds with it
immediately because we know that if they are inserted
simultaneously into the wound—the germ and the drug—then there
will be no inflammation.” Only in complete ignorance of wound
conditions and war conditions could one adopt that point of view.
The disadvantage of the sulfanilamide bag is that a man who is
badly shot isn’t in a position to act; he would be lying somewhere
badly wounded and not be able to do anything. On the other hand,
of course, the position is that the surface of the wound can easily be
powdered, but of course not right down to the very bottom of the
wound, and we know particularly well that sulfanilamides when
applied wrongly in this way have caused injury.
Q. The second group consisted of the 36 women, 3 times 12
women?
A. Yes. Infection, plus contact materials.
Q. Is it true that the Reich Physician SS, Dr. Grawitz, on 3
September 1942, when inspecting Ravensbrueck, demanded that the
experimental conditions had to be made more severe in order to
create conditions similar to wartime conditions?
A. At the beginning of September, on the basis of my report, I
was called to Grawitz to report on the results which might be
expected. Grawitz, and as I shall explain later, Stumpfegger, came to
me at the beginning of September. Since Grawitz was coming to
Ravensbrueck I turned up on the same day, so that Fischer could
demonstrate the patients under my protection. That is the
impression probably created repeatedly by the testimony of
witnesses; they have to wait for a time, and then I say “These are
the patients whom I operated on.” I assume the same description
was given each time. Grawitz was able to prove to me that the
effects were circumscribed and not of a war nature. And he was able
to prove to me that I had obtained no clear medical information,
only assumptions, and the clinical conditions resulting might perhaps
be expected after surgery at home. For another reason, which can
be seen from the documents, the argument became rather violent.
Grawitz turned to Fischer, who presented the cases to him. At any
rate he then said, unfortunately, that a speedy clarification had to be
reached and that wounds similar to combat wounds had to be
created, that is, a gunshot wound infected by earth and matter. Of
course, I did not accept these conditions and I looked for some way
to get the experiment into my own hands so that, using all
safeguards, a higher degree of infection might be brought about,
and the cases might still remain under my control. I did not want to
give up and say, “I have not reached any conclusion,” thereby
impliedly giving permission for wounds similar to combat wounds to
be inflicted elsewhere. And so we arrived at the idea of tying off the
arteries of the third group, which is also a customary means of
bringing about a locus minoris resistentiae in international
experimental technique.
Q. You did not carry out the order then?
A. No.
Q. Then how were the experiments continued in order to create
severe local inflammation in warlike wounds?
A. We kept to our old technique, the infusion, that is an incision
on the outer side of the calf far from the joint, where it is not under
pressure, and where the cast does not hurt it. In other words, we
chose the most suitable place according to all medical
considerations. Then we administered the infection in a place where
the circulation of the blood had been reduced.

Q. What do you know about the deaths, and why was there no
amputation in these cases?
A. I believe that I can remember the three deaths very well. But
I only remember three—I have always testified that—with all the
things that have happened in the meantime and all the patients I
have taken care of. It was not that Fischer or I overlooked an
amputation, and it is certainly not true that an amputation can save
the life of the patient in all cases of gangrene. As I remember the
case histories, the most serious patient had a large abscess on the
hip. Probably the corresponding glands had been affected. The
infection on the calf and the abscess on the hip—what can I
amputate? One can amputate when the infection is limited to the
calf. We did not have such cases because we forced the infection to
the place where we wanted it, but we were not able to prevent the
infection spreading to a different area and running into the blood
vessel as does happen occasionally. There are infections of the
veins, and then the patient dies suddenly, and it is a definite risk to
perform an operation because the power of resistance is on the
borderline, hanging by a hair. If we perform such major operations
to save the patient’s life, then you may assume that we would have
undertaken an amputation, or would you assume that a surgeon of
my experience does not know when he has to amputate?
Unfortunately that is the first thing that an operative surgeon like
Fischer learns in wartime, to amputate in time.
As far as I remember, the deaths were from an abscess of the
glands, an inflammation of the veins, an inflammation of the blood
vessels, and one died from general sickness, in spite of all
transfusions. This happens in cases of infection when there is no
possibility of stopping the infection by local surgery. But one cannot
conclude that any medical measures which should have been taken
were overlooked, because just by seeing a case history from a
distance one cannot decide that at such and such a moment the
patient should have been operated on. I am convinced that in these
three cases which Fischer reported to me exactly, which I saw, and
in which the therapy was discussed, that we certainly did not
overlook anything. As far as one can humanly say, we did what we
considered necessary.
I wanted to publish this result or to report it to the public from
the beginning. Therefore, it was obvious from the very beginning, if
you did not assume that I had any humane or surgical motives, that
I did everything in order to be able to publish the results.
 [40]
Complete testimony is recorded in mimeographed
transcript, 20 December 1947, pp. 838-847.
[41]
Complete testimony is recorded in mimeographed
transcript, 20 Dec. 1946, pp. 848-855.
[42]
Complete testimony is recorded in mimeographed
transcript, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10 Mar. 47, pp. 3931-4256.

6. BONE, MUSCLE AND NERVE REGENERATION AND BONE

TRANSPLANTATION EXPERIMENTS

a. Introduction
The defendants Karl Brandt, Handloser, Rostock, Gebhardt,
Rudolf Brandt, Oberheuser, and Fischer were charged with special
responsibility for and participation in criminal conduct involving
experiments on bone, muscle, and nerve regeneration and
experiments on bone transplantation (par. 6 (F) of the indictment).
During the trial, the prosecution withdrew this charge in the case of
Rudolf Brandt. On this charge the defendants Gebhardt, Oberheuser,
and Fischer were convicted and the defendants Karl Brandt,
Handloser, and Rostock were acquitted.
The prosecution’s summation of the evidence on these
experiments is contained in its final brief against the defendant
Gebhardt. An extract from this brief is set forth below on pages 392
to 396. A corresponding summation of the evidence by the defense
on these experiments has been selected from the final plea for the
defendant Gebhardt. It appears below on pages 396 to 399. This
argumentation is followed by selections from the evidence on pages
400 to 418.
 b. Selection from the Argumentation of the Prosecution

EXTRACT FROM THE CLOSING BRIEF AGAINST DEFENDANT

GEBHARDT

Bone, Muscle, and Nerve Regeneration, and Bone Transplantation

Experiments

These experiments were carried out in the Ravensbrueck

concentration camp during the same period of time and on the same
group of Polish inmates as the sulfanilamide experiments. (Tr. p.
1458.)
The defendant Fischer made the following statement about these
experiments in his affidavit:
“After the arrival of Doctor Stumpfegger from general
headquarters in the fall of 1942, Professor Gebhardt
declared before some of his co-workers that he had
received orders to continue with the tests at Ravensbrueck
on a larger scale. In this connection, questions of plastic
surgery which would be of interest after the end of the war
should be clarified. Doctor Stumpfegger was supposed to
test the free transplantation of bones. Since Professor
Gebhardt knew that I had worked in preparation for my
habilitation at the university on regeneration of tissues, he
ordered me to prepare a surgical plan for these operations,
which, after it had been approved he directed me to carry
out immediately. Moreover, Doctor Koller and Doctor
Reissmayer were ordered to perform their own series of
experiments. Professor Gebhardt was also considering a
plan to form the basis of an operative technique of
remobilization of joints. Besides the above, Doctors Schulze
and Schulze-Hagen participated in this conference.
“Since I knew Ravensbrueck I was ordered to introduce
the new doctors named above to the camp physician. I was
specially directed to assist Doctor Stumpfegger, since, as
 physician on the staff of Himmler, he would probably be
absent from time to time.
“I had selected the regeneration of muscles for the sole
reason because the incision necessary for this purpose was
the smallest. The operation was carried out as follows:
“Evipan and ether were used as an anaesthetic, and a 5
centimeter longitudinal incision was made at the outer side
of the upper leg. Subsequent to the cutting through the
fascia, a piece of muscle was removed which was the size
of the cup of the little finger. The fascia and skin were
enclosed in accordance with the normal technique of
aseptic surgery. Afterwards a cast was applied. After 1
week the skin wound was split under the same narcotic
conditions, and the part of the muscle around the area cut
out was removed. Afterwards the fascia and the sewed-up
part of the skin were immobilized in a cast.” (NO-228, Pros.
Ex. 206; Tr. p. 774.)
The responsibility of the defendant Gebhardt for these
experiments is also proved by the affidavit of Oberheuser. She
stated:
“The experiments with bone transplantations were
carried out, as far as I can remember, at the end of 1942
and beginning of 1943 by Dr. Stumpfegger of Hohenlychen.
I helped Dr. Stumpfegger in the same way as I helped Dr.
Fischer with the sulfanilamide experiments, and as I have
described already in paragraph 4 of this affidavit. Before
the operation I had to examine, as in the other case, the
condition of health of the selected persons. The operations
consisted of the removal and transplantation of a piece of
the bone from the tibia. Fifteen to twenty persons were
used for these experiments.
“The persons necessary for these experiments were
requisitioned by Dr. Schiedlausky from the camp
commander.
 “Dr. Karl Gebhardt was in charge of the sulfanilamide
experiments and bone transplantations. I do not know
whether he himself performed operations of this type. But I
know that all these experiments were performed under his
direction and supervision and upon his instructions. He was
assisted by the doctors already mentioned, Dr. Fischer and
Dr. Stumpfegger, and also by Drs. Schiedlausky and
Rosenthal. Also only healthy Polish prisoners were used for
these experiments.
“I cannot remember that a single one of the
experimental subjects used was pardoned after the
completion of the experiments.” (NO-487, Pros. Ex. 208.)
The witness Maczka, a graduate of the Medical School of the
University of Krakow and a practicing physician, testified that in the
course of her duties as X-ray technician in the Ravensbrueck
concentration camp she had occasion to observe approximately 13
cases in which experimental operations were performed on the
bones of inmates. There were three kinds of bone operations—
fractures, bone transplantations, and bone splints. Some of the
Polish girls were operated on several times. In the case of Krystyna
Dabska, Maczka took X-ray pictures of both legs and discovered that
small pieces of the fibulae had been removed. In the case of one leg
the periosteum had also been taken out. Zofia Baj was operated on
in a similar manner. Janina Marczewska and Leonarda Bien were
subjected to the bone fracture experiments. The tibia was broken in
several places and in the case of one of the girls, clamps were
applied while in the case of the other they were not. These
operations impeded the locomotion of the girls operated on. Bone
incision operations were performed on Barbara Pietczyk, a Polish girl
16 years old. She was operated on six times. During the first
operation incisions were made in each tibia. During a later operation
pieces of the tibia were cut out where incisions had been previously
made. Maczka took an X-ray of the pieces of tibia that were
removed. As a result of these bone operations, Maczka observed the
development of two cases of osteomyelitis, Maria Grabowska and
Maria Cabaj. (Tr. pp. 1445-7.)
A rather large group of muscle experiments were performed.
Here again multiple operations were carried out on the same
subject. Gledziewjowska was operated on most frequently. During
the first operation certain muscles were removed and during
subsequent operations additional pieces were cut out, always at the
same place, so that the legs got thinner and weaker all the time. (Tr.
p. 1447.)
Transplantation of whole limbs from one person to another was
also carried out. Maczka testified that about 10 feeble-minded
inmates were selected, taken to the hospital and prepared for
operation. She knew personally that at least two of these persons
were operated on. One case was a leg amputation. Following this
operation, the experimental subject was killed and placed in a
special room where the dead were kept. Maczka was able to observe
the corpse and saw that there was only one leg. In the second case
an abnormal woman was operated on by Dr. Fischer. When he left
the operating room he carried with him a bundle wrapped up in linen
about the size of an arm. He took this away with him. The prison
nurse, Quernheim, informed Maczka that the whole arm with
shoulder blade was removed from this woman. (Tr. p. 1448.)
The amputation of the arm and shoulder blade mentioned by Dr.
Maczka obviously refers to the transplantation performed on the
patient Ladisch at Hohenlychen. As to this, the defendant Fischer
stated in his affidavit as follows:
“As a disciple of Lexer, Gebhardt had already planned
long ago a free heteroplastic transplantation of bone. In
spite of the fact that some of his co-workers did not agree,
he was resolved to carry out such an operation on the
patient, Ladisch, whose shoulder joint was removed
because of a sarcoma.
“I and my medical colleagues urged professional and
human objections up until the evening before the operation
was performed, but Gebhardt ordered us to carry out the