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 Essentials of Psychology
Concepts and Applications

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 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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 THIRD EDITION

Essentials of Psychology
Concepts and Applications

Jeffrey S. Nevid
St. John’s University

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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 Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and © 2012, 2009 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Applications, Third Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be
Jeffrey S. Nevid
reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic,
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 This text is dedicated to the thousands of psychology instructors
who share their excitement and enthusiasm for the field of
psychology with their students and seek to help them better
understand the many contributions of psychology to our daily
lives and to our understanding of ourselves and others. I consider
myself fortunate to have the opportunity to be one of them.

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 About the Author

Dr. Jeffrey Nevid is Professor of Psychology at St. John’s University in New York. He received his
doctorate from the State University of New York at Albany and completed a post-doctoral fellow-
ship in evaluation research at Northwestern University.
Dr. Nevid has conducted research in many areas of psychology, including health psychology,
clinical and community psychology, social psychology, gender and human sexuality, adolescent
development, and teaching of psychology. His research publications have appeared in such journals
as Health Psychology, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Journal of Community Psychology,
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Behavior Therapy, Psychology & Marketing, Professional Psychology,
Teaching of Psychology, Sex Roles, and Journal of Social Psychology, among others. Dr. Nevid also
served as Editorial Consultant for the journals Health Psychology and Psychology and Marketing and
as Associate Editor for Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. He is presently actively involved
in conducting research on pedagogical advances to help students succeed in their courses.
Dr. Nevid has authored or coauthored a number of other college-level texts, including Abnormal
Psychology in a Changing World, published by Pearson Education, Human Sexuality in a World of
Diversity, also published by Pearson Education, Psychology and the Challenges of Life: Adjustment
and Growth, published by John Wiley & Sons, and A Student’s Guide to AIDS and Other Sexually
Transmitted Diseases, published by Allyn & Bacon. He lives in New York with his wife Judy and
their two children, Michael and Daniella.

vi

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Brief Contents

About the Author vi

Contents ix
Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xxi
A Message to Students xxxii

1 The Science of Psychology 3

2 Biological Foundations of Behavior 37
3 Sensation and Perception 81
4 Consciousness 125
5 Learning 163
6 Memory 197
7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 227
8 Motivation and Emotion 261
9 Human Development 301
10 Psychology and Health 351
11 Personality 383
12 Psychological Disorders 419
13 Methods of Therapy 455
14 Social Psychology 487

APPENDIX A: Sample Answers to Thinking Critically About Psychology Questions A-1

APPENDIX B: Answers to Recall It Questions A-4
APPENDIX C: Statistics in Psychology A-6
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Glossary G-1

vii

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 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents

About the Author vi

Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xxi
A Message to Students xxxii

Chapter 1
The Science of Psychology 3
MODULE 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology 4 Research Methods: How We Learn What We Know 22
Origins of Psychology 4 The Experimental Method 25
Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology 8 Anatomy of a Research Study: Do Warm Hands
Module 1.1 Review 13 Make a Warm Heart? 26
Ethical Principles in Psychological Research 28
MODULE 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and
Module 1.3 Review 30
What They Do 14
Specialty Areas of Psychology 14 MODULE 1.4 Application: Becoming a Critical Thinker 31
Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse 18 Features of Critical Thinking 31
Module 1.2 Review 19 Thinking Critically About Online Information 32
MODULE 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology 20
The Scientific Method: How We Know What We Know 20

Chapter 2
Biological Foundations of Behavior 37
MODULE 2.1 Neurons: The Body’s Wiring 38 The Forebrain 52
The Structure of the Neuron 38 The Cerebral Cortex: The Brain’s Thinking, Calculating,
How Neurons Communicate 40 Organizing, and Creative Center 53
Neurotransmitters: The Nervous System’s Chemical Module 2.3 Review 57
Messengers 41
MODULE 2.4 Methods of Studying the Brain 58
Module 2.1 Review 44
Recording and Imaging Techniques 58
MODULE 2.2 The Nervous System: Your Body’s Information Experimental Methods 60
Superhighway 46 Module 2.4 Review 61
The Central Nervous System: Your Body’s Master Control
MODULE 2.5 The Divided Brain: Specialization of
Unit 47
The Peripheral Nervous System: Your Body’s Link to the Function 62
Outside World 49 The Brain at Work: Lateralization and Integration 62
Module 2.2 Review 50
Handedness: Why Are People Not More Even-Handed? 64
Split-Brain Research: Can the Hemispheres Go It Alone? 64
MODULE 2.3 The Brain: Your Crowning Glory 51 Brain Damage and Psychological Functioning 65
The Hindbrain 51 Module 2.5 Review 67
The Midbrain 51
ix

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x | C ON T E N T S

MODULE 2.6 The Endocrine System: The Body’s Other Genetic Influences on Behavior 73
Communication System 68 Kinship Studies: Untangling the Roles of Heredity and
Endocrine Glands: The Body’s Pumping Stations 69 Environment 73
Hormones and Behavior 71 Module 2.7 Review 76
Module 2.6 Review 71
MODULE 2.8 Application: Biofeedback Training: Learning by
MODULE 2.7 Genes and Behavior: A Case of Nature and Listening to the Body 76
Nurture 72

Chapter 3
Sensation and Perception 81
MODULE 3.1 Sensing Our World: Basic Concepts of The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses: Of Grace and
Sensation 82 Balance 103
Absolute and Difference Thresholds: Is Something There? Module 3.4 Review 104
Is Something Else There? 82
MODULE 3.5 Perceiving Our World: Principles of
Signal Detection: More Than a Matter of Energy 84
Sensory Adaptation: Turning the Volume Down 84 Perception 105
Module 3.1 Review 85
Attention: Did You Notice That? 106
Perceptual Set: Seeing What You Expect to See 106
MODULE 3.2 Vision: Seeing the Light 86 Modes of Visual Processing: Bottom-Up vs.
Light: The Energy of Vision 86 Top-Down 107
The Eye: The Visionary Sensory Organ 87 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization 107
Feature Detectors: Getting Down to Basics 89 Gestalt Laws of Grouping 109
Color Vision: Sensing a Colorful World 89 Perceptual Constancies 109
Module 3.2 Review 92 Cues to Depth Perception 110
Motion Perception 111
MODULE 3.3 Hearing: The Music of Sound 93 Visual Illusions: Do Your Eyes Deceive You? 112
Sound: Sensing Waves of Vibration 93 Controversies in Perception: Subliminal Perception and
The Ear: A Sound Machine 94 Extrasensory Perception 115
Perception of Pitch: Perceiving the Highs and Lows 95 Module 3.5 Review 118
Hearing Loss: Are You Protecting Your Hearing? 96
Module 3.3 Review 97 MODULE 3.6 Application: Psychology and Pain
Management 119
MODULE 3.4 Our Other Senses: Chemical, Skin,
Distraction 119
and Body Senses 98 Creating a Bottleneck at the “Gate” 119
Olfaction: What Your Nose Knows 99 Changing Thoughts and Attitudes 120
Taste: The Flavorful Sense 100 Obtaining Accurate Information 120
The Skin Senses: Your Largest Sensory Organ 102 Meditation and Biofeedback 120

Chapter 4
Consciousness 125
MODULE 4.1 States of Consciousness 126 MODULE 4.2 Sleeping and Dreaming 130
Focused Awareness 126 Sleep and Wakefulness: A Circadian Rhythm 130
Drifting Consciousness 126 The Stages of Sleep 131
Divided Consciousness 127 Why Do We Sleep? 132
Module 4.1 Review 129 Dreams and Dreaming 133

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 C ON T E N T S | xi

Sleep Deprivation: Getting By on Less 136 MODULE 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Drugs 142
Sleep Disorders: When Normal Sleep Eludes Us 136 Drug Abuse: When Drug Use Causes Harm 143
Module 4.2 Review 138 Drug Dependence: When the Drug Takes Control 143
Depressants 144
MODULE 4.3 Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Stimulants 149
Hypnosis 139 Hallucinogens 152
Meditation: Achieving a Peaceful State by Focusing Your Understanding Drug Abuse 153
Attention 139 Drug Treatment 156
Hypnosis: “You Are Now Getting Sleepier” 140 Module 4.4 Review 156
Module 4.3 Review 142
MODULE 4.5 Application: Getting Your Zs 158

Chapter 5
Learning 163
MODULE 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Punishment 181
Association 164 Why It Matters: Applications of Operant Conditioning 183
Principles of Classical Conditioning 164 Module 5.2 Review 185
A Cognitive Perspective on Classical Conditioning 168
MODULE 5.3 Cognitive Learning 187
Why It Matters: Examples of Classical Conditioning 169
Insight Learning 187
Conditioning the Immune System 172
Latent Learning 188
Module 5.1 Review 172
Observational Learning 189
MODULE 5.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Module 5.3 Review 191
Consequences 174
MODULE 5.4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into
Thorndike and the Law of Effect 174
Practice 191
B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning 175
Applying Reinforcement 192
Principles of Operant Conditioning 176
Giving Praise 192
Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning 181

Chapter 6
Memory 197
MODULE 6.1 Remembering 198 Amnesia: Of Memories Lost or Never Gained 215
Human Memory as an Information Processing System 198 Module 6.2 Review 216
Memory Stages 199
The Reliability of Long-Term Memory: Can We Trust Our MODULE 6.3 The Biology of Memory 217
Memories? 205 Brain Structures in Memory: Where
Module 6.1 Review 209
Do Memories Reside? 217
Strengthening Connections Between
MODULE 6.2 Forgetting 210 Neurons: The Key to Forming Memories 218
Decay Theory: Fading Impressions 210 Genetic Bases of Memory 219
Interference Theory: When Learning More Leads to Module 6.3 Review 220
Remembering Less 211
MODULE 6.4 Application: Powering Up Your Memory 221
Retrieval Theory: Forgetting as a Breakdown in Retrieval 213
Motivated Forgetting: Memories Hidden from Using Mnemonics to Improve Memory 221
Awareness 214 General Suggestions for Improving Memory 222
Measuring Memory: How It Is Measured May Determine How
Much Is Recalled 214

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xii | C ON T E N T S

Chapter 7
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 227
MODULE 7.1 Thinking 228 How Is Intelligence Measured? 243
Mental Images: In Your Mind’s Eye 228 What Are the Characteristics of a Good Test of
Concepts: What Makes a Bird a Bird? 229 Intelligence? 244
Problem Solving: Applying Mental Strategies to Solving Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities 246
Problems 230 Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation and
Creativity: Not Just for the Few 234 Giftedness 247
Module 7.1 Review 236 Theories of Intelligence 248
Intelligence and the Nature-Nurture Question 251
MODULE 7.2 Language 237
Module 7.3 Review 254
Components of Language 237
Language Development 238 MODULE 7.4 Application: Becoming a Creative Problem
Culture and Language: Does the Language We Use Solver 255
Determine How We Think? 239 Adopt a Questioning Attitude 255
Is Language Unique to Humans? 240 Gather Information 255
Module 7.2 Review 241 Avoid Getting Stuck in Mental Sets 255
Generate Alternatives 256
MODULE 7.3 Intelligence 242 Sleep On It 257
What Is Intelligence? 242 Test It Out 257

Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion 261
MODULE 8.1 Motivation: The “Whys” of Behavior 262 Sexual Dysfunctions 280
Biological Sources of Motivation 262 Module 8.3 Review 282
Psychological Sources of Motivation 264
The Hierarchy of Needs: Ordering Needs from the MODULE 8.4 Emotions 283
Basement to the Attic of Human Experience 266 What Are Emotions? 283
Module 8.1 Review 268
Emotional Expression: Read Any Good Faces Lately? 284
Happiness: What Makes You Happy? 286
MODULE 8.2 Hunger and Eating 269 How Your Brain Does Emotions 288
What Makes Us Hungry? 269 Theories of Emotion: Which Comes First: Feelings or Bodily
Obesity: A National Epidemic 270 Responses? 289
Eating Disorders 272 Emotional Intelligence: How Well Do You Manage
Module 8.2 Review 275 Your Emotions? 293
The Polygraph: Does it Work? 293
MODULE 8.3 Sexual Motivation 276
Module 8.4 Review 294
The Sexual Response Cycle: How Your Body Gets
Turned On 277 MODULE 8.5 Application: Managing Anger 295
Sexual Orientation 277

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 C ON T E N T S | xiii

Chapter 9
Human Development 301
MODULE 9.1 Prenatal Development: A Case of Cognitive Development 328
Nature and Nurture 302 Psychosocial Development 332
Stages of Prenatal Development 303 Module 9.4 Review 335
Threats to Prenatal Development 304
Module 9.1 Review 306
MODULE 9.5 Early and Middle Adulthood 336
Physical and Cognitive Development 336
MODULE 9.2 Infant Development 306 Psychosocial Development 337
Reflexes 307 Module 9.5 Review 338
Sensory, Perceptual, and Learning Abilities in Infancy 307
Motor Development 308 MODULE 9.6 Late Adulthood 339
Module 9.2 Review 310
Physical and Cognitive Development 340
Psychosocial Development 341
MODULE 9.3 Years of Discovery: Emotional, Social, and The Last Chapter: On Death and Dying 343
Cognitive Development in Childhood 311 Module 9.6 Review 344
Temperament: The “How” of Behavior 311
MODULE 9.7 Application: Living Longer, Healthier
Attachment: Binding Ties 312
Child-Rearing Influences 314 Lives 345
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 317 Developing Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Habits 345
Cognitive Development 319 Staying Involved and Helping Others 346
Module 9.3 Review 324
Managing Stress 346
Exercising the Mind 346
MODULE 9.4 Adolescence 326 Do Healthy Habits Pay Off ? 346
Physical Development 326

Chapter 10
Psychology and Health 351
MODULE 10.1 Stress: What It Is and What It Does to the MODULE 10.3 Application: Taking the Distress
Body 352 Out of Stress 375
Sources of Stress 352 Maintain Stress at a Tolerable Level 376
The Body’s Response to Stress 359 Learn Relaxation Skills 376
Stress and the Immune System 363 Take Care of Your Body 376
Psychological Moderators of Stress 364 Gather Information 377
Module 10.1 Review 366 Expand Your Social Network 377
Take in a Comedy Tonight 377
MODULE 10.2 Psychological Factors in Physical Illness 367 Prevent Burnout 377
Coronary Heart Disease 368 Replace Stress-Inducing Thoughts with Stress-Busting
Cancer 369 Thoughts 377
Sexual Behavior and STDs: Are You Putting Yourself Don’t Keep Upsetting Feelings Bottled Up 378
at Risk? 371 Control Type A Behavior 378
Module 10.2 Review 375

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xiv | C ON T E N T S

Chapter 11
Personality 383
MODULE 11.1 The Psychodynamic Perspective 384 Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective 401
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory 384 Module 11.3 Review 402
Levels of Consciousness: The Conscious, the
Preconscious, and the Unconscious 384 MODULE 11.4 The Humanistic Perspective 403
Other Psychodynamic Approaches 388 Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self 403
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective 390 Abraham Maslow: Scaling the Heights of Self-
Module 11.1 Review 392
Actualization 404
Culture and Self-Identity 405
MODULE 11.2 The Trait Perspective 393 Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective 405
Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of Traits 393 Module 11.4 Review 407
Raymond Cattell: Mapping the Personality 394
Hans Eysenck: A Simpler Trait Model 394 MODULE 11.5 Personality Tests 408
The Five-Factor Model of Personality: The “Big Five” 395 Self-Report Personality Inventories 408
The Genetic Basis of Traits: Moving Beyond the Projective Tests 410
Module 11.5 Review 412
Nature-Nurture Debate 397
Evaluating the Trait Perspective 397 MODULE 11.6 Application: Building Self-Esteem 413
Module 11.2 Review 398 Acquire Competencies: Become Good at Something 413
MODULE 11.3 The Social-Cognitive Perspective 399
Set Realistic, Achievable Goals 413
Julian Rotter: The Locus of Control 399 Enhance Self-Efficacy Expectations 414
Albert Bandura: Reciprocal Determinism and the Role of Create a Sense of Meaningfulness in Your Life 414
Expectancies 400 Challenge Perfectionistic Expectations 414
Walter Mischel: Situation versus Person Variables 401 Challenge the Need for Constant Approval 414

Chapter 12
Psychological Disorders 419
MODULE 12.1 What Is Abnormal Behavior? 420 MODULE 12.4 Mood Disorders 435
Charting the Boundaries Between Normal and Types of Mood Disorders 436
Abnormal Behavior 420 Causes of Mood Disorders 437
Models of Abnormal Behavior 422 Suicide 440
What Are Psychological Disorders? 424 Module 12.4 Review 442
Module 12.1 Review 426
MODULE 12.5 Schizophrenia 443
MODULE 12.2 Anxiety Disorders 427 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 443
Types of Anxiety Disorders 427 Types of Schizophrenia 444
Causes of Anxiety Disorders 428 Causes of Schizophrenia 444
Module 12.2 Review 430 Module 12.5 Review 446

MODULE 12.3 Dissociative and Somatoform Disorders 431 MODULE 12.6 Personality Disorders 447
Dissociative Disorders 431 Antisocial Personality Disorder 447
Causes of Dissociative Disorders 432 Borderline Personality Disorder 448
Somatoform Disorders 433 Module 12.6 Review 449
Causes of Somatoform Disorders 434
Module 12.3 Review 435
MODULE 12.7 Application: Suicide Prevention 450
Facing the Threat 450

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 C ON T E N T S | xv

Chapter 13
Methods of Therapy 455
MODULE 13.1 Types of Psychotherapy 456 MODULE 13.2 Biomedical Therapies 474
Psychodynamic Therapy 456 Drug Therapy 474
Humanistic Therapy 459 Electroconvulsive Therapy 476
Behavior Therapy 461 Psychosurgery 477
Cognitive Therapy 463 The Movement Toward Community-Based Care 477
Eclectic Therapy 467 Module 13.2 Review 480
Group, Family, and Couple Therapy 467
Is Psychotherapy Effective? 468 MODULE 13.3 Application: Getting Help 481
Multicultural Issues in Treatment 470
Module 13.1 Review 472

Chapter 14
Social Psychology 487
MODULE 14.1 Perceiving Others 488 Human Aggression: Behavior That Harms 505
Impression Formation: Why First Impressions Module 14.2 Review 508
Count So Much 488
Attributions: Why the Pizza Guy Is Late 490 MODULE 14.3 Group Influences on Individual Behavior 509
Attitudes: How Do You Feel About . . . ? 491 Our Social Selves: “Who Are We?” 510
Persuasion: The Fine Art of Changing People’s Minds 493 Conformity: Bending the “I” to Fit the “We” 510
Module 14.1 Review 495
Obedience to Authority: When Does It Go Too Far? 512
Social Facilitation and Social Loafing: When Are You Most
MODULE 14.2 Relating to Others 496 Likely to Do Your Best? 514
Attraction: Getting to Like (or Love) You 496 Module 14.3 Review 516
Love: The Deepest Emotion 498
Helping Behavior: Lending a Hand to Others in Need 499 MODULE 14.4 Application: Compliance: Doing What Others
Prejudice: Attitudes That Harm 501 Want You to Do 517

APPENDIX A: Sample Answers to Thinking Critically About

Psychology Questions A-1
APPENDIX B: Answers to Recall It Questions A-4
APPENDIX C: Statistics in Psychology A-6

References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Glossary G-1

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 Preface

Welcome to the third edition of Essentials of Psychology: Concepts NEW! The IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
and Applications. I set out to accomplish three major purposes in Mapping Skills to Learning Goals
writing this text: In August 2006, the APA Council of Representatives approved
1. To make the study of psychology accessible and engaging to a set of guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major. The
the beginning student in psychology APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major com-
2. To provide students with a solid grounding in the knowledge prise 10 major goals and suggested learning outcomes organized
base in psychology within the major categories of knowledge, skills, and values con-
sistent with (1) the science and application of psychology and
3. To help students succeed in the course
(2) the liberal education context of a psychology major.
The IDEA Model™ of course assessment maps specific learn-
A Learning-Centric Approach ing goals to measurable skills students acquire in their first expo-
sure to psychology. Unique to this text, each chapter begins with
To accomplish these objectives, I adopted a learning-centric a listing of learning objectives expressed in the form of action
approach designed to help students encode and retain key con- verbs tied to measurable learning outcomes. The action verbs
cepts in psychology. The keystones of this approach include the parallel those used in applying the widely used Bloom taxonomy
following pedagogical tools: for learning objectives. For example, the action verbs “iden-
tify” and “define or describe” represent basic cognitive skills in
■ Concept Signaling Key concepts, not just key terms, are
Bloom’s taxonomy (knowledge and comprehension), whereas
identified and highlighted in the margins to help students
“apply” questions measure an intermediate level of skills devel-
encode and retain core concepts.
opment needed to apply knowledge to situations and examples,
■ Concept Charts These built-in study charts offer “see-at-a- and “explain or evaluate” learning objectives assess more com-
glance” capsulized summaries of key concepts to reinforce plex skills involved in analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
new knowledge. The action verbs are based on the simple acronym IDEA:
■ Concept Links This feature highlights connections between
key concepts across chapters. Concept Links are integrated Identify . . . key figures in the history of psychology, parts of
with the key concepts in the margins, so students can see how nervous system, and so on.
basic concepts are applied across different areas of psychology. D efine or Describe . . . key concepts and key features of
■ Concept Maps for Psychology This unique visual learning major psychological theories.
tool helps students visualize connections between key con-
cepts in the text. Concept maps are available on Psychology
E valuate or Explain . . . underlying processes and mecha-
nisms of behavior and mental processes.
CourseMate. These maps are schematic diagrams compris-
ing key concepts, represented in boxed shapes called nodes, A pply . . . psychological concepts to real-world examples.
that are connected by links, which generally take the form The IDEA Model™ is integrated with the test-item file
of verbs or conjunctions. Unlike other study charts, concept so instructors can select items measuring these particular
maps can be read either across or down the page to express outcomes—to Identify, Define or Describe, Evaluate or Explain,
a coherent thought structure. To encourage active learning, and Apply knowledge.
concept maps are presented in an incomplete (fill-in-the-
blanks) form to engage students in the process of completing UPDATED Research Throughout
these knowledge structures. The answers are also available Importantly, the text has been thoroughly updated from start to
on Psychology Coursemate. finish. The field of psychology stands still for no author! New
research developments are reported daily in our professional
journals and circulated widely in the popular media. As you
What’s New? thumb through the pages of this edition, you will find hundreds
The third edition of Essentials of Psychology features many new of new citations to research findings and theoretical develop-
features and updates, including the following: ments appearing in the scientific literature in just the past few
xvi

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE | xvii

years. Here is but a small sampling of new research included in ■ New research findings on acculturative stress (Chapter 10)
this new edition: ■ New research on effects of perceived discrimination on psy-
chological and physical health (Chapter 10)
■ Anatomy of a research study that showed how physical
warmth promotes interpersonal warmth (Chapter 1) ■ New research findings on outcomes associated with Big Five
personality factors (Chapter 11)
■ New research using a reinforcement technique to train fish to
■ New research findings on changes in personality through the
tap a particular target shape (Chapter 1)
lifespan (Chapter 11)
■ Gender difference in handedness (Chapter 2)
■ New research findings on role of amygdala in anxiety disor-
■ New research on functions of glial cells (Chapter 2)
ders (Chapter 12)
■ New research on role of oxytocin in maternal bonding to
■ New research on role of neurotransmitters in depression
infants and development of trust in other people (Chapter 2)
(Chapter 12)
■ New findings on percentages of men and women with color
■ New research on genetic underpinnings of mood disorders
blindness (Chapter 3)
and schizophrenia (Chapter 12)
■ New research on possible human pheromones (Chapter 3)
■ New research on psychotherapy effectiveness (Chapter 13)
■ New research on top-down and bottom-up types of
■ New research on relative effectiveness of antidepressants
processing for sounds (Chapter 3)
and placebos in cases of mild to moderate depression
■ New research on implicit use of geometry to catch a fly ball (Chapter 13)
(Chapter 4)
■ New research findings on stereotype threat with respect to
■ New findings on distracted driving (Chapter 4) “girls can’t do math” stereotype (Chapter 14)
■ New important findings on length of sleep in relation to risk ■ New biographical study of Milgram and findings from a par-
of catching a cold after exposure to a cold virus (Chapter 4) tial replication of Milgram’s experiment (Chapter 14)
■ New investigation of the identity of “Little Albert” (Chapter 5)
■ New discussion of insight learning, with famous quote from
Louis Pasteur (Chapter 5) NEW! The Brain Loves a Puzzle
■ New research on working memory (Chapter 6) Posing puzzles engages student interest and encourages criti-
■ New research on role of sleep in memory consolidation cal thinking. These questions challenge students to think more
(Chapter 6) deeply about information in the text needed to solve these puz-
■ New research on role of hippocampus in memory formation zles. Examples include the following:
(Chapter 6) ■ How could something so unpleasant as pain be a good thing?
■ Biographical data on Henry Goddard’s role as football coach (Chapter 3)
at USC (Chapter 7) ■ Recent evidence suggests that obesity may be catching. How
■ New research on genetic contributions to intelligence is that possible? (Chapter 8)
(Chapter 7) ■ How might your personality traits contribute to living a lon-
■ New research on gesturing as a form of human pre-speech ger and healthier life? (Chapter 11)
(Chapter 7)
■ New research on role of brain chemicals in regulating hunger
NEW! Visual Overviews
(Chapter 8)
■ New research on role of media exposure to muscular models These new chapter-ending features replace narrative sum-
on self-image of young boys (Chapter 8) maries with a visually appealing learning tool to help students
■ New research suggesting that facial expressions of emotion strengthen new learning by visualizing connections among key
are hardwired into the brain rather than learned as the result concepts in summary form.
of visual experience (Chapter 8)
■ New research on adjustment of children of lesbian and gay REVISED Organization
parents (Chapter 9) Previous users of the text will notice a change in the ordering of
■ New research on adjustment of later-maturing boys and girls chapters in this edition. I moved the chapter on Psychology and
(Chapter 9) Health to an earlier position in the lineup (Chapter 10), where it
■ New data on life expectancy and the aging of America now precedes chapters on personality, psychological disorders,
(Chapter 9) and treatment methods. Many instructors commented that they
■ New research findings on link between hostility and CHD prefer having students learn about the applications of psychology
(Chapter 10) to physical health before they touch upon abnormal behavior.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii | PREFACE

Targeting Effective Learning (EL): Engaging

The Four E’s of Effective Learning Interest

“Did You Know
That?" Chapter
Openers
The learning system adopted in this text is based on the Four E’s “Try This Out”
of Effective Learning: (1) engaging interest; (2) encoding impor- Personal Vignettes

tant information; (3) elaborating meaning; and (4) evaluat-

ing progress. This pedagogical framework is grounded in basic
research on learning and memory and supplemented by peda-
gogical research, including research I have conducted with my Evaluating Effective Encoding
students.1 The pedagogical framework was then tested in class- Progress Learning: Information
Module Reviews The Four Concept Signaling
rooms throughout the country. “Tying It Together” “E’s” Running Glossary

The four key elements of effective learning, the “Four E’s,”

are as follows:
■ Engaging Student Interest
Elaborating
■ Encoding Information Meaning
Concept Charts
■ Elaborating Meaning Concept Links
Application Modules
■ Evaluating Progress “Try This Out”
Thinking Critically
about Psychology

Engaging Student Interest

The Four E’s of Effective Learning (EL)
Learning begins with focused attention. A textbook can be
an effective learning tool only if it engages and retains student
interest. Without focused attention, information is not likely to historical features or bring recent research developments into
be encoded or retained. sharper focus. Accompanying page numbers are provided for
Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications is designed easy cross-referencing to the chapter sections in which the infor-
to generate interest as well as involve students directly in the mation is discussed. A small sample follows:
material they read. Personal vignettes are used to draw the
reader into the material and illustrate how concepts discussed Did You Know That…
in the chapter relate to their personal experiences. In addition,
■ A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from
“Did You Know That . . .” chapter-opening features are designed
a train? (Chapter 1)
to grab student attention and encourage further reading. These
■ Roy G. Biv is one of the most famous names learned by psy-
chapter-opening questions whet the student’s appetite for mate-
rial presented in the chapter. Some questions debunk common chology students, but he is not a real person? (Chapter 3)
■ Albert Einstein used mental imagery in developing his the-
myths and misconceptions, whereas others highlight interesting
ory of relativity? (Chapter 7)
1
Nevid, J. S., & Carmony, T. M. (2002). Traditional versus modular format “Try This Out” Hands-On Exercises These active learning
in presenting textual material in introductory psychology. Teaching of exercises encourage students to apply psychological concepts
Psychology, 29, 237–238.
to their own experiences. Whether the topic involves trying to
Nevid, J. S., & Lampmann, J. L. (2003). Effects on content acquisition of signal-
ing key concepts in text material. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 227–229. read a magazine sideways, breaking through the “Magic 7” bar-
Nevid, J. S. (2004, January). Graphing psychology: The effective use of graphs rier, reading emotions in facial expressions, or putting multitask-
and figures in teaching introductory psychology. Invited address presented ing to the test, students can work through problems, generate
at the 26th Annual National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. solutions, and test out beliefs. Some Try This Out activities offer
Petersburg, FL. suggestions for service learning through participation in research
Nevid, J. S., & Forlenza, N. (2005). Graphing psychology: An analysis of
the most commonly used graphs in introductory psychology textbooks.
and volunteer experiences, whereas others involve self-scoring
Teaching of Psychology, 32, 253–256. questionnaires that allow students to evaluate their own behav-
Nevid, J. S. (2006, February). In pursuit of the “perfect lecture.” American ior and attitudes about specific issues (e.g., Are You an Optimist
Psychological Society Observer, 19(2), 35–36, 42. or a Pessimist?).
Nevid, J. S. (2009, March). Using signaling techniques to help students encode key
concepts. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Encoding Information
Association, Pittsburgh, PA.
Nevid, J. S., & Mahon, K. (2009). Mastery quizzing as a signaling device to cue Learning and retaining key concepts in text material requires
attention to lecture material. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 1–4. that information is first encoded in memory. The pedagogical

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE | xix

technique of signaling or cuing can help people encode impor- to build more enduring memories generally requires elabora-
tant information. Textbook authors have long used certain forms tive rehearsal in which the person reflects on the meaning of the
of signaling, such as headings and highlighted key terms. This material and relates it to life experiences. This text provides
text also includes two other types of signaling, the running glos- several pedagogical features designed to facilitate elaborative
sary and concept signaling. rehearsal:
Running Glossary Key terms are highlighted in the text and Concept Charts These study charts summarize key concepts in
defined in the margins. Students do not need to interrupt their tabular form. Concept charts reinforce knowledge of major con-
reading to thumb through a glossary at the end of the text when- cepts and help students make relational connections between
ever they encounter an unfamiliar term. (A full glossary is pre- concepts.
sented at the end of the text as well.)
Application Modules The final module in each chapter is an
Concept Signaling Concept signaling is a unique pedagogical application module. These modules illustrate how psychologists
feature designed to help students encode and retain key concepts apply the knowledge they have gained from their research stud-
by extracting and highlighting them in the margins of the text. ies to real-life problems. Students also see how they can apply
Cued concepts are signposts to help students gauge that they are the concepts in the chapter to their own lives. Examples of these
getting the key points as they make their way through the chap- application modules include Psychology and Pain Management
ter. Although some students can easily extract key concepts from (Chapter 3), Putting Reinforcement into Practice (Chapter 5),
text material, others struggle with the process of encoding key Becoming a Creative Problem Solver (Chapter 7), and Taking the
points. They may come away knowing a few isolated facts, but Distress Out of Stress (Chapter 10).
miss many of the major concepts that form the basic building
“Try This Out” These exercises not only engage student inter-
blocks of knowledge in the field. Or they may feel “lost” in the
est, but also encourage students to apply concepts they learn in
middle of a chapter and become frustrated.
the text to their own experiences.
To evaluate the learning benefits of concept signaling, we
conducted a controlled study in which students read two dif- Strengthening Learning through Repeated Rehearsal
ferent text passages—one with key concepts highlighted in the Concepts are repeated in several forms to reinforce new
margins and one without cued concepts. Our results showed that learning—in the narrative itself, in Concept Charts, in marginal
signaling key concepts by extracting them and highlighting them inserts of cued concepts, and in schematic diagrams. The use of
in the margins significantly improved quiz performance overall different contexts for presenting information strengthens new
as well as on a subset of items that directly measured knowledge learning.
of key concepts (Nevid & Lampmann, 2003).
Not surprisingly, we found that signaling key concepts had Evaluating Progress
no effects on learning surrounding material that was not signaled. The text contains a number of study aids to help students evalu-
This finding only reinforces what instructors have known for ate their progress:
years—that students should not use pedagogical aids (whether
they be summaries, interim quizzes, or cued concepts) as sub- Module Review Sections At the end of each module is a
stitutes for reading the text in its entirety. Importantly, though, Module Review consisting of three sections, a “Review It” sec-
our results suggest that students may be better able to learn key tion, a “Recall It” section, and a “Think About It” section.
concepts when they are signaled or highlighted in the text. The “Review It” section is structured in a question-and-answer
We also polled students in our study on which format they (Q & A) format to encourage active learning. The questions cor-
preferred—the one with signaled concepts or the one without. respond to the survey questions that introduce each module. This
More than three-fourths preferred concept signaling and found type of summary fits the SQ3R model of encouraging recitation
that it was easier to understand and more clearly presented than of answers to survey questions better than a traditional narrative
the standard (nonsignaled) format. (This was interesting in light summary. Students can recite their answers to the questions and
of the fact that the content in the text passages was exactly the compare them to sample answers presented in the text.
same in both formats.) The “Recall It” section allows students to test their knowl-
edge by taking a short quiz on several key concepts. The answers
are given in Appendix B at the end of the text.
Elaborating Meaning
The “Think About It” section encourages critical thinking by
Though information must first be encoded to be learned, new posing thought-provoking questions to stimulate students to
learning needs to be strengthened to ensure long-term retention. think further about the concepts presented in the text.
Retention of newly acquired information can be strengthened
through rote memorization, such as by rehearsal of particular Visual Overviews In addition, the new Visual Overviews provide
words or phrases. But the types of deeper processing needed a visual learning tool to help students review and strengthen their

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx | PREFACE

knowledge of new concepts and see the relationships among learning objectives and to encourage students to use ques-
them in summary form. tions as advance organizers for studying.
■ Read The writing style has been carefully developed for read-
Modular Approach ing level, content, and style. Students are often addressed
directly to engage them in the material and encourage them to
The text is organized in a modular format that breaks down each examine how the information relates to their life experiences.
chapter into smaller instructional units called modules. Each ■ Recite and Review Each module ends with a Module Review
module is a cohesive study unit organized around a set of key section that helps students review their knowledge of key
concepts in a particular area of study. The modular approach concepts. Students can recite their answers to the survey
helps busy students better organize their study efforts by allow- questions and compare their answers to sample answers
ing them to focus on one module at a time rather than trying to given in the “Recite It” section of the Module Review. Students
tackle a whole chapter at once. can then test their knowledge by completing a short quiz pre-
In our research, we found the majority of students preferred sented in the “Recall It” section. These quizzes consist of fill-
the modular format over the traditional format (57.3 percent ins, multiple choice, matching, and short answers. Concept
vs. 38.5 percent, with 4.2 percent expressing no preference) Charts provide further opportunities for students to review
(Nevid & Carmony, 2002). In addition, students who preferred the knowledge they have acquired.
the modular format performed significantly better when mate- ■ Think About It The text goes beyond review and recitation
rial was presented in this format than in the traditional format. by posing thought-provoking questions in the Module Review
It stands to reason that when students prefer a particular format, that encourage reflection, critical thought, and self-explora-
they will become more engaged in reading texts based on that tion. These questions foster critical thinking (e.g., “Do you
format—an outcome that may translate into improved perfor- believe that conventional intelligence tests are culturally
mance in classroom situations. biased? Why or why not?”) and encourage students to reflect
on how the text material relates to their personal experiences
Targeting Critical Thinking Skills (e.g., “Are you a self-actualizer? Upon what evidence do you
base your judgment? What steps could you take to become a
The text encourages students to challenge their preconceived self-actualizer?”).
assumptions about human behavior and to think critically about
information they hear or read about in the media in the light of Integrating Diversity
scientific evidence. The Thinking Critically About Psychology sec-
tions at the end of each chapter provide students with oppor- One primary objective of this text is to raise students’ awareness
tunities to sharpen their critical thinking skills. Students can of the importance of issues relating to diversity. Discussion of
practice these skills by answering questions that require them cultural and gender issues is therefore integrated within the main
to analyze problems and evaluate claims in relation to informa- body of the text rather than relegated to boxed features. A prolif-
tion presented in the chapter. Students may then compare their eration of boxes tends to break the flow of the text and to intro-
answers to sample responses presented in the Appendix of the duce unnecessary clutter that many students find distracting; it
text. The Think About It section in each Module Review further might even inadvertently convey the impression that material
reinforces critical thinking skills. relating to diversity is less important than other material because
it is boxed off. For a reference guide to the integrated coverage of
gender and sociocultural issues in the text, see the complete list-
Built-In Study Method: SQ3R+ ings available in the Instructor’s Manual to accompany Essentials
The Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review (SQ3R) study method of Psychology: Concepts and Applications.
is a widely used technique for enhancing learning and encour-
aging students to adopt a more active role in the learning pro- Ancillaries
cess. The SQ3R method is directly built into the text. The text
not only incorporates the traditional elements of SQ3R but adds Even the most comprehensive text is incomplete without ancil-
another element, the Think About It feature, to foster critical laries. The ones accompanying Essentials of Psychology: Concepts
thinking skills. and Applications help make it a complete teaching package.

■ Survey and Question Students can survey each chapter by Teacher Ancillaries
reviewing the numbered listing of modules at the start of the Instructor’s Resource Manual The Instructor’s Resource
chapter and by reading the introductory section in which Manual (IRM) contains a variety of resources to aid instructors
material to be covered in the chapter is described. In addition, in preparing and presenting text material in a manner that meets
survey questions begin each module to highlight important their personal preferences and course needs. The IRM begins

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE | xxi

with a comprehensive preface, which covers preparation, pitfalls, Thanks to their efforts, the field of psychology has had an enor-
planning, execution, resources, and best practices for both new mous impact in broadening our understanding of ourselves and
and seasoned instructors. Each chapter provides a preview and enhancing the quality of our lives. On a more personal level, I
a goals and activity planner to help organize classes. In addition, owe a debt of gratitude to the many colleagues and publishing
each chapter of the IRM contains a detailed outline, lecture sug- professionals who helped shape this manuscript into its present
gestions, topics for discussion, classroom and individual activi- form. Let me begin by thanking the professional colleagues who
ties with handouts, and writing assignment ideas. reviewed the manuscript and helped me refine it through several
stages of development:
Test Bank The test bank contains 2,400 items specifically
developed for Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Fred Nesbit, Sauk Valley Community College
Multiple-choice questions as well as essay questions with answers Anne Duran, California State University, Bakersfield
are written at both the chapter and the module level to provide
Fred Leavitt, California State University, Eastbay
flexibility to the instructor. These questions are labeled by type
(factual, conceptual, applied), learning objective, module refer- Chitra Rangathan, Framingham State College
ence number, and page reference for easier use in creating exams. Robert Stennett, Gainesville State College
John Lovell, California State University, Eastbay
PowerLecture with JoinIn and ExamView This one-stop lec-
ture and class preparation tool contains ready-to-use Microsoft® Shane Gomes, California State University, Los Angeles
PowerPoint® slides, and allows you to assemble, edit, publish, Chrisanne Christensen, Southern Arkansas University
and present custom lectures for your course. PowerLecture
Second, I would like to thank the countless instructors and stu-
lets you bring together text-specific lecture outlines along with
dents who participated in our extensive market research con-
videos or your own materials—culminating in a powerful, per-
ducted in the early stages of the text’s development—including
sonalized, media-enhanced presentation. The CD-ROM also
the instructors and students at Valencia Community College and
includes JoinIn®, an interactive tool that lets you pose book-spe-
the University of Central Florida, who provided us with great
cific questions and display students’ answers seamlessly within
insight into their introductory psychology courses; the instruc-
the PowerPoint slides of your own lecture, in conjunction with
tors who participated in the teleconference sessions and raised
the “clicker” hardware of your choice, as well as the ExamView®
many important issues that impacted the day-to-day challenges
assessment and tutorial system, which guides you step by step
of this course; and the 700-plus respondents who participated
through the process of creating tests.
in our national survey on introductory psychology and this text.
CourseMate Psychology CourseMate includes an integrated The overwhelming response we received from these profession-
eBook, interactive teaching and learning tools including quizzes, als proved to be a rich resource throughout the development of
flashcards, videos, and more, and Engagement Tracker, a first- the text.
of-its-kind tool that monitors student engagement in the course. This is the first edition of the text that was developed at
CengageNOW CengageNOW is an online teaching and learn- its new publishing home, Cengage Learning. The people at
ing resource that gives you more control in less time and delivers Cengage are consummate publishing professionals and I am very
better outcomes—NOW. It includes a Cengage Learning eBook thankful for the supportive way in which they have welcomed
and access to InfoTrac and the Psychology Resource Center. me and worked so closely with me to update and strengthen the
text to make it an ever more effective learning platform designed
Student Ancillaries to engage students in the study of psychology and help them
Study Guide The study guide focuses on providing students with succeed in the course. In particular I would like to thank my
resources aimed at improving study skills and comprehension of new editor, Timothy Matray, for his guidance and support; my
the text material. For each chapter, this guide provides a one-page developmental editor, Tangelique Williams, for her many (too
detailed outline, a list of objectives, chapter overview, key terms many to count) helpful comments and suggestions throughout
and concepts, and self-testing exercises and activities that highlight the text; and my marketing manager Elisabeth Rhoden for her
key concepts from the main text. In addition, students are provided strong commitment to the text and her many creative ideas to
an integrated set of media resources to further improve and expand bring the message of the book to instructors and students.
their understanding of the main concepts of the course. Jeff Nevid
New York, New York
Acknowledgments [email protected]
First, I am indebted to the thousands of psychologists and other
scientists whose work has informed the writing of this text.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
The IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment: Mapping Skills Acquired to Learning Goals

GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

1.1 Characterize the nature of psychology as a Module 1.1 Define psychology.

discipline. Explain why psychology is a science.

1.2 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding 1.2.a

representing appropriate breadth and depth in i. Learning and Cognition
selected content areas of psychology, including Module 5.1 Define learning in psychological terms.
the following: Define classical conditioning and explain how conditioned responses are acquired.
(a) theory and research representing general Identify the key figure in the development of the principles of classical conditioning and
domains: describe this person’s contributions.
(i) learning and cognition Explain how conditioned responses can be strengthened.
(ii) individual differences, psychometrics, Apply a cognitive perspective to classical conditioning.
personality, and social processes, including Apply principles of classical conditioning to real-life examples.
those related to sociocultural and international
dimensions Module 5.2 Identify the major figures in the development of operant conditioning and describe their
(iii) biological bases of behavior and mental contributions.
processes Explain the differences between the types of reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement
(iv) developmental processes and between reinforcement and punishment.
Explain differences between escape learning and avoidance learning.
Apply principles of operant conditioning to real-life examples.

Module 5.3 Define cognitive learning.

Describe several forms of cognitive learning.
Apply principles of cognitive learning to real-life examples.
Apply principles of reinforcement to daily life.

Module 6.1 Describe the basic processes and stages of memory.

Describe the different types of long-term memory.
Explain the roles of the semantic network model and levels-of-processing theory in memory.
Explain the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.
Apply constructionist theory to explain memory distortions.
Evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
Explain why the concept of recovered memory is controversial.

Module 6.2 Describe the major theories and factors in forgetting.

Identify different methods of measuring memory.
Describe the features of two major types of amnesia.

Module 7.1 Define thinking.

Describe the roles of mental imagery, concept formation, problem solving, and creativity in
thinking.
Explain the difference between logical and natural concepts.
Describe mental strategies we can use to solve problems more effectively.
Describe mental roadblocks that impede problem solving and decision making.
Describe the basic processes of creative thought and the difference between divergent and
convergent thinking.

Module 7.2 Identify the basic components of language and the milestones in language development.
Explain the factors involved in language development.
Evaluate whether language is unique to humans.
Evaluate the linguistic relativity hypothesis in light of evidence.

Module 7.3 Define intelligence.

Identify different tests of intelligence and evaluate the characteristics of a good test of
intelligence.
Describe the characteristics of the two extremes of intelligence.
Describe the major theories of intelligence.
Evaluate the roles of heredity and environment in intelligence.
Apply skills of problem solving to become a creative problem solver.
Continued on following page

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology, continued

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

ii. Individual differences

and social processes:
Module 11.1 Define the concept of personality.
Identify and describe the three levels of consciousness and three mental structures or
entities in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
Identify the stages of psychosexual development in Freud’s theory and describe the features
of each stage.
Describe the personality theories of Jung, Adler, and Horney.

Module 11.2 Describe the trait theories of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and the Big Five model.
Evaluate the genetic basis of personality traits.

Module 11.3 Describe the social-cognitive theories of Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel.

Module 11.4 Describe the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Explain the roles of collectivism and individualism in self-identity.

Module 11.5 Identify different types of personality tests and describe their features.
Evaluate self-report (MMPI) and projective personality tests (Rorschach, TAT).

Module 14.1 Identify the major influences on first impressions and explain why first impressions often
become lasting impressions.
Identify two major types of causal attributions and explain how causal attributions are
affected by cognitive biases.
Define cognitive dissonance and explain how it can be reduced.
Describe the components and sources of attitudes.
Evaluate pathways and factors involved in persuasion.

Module 14.2 Identify and describe factors that influence attraction.

Describe the components of love within the triangular model of love.
Apply factors linked to helping behavior to the case of Kitty Genovese.
Explain how prejudice develops and how it can be reduced.
Identify and describe factors that contribute to human aggression.

Module 14.3 Explain differences between social identity and personal identity.
Describe the classic Asch study and identify factors that influence conformity.
Evaluate the findings and significance of Milgram’s experiments.
Define social facilitation and social loafing and explain how they affect performance.
Define groupthink and explain how it can lead to wrong decisions.
Apply your knowledge of compliance to ways of resisting persuasive sales techniques.
iii. Biological bases of
behavior and mental
processes:
Module 2.1 Identify the parts of the neuron and explain how neurons communicate with each other.
Identify key neurotransmitters and describe their functions.
Explain how an action potential is generated.
Explain the difference between agonists and antagonists.

Module 2.2 Describe how the nervous system is organized.

Describe the functions of the central nervous system and the divisions of the peripheral
nervous system.

Module 2.3 Describe how the brain is organized and the roles that particular brain structures play in
behavior.

Module 2.4 Describe how scientists study the workings of the brain.

Module 2.5 Explain how the two halves of the brain differ in their functions.

Module 2.6 Describe how the endocrine system is organized and the roles that hormones play in
behavior.

Module 2.7 Describe how psychologists study the roles of genes and environment in behavior.
Evaluate how genetics influence personality and behavior.
Continued on following page

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology, continued

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

Module 2.8 Apply knowledge of biofeedback techniques to how they are used in practice.

Module 6.3 Identify the key brain structures involved in memory and explain the roles of neuronal
networks and long-term potentiation.
Describe the genetic bases of memory.
iv. Developmental
processes:
Module 9.1 Identify and describe the stages of prenatal development.
Identify the major threats to prenatal development.

Module 9.2 Identify reflexes present at birth.

Describe how the infant’s motor skills change through the first year of life.
Describe the infant’s sensory, perceptual, and learning abilities.

Module 9.3 Identify and describe the major types of temperament and attachment styles.
Identify and describe the major styles of parenting and outcomes associated with these
types.
Apply Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development to the challenges we face through the
lifespan.
Describe the characteristics of each stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and
evaluate his legacy.
Describe Vygotsky’s psychosocial theory of cognitive development.

Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning.

Modules 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7 Describe changes that occur in physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development from
adolescence through late adulthood.
Explain the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
Apply research findings to living longer and healthier lives.

(b) history of psychology 1.2b History of

psychology:
Module 1.1 Identify early schools of psychology and the important contributors to these schools.
Describe the major concepts associated with each school.
(c) relevant levels of analysis 1.2c Relevant levels Cellular: See Module 2.1 above.
of analysis: cellular, Individual: See Modules 11.1 to 11.5 above.
individual, group/ Group/Systems: See Module 14.3 above.
systems, society/ Society/Culture: See Modules 11.4, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3 above.
culture
(d) overarching themes, persistent questions, or 1.2d Overarching themes: Describe how psychologists study the roles of genes and environment in behavior.
enduring conflicts in psychology The interaction of Evaluate how genetics influence personality and behavior.
heredity and environment:
Module 2.7

Free will versus Describe the social-cognitive theories of Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel.
determinism: Describe the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Modules 11.3, 11.4

Interaction of mind and Define stress in psychological terms.

body: Describe the effects of stress on the body.
Modules 10.1, 10.2 Identify and describe the major sources of stress.
Identify and describe different types of psychological conflicts.
Identify the stages of the general adaptation syndrome and describe the changes that occur
in the body during each stage.
Identify and describe psychological factors that buffer the effects of stress.
Identify psychological factors linked to coronary heart disease.
Evaluate the relationship between emotions and the heart.
Identify psychological factors linked to cancer.
Identify different types of sexually transmitted diseases and describe their means of
transmission, symptoms, and treatments.
Apply knowledge of the transmission of sexually transmitted disease to steps we can take to
protect ourselves from these diseases.
Apply stress management techniques to daily life.
Continued on following page

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology, continued

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

(e) relevant ethical issues 1.2e Relevant ethical

issues:

Module 1.3 Describe the ethical standards that govern research in psychology.

Module 14.3 Evaluate the findings and significance of Milgram’s experiments.

1.3 Use the concepts, language, and major theories Early schools of See Module 1.1 above.
of the discipline to account for psychological psychology and
phenomena. contemporary
perspectives

Theories of sleep, Describe the functions of sleep.

dreaming, and hypnosis: Describe the major theories of dreaming.
Modules 4.2, 4.3 Describe the major theories of hypnosis.

Learning theories See Modules 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 above.

Theories of intelligence: Describe the major theories of intelligence.

Module 7.3

Theories of motivation: Describe biological and psychological sources of motivation.

Module 8.1 Identify the levels of needs in Maslow’s need hierarchy.

Theories of emotion: Describe the major theories of emotions.

Module 8.4

Theories of cognitive Apply Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development to the challenges we face through the
and psychosocial lifespan.
development: Describe the characteristics of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and evaluate his
Modules 9.3, 9.4 legacy.
Describe Vygotsky’s psychosocial theory of cognitive development.
Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning.

Theories of personality See Modules 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4 above.

1.4 Explain major perspectives of psychology (e.g., Early schools of Module 1.1
behavioral, biological, cognitive, evolutionary, psychology and
humanistic, psychodynamic, and sociocultural). contemporary
perspectives in
psychology

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 2 Research Methods in Psychology

Understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

2.1 Describe the basic characteristics of the science of psychology. Modules 1.1, 1.3
Module 1.3: The Scientific Method
2.2 Explain different research methods used by psychologists.
Module 1.3, Research Methods
Module 1.3, Anatomy of a Research Study
Module 5.1: Classic Study in Psychology (Little Albert)
Module 5.3: Classic Study in Psychology (Bandura’s Bobo doll study)
Module 6.1: Classic Study in Psychology (Loftus’s study on the misinformation effect)
Module 14.3: Classic Study in Psychology (Asch’s study on obedience to authority)
Module 14.3: Classic Study in Psychology (Milgram’s study on obedience to authority)
2.3 Evaluate the appropriateness of conclusions derived from psychological research. Module 1.3: Anatomy of a Research Study
Statistics Appendix
2.4 Design and conduct basic studies to address psychological questions using Module 1.3
appropriate research methods.
2.5 Follow the APA Ethics Code in the treatment of human and nonhuman Module 1.3
participants in the design, data collection, interpretation, and reporting of
psychological research.
2.6 Generalize research conclusions appropriately based on the parameters of Module 1.3
particular research methods.

GOAL 3 Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology

Respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

3.1 Use critical thinking effectively. Module 1.4: Exposes students to the features of critical thinking to help them develop critical
thinking skills to evaluate claims made by others and online information
“Thinking Critically about Psychology” sections challenge students to apply critical
thinking skills to evaluate claims
“Think About It” features in each Module Review encourage critical thinking about issues
raised in the text
Interactive Concept Maps (online supplement) engage students in an active learning exercise
in which they complete concept maps showing relational connections between key concepts
3.2 Engage in creative thinking. “The Brain Loves a Puzzle” features throughout the text (one per chapter) encourage
students to use critical thinking skills to extract information from the chapter to solve puzzles
Module 7.1 discusses processes involved in creative thinking
Interactive Concept Maps (see above)

3.3 Use reasoning to recognize, develop, defend, and criticize arguments and other Module 1.4 (see above)
persuasive appeals. “Thinking Critically about Psychology” (see above)

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 4 Application of Psychology

Understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

4.1 Describe major applied areas (e.g., clinical, counseling, Module 1.2
industrial/organizational, school, etc.) and emerging applied areas
(e.g., health, forensics, media, military, etc.) of psychology.

4.2 Identify appropriate applications of psychology in solving problems, including Module 2.8
the following: Module 3.6
a. The pursuit and effect of healthy lifestyles Module 4.5
b. Origin and treatment of abnormal behavior Module 7.3
c. Psychological tests and measurements Module 9.7
d. Psychology-based interventions in clinical, counseling, educational, Module 10.3
industrial/organizational, community, and other settings and their empirical Modules 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7
evaluation Module 13.1, 13.3
e. The resolution of interpersonal and intercultural conflicts Module 14.3
4.3 Articulate how psychological principles can be used to explain social issues Module 14.3
and inform public policy.

4.4 Apply psychological concepts, theories, and research findings as these relate to Application Modules
everyday life. Module 1.4: Becoming a Critical Thinker
Module 2.8: Biofeedback Training: Learning by Listening to the Body
Module 3.6: Psychology and Pain Management
Module 4.5: Getting Your Zs
Module 5.4: Putting Reinforcement into Practice
Module 6.4: Powering Up Your Memory
Module 7.4: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
Module 8.5: Managing Anger
Module 9.7: Living Longer, Healthier Lives
Module 10.3: Taking the Distress Out of Stress
Module 11.6: Building Self-Esteem
Module 12.7: Suicide Prevention
Module 13.3: Getting Help
Module 14.4: Compliance: Doing What Others Want You to Do

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 5 Values in Psychology

Value empirical evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a science.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

5.1 Recognize the necessity of ethical behavior in all aspects of the Module 1.3
science and practice of psychology.

5.2 Demonstrate reasonable skepticism and intellectual curiosity by Module 1.4: Becoming a Critical Thinker
asking questions about causes of behavior. “Thinking Critically About Psychology” feature in each chapter
“Think About It” feature in each Module Review

5.3 Seek and evaluate scientific evidence for psychological claims. Evidence-based evaluation of psychological claims integrated throughout text
Module 1.3: Anatomy of a Research Study
Module 1.4: Becoming a Critical Thinker
“Thinking Critically About Psychology” feature in each chapter
“Think About It” feature in each Module Review
5.4 Tolerate ambiguity and realize that psychological explanations are Modules 4.2, 4.4, 6.1, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 (e.g., functions of sleep
often complex and tentative. and dreaming, nature of intelligence, causes of substance use and abuse,
repressed memories, causes of psychological disorders)

5.5 Recognize and respect human diversity. Integrated throughout text

5.6 Assess and justify their engagement with respect to civic, social,
and global responsibilities.
5.7 Understand the limitations of their psychological knowledge “Thinking Critically About Psychology” feature in each chapter
and skills. “Think About It” feature in each Module Review

GOAL 6 Information and Technological Literacy

Demonstrate information competence and the ability to use computers and other technology for many purposes.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

6.1 Demonstrate information competence. Module 1.3: Introduction to parts of a scientific study in formal research papers (Anatomy of
a Research Study)
Module 1.4: Thinking Critically about Online Information (sourcing appropriate material)
Study Guide (supplement)

6.2 Use appropriate software to produce understandable reports of the Module 1.3: Citing References (Introduction to APA reference style)
psychological literature, methods, and statistical and qualitative analyses in APA or Statistics Appendix
other appropriate style, including graphic representations of data.

6.3 Use information and technology ethically and responsibly. Module 1.4: Thinking Critically about Online Information

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 7 Communication Skills

Communicate effectively in a variety of formats.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

7.1 Demonstrate effective writing skills in various formats (e.g., essays, Module 1.3: Introduction to parts of a research study
correspondence, technical papers, note taking) and for various purposes Study Skills (Preface)
(e.g., informing, defending, explaining, persuading, arguing, teaching).

7.2 Demonstrate effective oral communication skills in various formats (e.g., Instructor’s manual: Suggestions for group discussion
group discussion, debate, lecture) and for various purposes (e.g., informing,
defending, explaining, persuading, arguing, teaching).

7.3 Exhibit quantitative literacy. Statistics Appendix

Graphs used to illustrate research findings throughout

7.4 Demonstrate effective interpersonal communication skills (e.g., attending to Module 8.4: Cultural differences and gender differences in emotional expression
nonverbal behaviors, adapting communication to diverse ethnic and cultural Module 8.4: Reading emotions in facial expressions
partners). Module 14.1: Cultural differences in self-disclosure
Module 14.1: Stereotyping in interpreting nonverbal behavior

GOAL 8 Sociocultural and International Awareness

Recognize, understand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

8.1 Interact effectively and sensitively with people of diverse abilities, backgrounds, Module 2.5: Learning through volunteering
and cultural perspectives. Module 8.3: Cultural differences in emotional expression
Module 14.1: Cultural differences in impression formation

8.2 Examine the sociocultural and international contexts that influence individual Modules 11.4, 14.1: Collectivistic versus individualistic cultures
differences. Module 10.1: Acculturative stress faced by immigrant groups
Module 13.1: Multicultural factors in psychotherapy
Module 14.2: Sociocultural factors in aggression
Module 14.3: Social identity
Module 14.3: Sociocultural factors in conformity

8.3 Explain how individual differences influence beliefs, values, and interactions Module 11.4: Culture and self-identity
with others and vice versa. Module 14.1: Cultural differences in self-serving bias
Modules 14.1, 14.2: Effects of stereotyping
Module 14.2: Individual differences in prejudice

8.4 Understand how privilege, power, and oppression may affect prejudice, Module 14.2: Racism, prejudice, and discrimination
discrimination, and inequity. Module 11.4: Classic study by the Clarks on self-esteem of African American children
Module 14.2: Effects of stereotyping on stereotyped groups

8.5 Recognize prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors that might exist in Module 14.2: Roots of prejudice and discrimination
themselves and in others. Module 14.2: Methods of reducing prejudice
Module 14.2: Examining prejudice

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GOAL 9 Personal Development

Develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

9.1 Reflect on their experiences and find meaning in them. Module 4.1: Savoring Your Food
Module 8.4: Tracking Your Emotions
Module 8.1: Are You a Sensation Seeker?
Module 10.1: Are You Type A?
Module 10.1: Are You an Optimist or a Pessimist?
Module 10.1: How Stressful is Your Life?
Module 11.2: Sizing Up Your Personality
Module 12.4: Self-Screening for Depression
Module 11.5: What Should I Become?
Module 14.2: Examining Prejudice
9.2 Apply psychological principles to promote personal development. Module 5.4: Putting Reinforcement into Practice
Module 6.4: Powering Up Your Memory
Module 7.4: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
Module 11.6: Building Self-Esteem
Module 13.1: Replacing Distorted Thoughts with Rational Alternatives
Module 14.4: Resisting Persuasive Sales Pitches
9.3 Enact self-management strategies that maximize healthy outcomes. Module 3.6: Psychology and Pain Management
Module 4.5: Getting Your Z’s
Module 8.5: Managing Anger
Module 9.7: Living Longer, Healthier Lives
Module 10.2: Suggestions for Quitting Smoking
Module 10.2: Preventing STDs
Module 10.3: Taking the Distress out of Stress
Module 12.7: Suicide Prevention
Module 13.3: Getting Help

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 10 Career Planning and Development

Pursue realistic ideas about how to implement their psychological knowledge, skills, and values in occupational pursuits in a variety of settings that meet personal goals
and societal needs.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

10.1 Apply knowledge of psychology (e.g., decision strategies, life span processes, Module 1.2: Subfields in Psychology
psychological assessment, types of psychological careers) when formulating Module 2.5: Learning Through Volunteering
career choices. Module 7.4: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
Module 8.1: Achievement motivation versus avoidance motivation
Module 8.4: Emotional intelligence
Module 9.4: Erickson’s concept of identity crisis

10.2 Identify the types of academic experience and performance in psychology and Module 1.2: Subfields in Psychology
the liberal arts that will facilitate entry into the workforce, postbaccalaureate Study Tips for Getting the Most from This Course
education, or both. (and your other courses) (Preface)

10.3 Describe preferred career paths based on accurate self-assessment of abilities, Module 8.1: Are You a Sensation Seeker? (self-assessment exercise)
achievement, motivation, and work habits. “Thinking Critically About Psychology,” Chapter 9: Applying Erikson’s concept of
ego identity status to occupational decision making (self-assessment exercise)
Module 10.1: Are You Type A? (self-assessment exercise)
Module 11.2: Sizing Up Your Personality
Module 11.5: What Should I Become?

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 A Message to Students

Study Tips for Getting the Most by linking them to real-life examples and using them to solve
problems. Your teachers and parents may have encouraged you
from this Course (and your other to demonstrate your understanding of new vocabulary words
courses) by using them in a sentence. When you learned formulas and
other math skills in class, your teachers may have asked you to
I often hear students say that they spend many hours reading their demonstrate this knowledge by using it to solve math problems
textbooks and attending classes, but their grades don’t reflect in your textbooks or workbooks. Apply this principle to learn-
the work that they do. I agree. Success is not a function of the ing psychology. For every concept you read about in this text or
time you put into your courses, but how well you use that time. learn in class, connect it to a real-life example or life experience.
Developing more effective study skills can help you become a Your textbook authors and instructors provide many examples
more effective learner and get the most from this course as well of concepts they use, but you can take this a step further by
as your other courses. Let’s begin by discussing four key steps connecting these concepts to your own life experiences.
toward becoming an effective learner, which I call the Four E’s:
(1) engaging interest; (2) encoding information; (3) elaborat- 4. Evaluating Progress Keep track of your progress in the
ing meaning; and (4) evaluating progress. course. Most texts, including this one, have quizzes you can
use to test yourself on the material you have just read. This
The Four E’s of Effective Learning text also offers online quizzes. Taking quizzes helps you gauge
how you are doing and which areas you need to review fur-
1. Engaging Interest Paying close attention is the first step ther to improve your performance. Other built-in study tools
toward becoming an effective learner. The brain does not pas- that help you evaluate your progress include review sections
sively soak up information like a sponge. When your attention and summaries. In this text, you’ll find a Module Review sec-
is divided, it is difficult to process new information at a level tion at the end of each module that provides sample answers
needed to understand the complex material required in college- to the set of survey questions that began the module. In the
level courses and to retain this newly acquired knowledge. If you “Recite It” section of the Module Review, recite the answers to
find your mind wandering during class or while studying, bring the survey questions to yourself before glancing at the sample
your attention back to the lecture or study material. Becoming answers in the text. Reciting answers gives you an opportunity
an active note-taker during class and when reading your text can to demonstrate that you understand the material, rather than
help you remain alert and focused and avoid spacing out. Keep a passively reading the sample answers. Then test your knowledge
notepad handy while reading the text and jot down key points as further by taking the brief quiz in the “Recall It” section of the
you read through the material. Module Review.
2. Encoding Information Encoding is the process of bringing
information into memory. To encode important information Tips for Succeeding in Class
from your classes or assigned readings, make it a practice to stop Read the Syllabus Think of the syllabus as a road map or a
and ask yourself, “What’s the main point or idea? What am I pathway you need to follow to succeed in the course. Take note
hearing or reading? What am I expected to know?” Jot down the of the course assignments, grading system, and other course
major concepts or ideas and review them later. Use the built-in requirements or expectations. Use your course syllabus as a
study tools in your textbook, such as highlighted key terms or guide to planning your semester, making entries in your calen-
concepts, along with summaries or module reviews, to identify dar for examination dates and required papers and other course
main points and themes you need to learn. assignments.
3. Elaborating Meaning New learning is a fragile thing. Prepare for Class by Completing the Assigned Reading
Rehearsing or repeating the information to yourself in the Instructors have good reasons for wanting you to read the
form of rote memorization may help reinforce newly acquired assigned chapter or readings before coming to class. They know
knowledge, but a more effective way of reinforcing new learn- that students are better prepared for lectures when they have
ing and building more enduring memories is to work with these some familiarity with the topics discussed in class. When stu-
new concepts and ideas by elaborating their meaning, such as dents have a working knowledge of the material before they
xxxii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 A MESSAGE TO STUDENTS | xxxiii

come to class, instructors have more freedom to use class time to information about each point that is discussed in class. Become
explore topics in greater depth and breadth, rather than simply an active note-taker, not a copy machine. Listen attentively and
to review basic concepts. However, lectures may not make much write down the main concepts and ideas and any examples the
sense to students who lack basic knowledge about the material instructor may give.
because they haven’t kept up with their readings.
Rephrase and Review Your Notes An effective way of rein-
Attend Class One of the most important steps to succeeding in forcing new learning is typing your class notes into a computer
college is attending classes regularly. Missing classes can quickly file. But rather than typing them word for word, try rephrasing
lead to falling behind. If you do need to miss a class, notify your them in your own words. Reworking your notes in this way
instructor beforehand and ask for any assignments you may miss. encourages deeper processing of the material, which is a key fac-
Then ask a classmate for the notes you missed, but only approach tor in strengthening memory of newly learned information. The
someone whom you believe to be a good note-taker. more you think about the material, the more likely you’ll be to
Be Punctual There may be nothing more distracting to your remember it when exam time comes around.
instructor and classmates than students who come late to class.
Though your instructor may not say anything directly, coming Building Effective Study Skills
late to class creates a poor impression of yourself. It also makes Where to Study Select a quiet study space that is neat, clean,
it difficult to keep up with lecture material since it puts you in and free of distractions as possible.
the position of playing catch-up. You wouldn’t think of arriving
When to Study
at a movie theater in the middle of a movie, so why should you
■ Prevent procrastination. Schedule regular study times and
expect to be able to follow the lecture when you arrive after it
keep to your schedule.
starts? If you occasionally arrive late due to traffic congestion
■ Plan to study at times of the day you are most likely to be alert
or some other pressing demand, drop your instructor a note of
apology explaining the circumstances. All of us, including your and best able to concentrate. Don’t leave it until the very end of
instructors, occasionally face similar situations. However, if you the day when you are feeling tired or sleepy. Avoid studying
have trouble regularly arriving on time, talk to your instructor directly after a big meal. Give your body time to digest your
or advisor about arranging a schedule that works better for you, food. Likewise, avoid studying at a time of day when you’re
or consider taking online courses that don’t require regular class likely to be distracted by hunger pangs.
■ Avoid cramming for exams. Cramming causes mental fatigue
attendance.
that can interfere with learning and retention. Establish a
Ask Questions Don’t hesitate to ask questions in class. Failing weekly study schedule to ensure you are well prepared for
to ask your instructor to clarify a particular point you don’t exams. Plan to review or brush up on the required material
understand can lead you to feel lost or confused during class. the day or two before the exam.
Also, make sure to ask your instructor about which material will
be covered on an exam, as well as the format used for the exam, How to Study
such as essay, short-answer, or multiple-choice questions. ■ Plan study periods of about 45 or 50 minutes. Very few people

Become an Active Note-Taker Don’t try to write down can maintain concentration for longer than 45 minutes or so.
everything the instructor says or every word that pops up on Take a 5- or 10-minute break between study periods. Give
a PowerPoint slide or an overhead. Very few people can write your mind and body a break by getting up, stretching your
that fast. Besides, trying to copy everything verbatim can quickly legs, and moving around.
lead you to fall behind. Focusing your attention on writing down ■ Establish clear study goals for each study period. Goals can

everything also distracts you from thinking more deeply about include topics you want to cover, pages in the textbook you
material discussed in class. A better idea is to listen attentively want to read or review, questions you need to answer, prob-
and write down key points as clearly and concisely as you can as lems you need to solve, and so on.
well as the examples the instructor uses to illustrate these points. ■ Sit properly to maintain concentration. Sit upright and avoid

No one has perfect recall, so don’t expect to remember every reclining or lying down to prevent nodding off or losing focus.
important point or concept discussed during a lecture. Write If your mind begins to wander, bring your thoughts back to
them down to review later. Some instructors use PowerPoint your work. Or break the tendency to daydream by getting
slides as a guide to organizing the content of the lecture. Think of yourself out of your chair, gently stretch your muscles, take
PowerPoint slides as a table of contents for the lecture. The bul- a quick walk around the room, and then return to studying.
let points in the slides are merely starting points for the lecture.
Your instructor will likely expound upon each point. If you spend How Much to Study A convenient rule of thumb to use is
class time just copying bullet points, you may miss important to study two hours per week for each hour of class time. Like

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxxiv | A MESSAGE TO STUDENTS

most rules of thumb, you may need to adjust it according to the Keep Notes as You Read Taking notes in your own words
amount of work you need to complete. strengthens deeper, more durable learning. Avoid underlining
or highlighting whole sections of text. Let your brain—not your
Read for Understanding Slow down the pace of your reading
fingers—do the work. Highlight only the important sections of
so that you can pay close attention to the material you are trying
text you want to review further.
to learn.
Use the Running Glossary to Learn Key Terms Key terms
■ Stop for a moment after every paragraph and pose questions
are highlighted (boldfaced) in the text and defined in the mar-
to yourself about what you have just read. Jot down your
gins for easy reference. To ensure you understand the meaning
answers to the questions you pose to yourself to reinforce
of these terms in context, see how they are used in the adjacent
this new learning.
paragraphs of the text.
■ After reading a section of text, take a brief break and then
review any concepts you don’t fully understand to make sure Review Your Progress Each module begins with a set of sur-
you get the main points before moving to the next section or vey or study questions. Jot down these questions in a notebook
chapter. Yes, active reading takes more time and effort than or computer file and try to answer them as you read along. Check
just skimming, but it will make the time you spend reading your answers against the sample answers in the “Recite It” sec-
more productive and meaningful. tions of the Module Review at the end of each module. Then test
yourself by taking the brief quizzes you’ll find in the “Recall It”
Reach Out for Help When you struggle to understand some- section of the Module Reviews. If you find you are struggling
thing, don’t give up out of frustration. Ask your instructor for help. with the quiz questions, review the corresponding sections of the
Form Study Groups Reach out to other students to form study text to strengthen your knowledge and then test yourself again.
groups. Studying as part of a group may induce you to hit the Use Additional Study Aids Use publisher-provided online
books more seriously. study tools, which include the student Study Guide and more.

Using This Textbook as a Study Tool Get the Study Edge with the SQ3R+
You are about to embark on a journey through the field of psy- Study Method
chology. As with any journey, it is helpful to have markers or This text includes a built-in study system called the SQ3R+ study
road signs to navigate your course. This text provides a number method, a system designed to help students develop more effec-
of convenient markers to help you know where you’ve been and tive study habits that expands upon the SQ3R method developed
where you’re headed. Take a moment to familiarize yourself with by psychologist Francis P. Robinson. SQ3R is an acronym that
the terrain you’ll encounter in your journey. It centers on the stands for five key study features: survey, question, read, recite, and
unique organizational framework of the text—the concept-based review. This text adds an additional feature, the “Think About It”
modular format. sections of the Module Reviews, which is the “+” in the SQ3R+
Use Concept-Based Modules to Organize Your Study Time study method. Here’s how the SQ3R+ study method works:
This text is organized in instructional units called modules to 1. Survey Preview each chapter before reading it.
help you structure your study time more efficiently. The mod-
2. Question At the start of each module, survey questions high-
ules in each chapter break down the chapter into these smaller
light key issues addressed in the module. To become a more
instructional units. Rather than try to digest an entire chapter
active learner, jot down these questions in a notebook or com-
at once, you can chew on one module at a time. Each module is
puter file so that you can answer them as you read along, and
organized around a set of key concepts. As you make your way
generate additional questions you can answer yourself.
through a module, you will be learning a set of basic concepts
and how they relate to the theoretical and research foundations 3. Read Read the module to answer the survey questions as well
of the field of psychology. as to grasp key concepts and related information. To strengthen
your understanding of text material, you may find it helpful to
Use Concept Signaling as at Tool to Learning Key Concepts
read each module a second or third time before an exam.
Key concepts in each module are highlighted or signaled in the
margins of the text to help ensure you learn the main points and 4. Recite When you reach the end of the module, gauge how well
ideas as you make your way through the text. Importantly, make you understand the material by using the Module Review sec-
sure to read all the surrounding material in the text, not just the tion to evaluate your progress. Remember to recite the answers
material highlighted in the concept boxes in the margins. Your to the survey questions before looking at the sample answers in
exams will likely test your knowledge of all the assigned material the text. Hearing yourself speak the answers enhances retention
in the text. of newly learned information.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 A MESSAGE TO STUDENTS | xxxv

5. Review Establish a study schedule for reviewing text mate- I hope this guide to college success will help you succeed not
rial on a regular basis. Test yourself each time you review or only in this course but in your other courses as well. I also hope
reread the material to boost long-term retention. Use the brief you enjoy your journey through psychology. I began my own
quiz in the “Recall It” section of the Module Review to test your journey through psychology in my freshman year in college and
knowledge. have continued along this path with a sense of wonder and joy
ever since.
6. Think About It The “Think About It” feature in the Module
Please e-mail your comments, questions, or suggestions to
Review poses thought-provoking questions that encourage you
me at [email protected].
to apply critical thinking skills and to reflect on how the mate-
Jeff Nevid
rial relates to your own experiences. Thinking more deeply
New York, NY
about these concepts and relating them to life experiences helps
strengthen new learning.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Essentials of Psychology
Concepts and Applications

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
➦
© Tyler Olson, 2009/Shutterstock.com.

DID YOU KNOW LEARNING OBJECTIVES

THAT . . . By reading this chapter you will be able to . . .
➤ One of the founders of modern
psychology was such a poor
1.1. DEFINE psychology. 1.8. IDENTIFY the steps in the IDENTIFY
DEFINE
1.2. EXPLAIN why psychology is a scientific method.
student he was actually left
science. 1.9. IDENTIFY and DESCRIBE the
back a grade in school? (p. 4)
1.3. IDENTIFY early schools of research methods psychologists
➤ A movement that once dominated psychology and the important use to study behavior and mental
psychology believed that contributors to these schools. processes.
psychologists should turn away EXPLAIN
1.4. DESCRIBE the major concepts 1.10. EVALUATE the strengths and
from the study of the mind? (p. 5) weaknesses of research methods
associated with each school.
➤ A major school of psychology in psychology.
1.5. IDENTIFY and DESCRIBE the
1.11. DESCRIBE the ethical standards
was inspired by the view from a
train? (p. 7)
major contemporary perspectives
in psychology.
DESCRIBE that govern research in
➤ The school of psychology originated
by Sigmund Freud holds that we
1.6. IDENTIFY the specialty areas or
subfields of psychology.
psychology.
1.12. APPLY critical thinking skills
APPLY
to evaluate claims made
are generally unaware of our true
motives? (p. 8)
1.7. DESCRIBE ethnic and gender
EVALUATE
characteristics of psychologists
by others as well as online
information.
➤ Multiracial Americans have become today and the changes that have
the nation’s fastest-growing population occurred over time.
group? (p. 11)
PREVIEW
➤ The popularity of women’s names
Module 1.1 Foundations of Module 1.3 Research Methods in
influences the judgments people
Modern Psychology Psychology
make about a woman’s physical
Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who Module 1.4 Application: Becoming
attractiveness? (p. 25)
They Are and What They Do a Critical Thinker
➤ You can obtain listings and abstracts
of articles from major psychology
journals by using your home
computer (and much of it is free of
charge)? (p. 33)

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 3

1
The Science
of Psychology
You. Me. Us. This may be your first course Psychologists don’t dismiss opinion, tradition, or even folk-
in psychology, but it is probably not your first encounter lore. Yet as scientists, they require that opinions, assump-
with many of the topics psychologists study. Your earli- tions, beliefs, and theories be tested and scrutinized in the
est exposure to the subject matter of psychology prob- light of the available evidence. Psychologists seek answers
ably began many years ago. Perhaps it came as you first to the questions they and others pose about human nature
wondered about why people do what they do or how their by using scientific methods of inquiry. Like other scientists,
personalities differ. Perhaps you wondered why your third- psychologists are professional skeptics. They have confi-
grade classmate just couldn’t seem to sit still and often dis- dence only in theories that can be tied to observable evi-
rupted the class. Or perhaps you were curious about how dence. As in all branches of science, investigators in the field
people relate to each other and how they influence each of psychology gather evidence to test their theories, beliefs,
other’s behavior. Or maybe you wondered mostly about and assumptions.
yourself, about who you are and why you do the things you Before we go further with our exploration of psychol-
do. Perhaps one of the reasons you are taking this course is ogy, let us define what we mean by the term psychology.
to learn more about yourself. Though many definitions of psychology have been pro-
Psychologists study behavior in all its forms. One way of posed, the one most widely used today defines psychol-
thinking about psychology is to understand that it involves ogy as the science of behavior and mental processes. But
the study of you (the behavior of other people), me (one’s what do these terms mean—behavior and mental processes?
own behavior), and us (how our behavior is affected by Broadly speaking, anything an organism does is a form of
groups and social influences). Psychologists are interested behavior. Sitting in a chair is a form of behavior. Reading,
in studying behavior in nonhuman species as well. Studies studying, and watching TV are forms of behavior. Mak-
of behavior of other animals can shed light on basic prin- ing yourself a sandwich and talking on the telephone are
ciples of behavior and may help inform our understanding forms of behavior. Smiling, dancing, and raising your arm
of our own behavior as well. are also behaviors. Even thinking and dreaming are forms
You may find answers to many of the questions you have of behavior.
about yourself and others in this introductory course in Mental processes are the private experiences that con-
psychology. But you will probably not find all the answers stitute our inner lives. These private experiences include
you are seeking. There is still so much we do not under- thoughts, feelings, dreams and daydreams, sensations, per-
stand, so much that remains to be explored. This text, like ceptions, and beliefs that others cannot directly observe
the field of psychology itself, is really about the process of or experience. Among the challenges psychologists face is
exploration—the quest for knowledge about behavior and finding ways of making such inner experiences available to
mental processes. scientific study.
Psychology is a scientific discipline, but what makes it Before we begin exploring how psychologists study
scientific? One answer is that being scientific means valuing behavior and mental processes, let us take the story of psy-
evidence over opinion and tradition—even honored tradi- chology back to its origins to see how it developed as a sci-
tion or the opinions of respected scholars and thinkers. entific discipline and where it stands today.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 4 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

MOD U L E 1.1 Foundations of Modern

Psychology
➤ What is psychology?
➤ What are the origins of psychology?
➤ What were the major early schools of psychology?
➤ What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

CONCEPT 1.1 This first module in the text sets the stage for our study of psychology. It describes the
Psychology is the scientific discipline that development of psychology as a scientific discipline. How did psychology develop? What
studies behavior and mental processes.
were the important influences that shaped its development as a scientific discipline? Here
we address those questions by recounting a brief history of psychology. Let us begin by
CONCEPT 1.2 noting that although psychology is still a young science, its origins can be traced back to
Although psychology is a relatively young
science, interest in understanding the ancient times.
nature of mind and behavior can be traced
back to ancient times.
Origins of Psychology
The story of psychology has no clear beginning. We cannot mark its birth on any
calendar. We can speculate that the story very likely began when early humans devel-
oped the capacity to reflect on human nature. Perhaps they were curious, as many
of us are today, about what makes people tick. But what they may have thought or
said about the nature of human beings remains unknown, as no record exists of their
musings.
The word psychology is derived from two Greek roots: psyche, meaning “mind,”
and logos, meaning “study” or “knowledge.” So it is not surprising that serious
inquiries into psychology can be traced back to ancient Greece, when philosophers
began to record their thoughts about the nature of mind and behavior. Psychology
remained largely an interest of philosophers, theologians, and writers for several
thousand years. It did not begin to emerge as a scientific discipline until the late
19th century.
The founding of psychology as an independent science is generally credited to a
German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). The credit is given to Wundt (pro-
© David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit

nounced Voont) because he established the first scientific laboratory dedicated to

the study of psychology (Stout, 2008). With the founding of Wundt’s laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, psychology made the transition from philosophy to sci-
ence (Benjamin, 2000).
Wundt was in some respects an unlikely candidate to found a new science. As a
boy, he was a poor student and was even required to repeat a grade. The problem
Psychologists study what we do and for young Wundt was that he tended to daydream in class. He would often be found
what we think, feel, dream, sense, and sitting with an open book in his hand, staring off into space rather than reading his
perceive. They use scientific methods assigned text (a practice this author hopes you don’t emulate too closely when you
to guide their investigations of behavior open your psychology text). But he persevered, eventually graduating from medi-
and mental processes. cal school and, from there, launching a successful research career as a physiologist.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MODULE 1.1 | 5

Later, he would apply his scientific training to his true pas- 1860 • Gustav Fechner publishes Elements of Psychophysics
sion, the understanding of conscious experience. In estab-
lishing the first psychology laboratory, the man who had 1875 • William James gives first psychology lecture at Harvard
once been left back in school because he was so absorbed in 1878 • G. Stanley Hall receives first Ph.D. in psychology in the U.S.
his own thoughts became the first scientist of the mind.
Like any scientific discipline, the field of psychology is 1879 • Wilhelm Wundt establishes first psychology laboratory
an unfolding story of exploration and discovery. In this text, 1883 • First American psychology laboratory established at Johns
you will encounter many of the explorers and discoverers who Hopkins University by G. Stanley Hall
have shaped the continuing story of psychology. The bridge 1887 • G. Stanley Hall initiates the American Journal of Psychology
from ancient thought to the present starts with Wundt; there
we encounter his disciple Edward Titchener and structural- 1889 • James Mark Baldwin establishes first Canadian psychology
laboratory at University of Toronto
ism, the school of thought with which both men were asso-
ciated. (See ■ Figure 1.1 for a timeline of the early days of 1890 • James writes first psychology text, Principles of Psychology
psychology.) 1892 • American Psychological Association (APA) formed; G. Stanley
Hall first president

Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener, 1894 • Margaret Floy Washburn is first woman to receive a Ph.D. in
psychology
and Structuralism 1895 • Sigmund Freud publishes first work on psychology
Wilhelm Wundt was interested in studying mental experiences.
He used a method called introspection, or careful self-examina- 1896 • Lightner Witmer establishes the first psychology clinic in the U.S.
tion and reporting of one’s conscious experiences. For example, 1900 • Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams
he would present subjects with an object, such as piece of fruit, 1905
and ask them to describe their impressions or perceptions of the
• Two Frenchmen, Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, announce
development of the first intelligence test, which they describe as
object in terms of its shape, color, or texture and how the object “a measuring scale of intelligence”
felt when touched. Or subjects might be asked to sniff a scent and • Mary Whiton Calkins becomes first woman president of APA
describe the sensations or feelings the scent evoked in them. In 1908 • Ivan Pavlov’s work on conditioning first appears in an American
this way, Wundt and his students sought to break down mental scientific journal
experiences into their component parts—sensations, percep-
tions, and feelings—and then find the rules determining how 1910 • psychology
Max Wertheimer and colleagues begin research on Gestalt
these elements come together to produce the full range of con-
scious experiences. 1913 • Watson publishes the behaviorist manifesto, Psychology as the
Edward Titchener (1867–1927), an Englishman who was a Behaviorist Views It
disciple of Wundt, brought Wundt’s teachings and methods of 1920 • Francis Sumner is first African American to receive a Ph.D. in
introspection to the United States and other English-speaking psychology in the U.S.
countries. The school of psychology identified with Wundt • Henry Alston is first African American to publish his research
findings in a major psychology journal in the U.S.
and Titchener became known as structuralism, an approach
that attempted to define the structure of the mind by breaking
down mental experiences into their component parts. Figure 1.1 Psychology, the Early Days:
The first American to work in Wundt’s experimental laboratory was the psychol- A Timeline
ogist G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) (D. F. Johnson, 2000). In 1892, Hall founded
the American Psychological Association (APA), now the largest organization of
psychologists in the United States, and he served as its first president (Pate, 2000).
Nine years earlier, in 1883, he had established the first psychology laboratory in the
United States, which was housed at Johns Hopkins University (Benjamin, 2000).
CONCEPT 1.3
Although Hall played a pivotal role in the early days of psychology in the United Structuralism, the early school of
States, Harvard psychologist William James is generally recognized as the father of psychology associated with Wundt and
American psychology. Titchener, used introspection as a method
of revealing the fundamental structures
of mental experience in the form of
sensations, perceptions, and feelings.
William James and Functionalism
William James (1842–1910) was trained as a medical doctor but made important con-
tributions to both psychology and philosophy (Pate, 2000). Although he used intro- structuralism The school of psychology that
spection, he shifted the focus to the functions of behavior. Unlike the structuralists, he attempts to understand the structure of the mind
did not believe that conscious experience could be parceled into discrete elements. by breaking it down into its component parts.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
6 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Rather, he believed that mental experience is best understood in terms of the functions
© Archives of the History of American Psychology – The University of Akron

or purposes it serves.
James founded functionalism, the school of psychology that focused on how behav-
ior helps individuals adapt to demands placed upon them in the environment. Whereas
structuralists were concerned with understanding the structure of the human mind, func-
tionalists were concerned with the functions of mental processes (Willingham, 2001).
Functionalists examined the roles or functions of mental processes—why we do what
we do. For example, James believed we develop habits, such as the characteristic ways
in which we use a fork or a spoon, because they enable us to perform more effectively in
meeting the many demands we face in daily life.

John Watson and Behaviorism

In the early 1900s, a new force in psychology gathered momentum. It was called
Wilhelm Wundt behaviorism, and its credo was that psychology should limit itself to the study of overt
behavior that observers could record and measure. The founder of behaviorism was
the American psychologist John Broadus Watson (1878–1958). Watson reasoned that
CONCEPT 1.4 since you can never observe another person’s mental processes, psychology would
William James, the founder of
functionalism, believed that psychology never advance as a science unless it eliminated mentalistic concepts like mind, con-
should focus on how our behavior and sciousness, thinking, and feeling. He rejected introspection as a method of scientific
mental processes help us adapt to the inquiry and proposed that psychology should become a science of behavior, not of
demands we face in the world. mental processes (Tweney & Budzynski, 2000). In this respect, he shared with the
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle the belief that science should rely on observable
events. The problem with introspectionism is that there is no way to directly observe a
person’s mental experiences or know how one person’s feelings or sensations compare
CONCEPT 1.5 to another’s.
Behaviorism was based on the belief that Watson believed that the environment molds the behavior of humans and other ani-
psychology would advance as a science
only if it turned away from the study of mals. He even boasted that if he were given control over the lives of infants, he could
mental processes and limited itself to the determine the kinds of adults they would become:
study of observable behaviors that could
be recorded and measured. Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might suggest—doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief and, yes, even
beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, voca-
tions, and the race of his ancestors. ( J. B. Watson, 1924, p. 82)
No one, of course, took up Watson’s challenge, so we never will know how “a
dozen healthy infants” would have fared under his direction. Psychologists today,
however, believe that human development is much more complex than Watson
thought. Few would believe that Watson could have succeeded in meeting the chal-
lenge he posed.
By the 1920s, behaviorism had become the main school of psychology in the United
States, and it remained the dominant force in American psychology for several genera-
tions. Its popularity owed a great deal to the work of the Harvard University psycholo-
gist B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and
punishments, the environmental consequences that follow specific responses. Skinner
showed he could train animals to perform simple behaviors by rewarding particular
responses. A rat could learn to press a bar and a pigeon to peck a button if they were
rewarded for these responses by receiving pellets of food. Skinner also showed how more
complex behaviors could be learned and maintained by manipulation of rewards, which
functionalism The school of psychology that he called reinforcers. In some of his more colorful demonstrations of the use of reinforce-
focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior. ment, he trained a pigeon to play a tune on a toy piano and a pair of pigeons to play a
behaviorism The school of psychology that type of Ping-Pong in which the birds rolled a ball back and forth between them. These
holds that psychology should limit itself to the methods can even be used to teach a raccoon to shoot a basketball and to train fish to tap
study of overt, observable behavior. a particular target shape (Carroll, 2009).

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MODULE 1.1 | 7

Although Skinner studied mainly pigeons

and rats, he believed that the same principles
of learning he observed in laboratory animals
could be applied to humans as well. He argued
that human behavior is as much a product of
environmental consequences as the behavior

© JP Laffont Sygma/Corbis
of other animals. Everything we do, from saying
“excuse me” when we sneeze, to attending class,
to making a sandwich, represents responses
learned through reinforcement, even though we
cannot expect to recall the many reinforcement
occasions involved in acquiring and maintaining By reinforcing specific responses, we can teach a raccoon to shoot a basketball
these behaviors. and a fish to peck at a particular shape. Still, the three-point shot might be beyond
the raccoon’s range. (top right photo) Source: Courtesy of Ulrike Siebeck, reproduced with
permission of the Journal of Experimental Biology. U. E. Siebeck, L. Litherland and G. M. Wallis, JEB 212,
Max Wertheimer and Gestalt 2113-2119 (2009). http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/212/13/2113.

Psychology
In 1910, at about the time Watson was appealing to psychologists to abandon the
study of the mind, another young psychologist, Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), was
traveling by train through central Germany on his way to a vacation in the Rhineland
(M. Hunt, 1993). What he saw from the train would lead him to found a new move-
ment in psychology. Called Gestalt psychology, it is the school of psychology that
studies the ways in which the brain organizes and structures our perceptions of the
world.
What had captured Wertheimer’s attention was the illusion that objects in the
distance—telegraph poles, houses, and hilltops—appeared to be moving along with
the train, even though they were obviously standing still. Countless other people had
observed the same phenomenon of apparent movement but had paid little if any atten-
tion to it. Wertheimer was intrigued to find out why the phenomenon occurred. He
had the idea that the illusion was not a trick of the eye but reflected higher-level pro-
cesses in the brain that created the perception of movement. He promptly canceled
his vacation and began experimental studies of the phenomenon. The experiments
he conducted with two assistants, Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) and Kurt Koffka Figure 1.2 What Is This?
(1886–1943), led to discoveries about the nature of perception—the processes by
which we organize our sense impressions and form meaningful representations of the
world around us. CONCEPT 1.6
The Gestalt psychologists rejected the structuralist belief that mental experience Gestalt psychology was based on the
could be understood by breaking it down into its component parts. The German word principle that the human brain organizes
gestalt can be roughly translated as “unitary form” or “pattern.” Gestalt psychologists our perceptions of the world, so that we
believe that the brain organizes how we see the world so that we perceive unified or perceive organized patterns or wholes,
not individual bits and pieces of sense
organized wholes, not individual bits and pieces of sense experiences added together. experiences added together.
The well-known Gestalt maxim that the “whole is greater than the sum of the parts”
expresses this core belief. You perceive the dots in ■ Figure 1.2 not as a formless array
of individual dots but as a representation of an arrow. When you see a large number of
➥ CONCEPT LINK
Although the influences of Gestalt
psychology extend to many areas of
black objects flying overhead, you instantly recognize them as a flock of birds flying in psychology, it is best known for its
formation. In other words, your brain interprets what your eyes see as organized patterns contributions to the study of perception.
or wholes. See Module 3.5.

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis

gestalt psychology The school of psychology
Around the time that behaviorism and Gestalt psychology were establishing a foot- that holds that the brain structures our perceptions
hold in organized psychology, a very different model of psychology was emerging. It of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or
was based on the writings of an Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud (1856– wholes.
1939). Freud’s psychology focused not only on the mind, but also on a region of gestalt A German word meaning “unitary form”
the mind that lay beyond the reach of ordinary consciousness—a region he called or “pattern.”

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 careful your knife is thoroughly
sharpened, and is of sufficient
size; mind, also, that all the
cuts run smoothly into one
another, so as to leave clean
surfaces for the healing process
to unite. Having reached the
heart of the disorder, proceed
to empty out all the concrete
matter. That done, wash out the
part with a syringe and the
coldest spring water. Afterward
POLL EVIL DURING THE FIRST examine the cavity. Excise any
STAGE. loose pieces of tendon or of
ligament, and cut until a
healthy aspect is everywhere presented. Then rub the sides of the
deep-seated wound with lunar caustic. Let the horse rise, giving
orders that the sore is to be thoroughly moistened thrice daily with
the solution of the chloride of zinc, one grain to the ounce of water,
and, placing a rag dipped in a solution of tar over the wound to keep
off the flies, return the horse to the stable.
If the disease be left to run its course, the swelling generally
increases, while numerous openings at last disfigure the
enlargement. From such drain a glairy discharge. This adheres to the
surrounding parts, and, joined to the miserable expression of the
countenance, gives to the horse a peculiarly unpleasant appearance.
The flesh wastes under the perpetual anguish, and the half-
conscious aspect of the creature justifies a suspicion that the brain is
affected.
In that case, proceed as before directed concerning casting the
horse and the knife with which you operate. Have the blade rather
too large than too small. Most veterinary instruments are mere
adaptations of those employed by the human surgeon. The author
never remembers to have seen anything approaching to the
magnitude of a proper horses operating knife in the hands of his
fellows. A small blade compels numerous small cuts. The part is
rather snipped asunder than divided by one clean incision. The
recovery is thereby materially delayed; and the lengthened operation
greatly deteriorates from its chances of success, not to dwell upon
the increased suffering occasioned to the quadruped.
The horse being down, do not attempt any display of your
proficiency. Look well and long at the part intended to be operated
upon. Decide in your own mind the course in which the knife is to
move. That course should be influenced by the direction in which
you may probably separate the greater number of sinuses. In the
engraving inserted below there are four holes, each indicating the
presence of a sinus. The supposed direction of the knife is laid down
by dotted lines. The primary and lower incision includes three of the
pipes. That made, another connects the other sinus with the longer
incision; the after-labor necessitates the cleaning of the central sac,
removing all the hanging pieces, also probing the sinuses, and
making sure all are fairly opened. If any are found unopened, a
director should be inserted, and the channel should be connected
with the chief wound by means of a smaller knife.
Two cautions are necessary
to be given with regard to the
treatment of poll evil: Never
permit the knife to be applied
upon the root of the mane.
Underneath the hair which
decorates the neck of the horse
lies an important ligament, by
means of which the head is
chiefly supported. All the evils
POLL EVIL IN ITS SECOND STAGE, which might be anticipated may
OR WHEN READY FOR OPERATION. not spring from the division of
that development; but it is well
to spare it, although the prostrate animal should have to be turned
over, and the operation have to be continued on the other side. Also,
when working the creature subsequent to its recovery, never use a
collar. Wounds, although perfectly healed, are apt to remain
morbidly sensitive; serious accidents, over which the reader would
deeply grieve, may occur from the harness touching the part which
once was diseased. A breast strap is, therefore, to be much
preferred.
There are several popular methods of treating this disease. All,
however, are cruel; one is barbarous; when properly conducted,
none are efficient under the direction of a person possessing the
smallest feeling. The injection of potent caustics in solution, or
violent compression upon an exquisitely tender swelling even until
the force employed amounts to that power which can bring the sides
of a distant internal cavity together, drive out the corruption, and
hold the part in that position while healing is established, have been
largely advocated. Whoever could increase the suffering of a mute
and patient life to that degree which the last method necessitates
would merit a much severer punishment than the writer can afford
space to detail. Of these modes of cure the author can profess no
experience. He has, however, seen injections used; in no instance
have they been successful. The time which they occupied was
enormous, and the expense with which they were attended by no
means small. The man who hopes to eradicate this disease should
never have recourse to them.
Another process, formerly very popular, consisted in slicing the
living flesh in a very coarse and vulgar manner; that, however, was
merely preparatory. The chief dependence was placed in boiling
liquor, which was inhumanly poured into the wounds. After such a
method were all sinuous sores treated by an ignorant and
uneducated quack, who especially delighted in eradicating such
forms of disease. The writer has heard terrible descriptions given of
the agony produced, and equally revolting has been the picture of
the filth employed by this unqualified horse doctor. While, however,
the course which has been mentioned is reprobated, our heaviest
condemnation should alight upon those persons who could so violate
the sacredness of their trusts as to surrender any creature to the
torments of so horrible a remedy.
 In poll evil, the only certainty reposes on the knife. When
properly employed, the operation is brief; the temporary agony
bears no proportion to the years of subsequent relief thereby
secured. To be properly employed, however, it should be used as
though the person invested with it was, for the time, divested of all
feeling. He who accepts it must think only upon what he is about to
perform, and must summon resolution to do it quickly. In surgery,
hesitation is positive cruelty; the knife, to be curative, should be
gracefully moved through the living flesh. All notching and hacking
are tortures, and worse than folly; the blade should sweep through
the substance; and, to prevent the struggles of the quadruped from
interfering with the intentions of the surgeon, all that will be
necessary is for some person to sit upon the cheek of the prostrated
animal.

FISTULOUS WITHERS.

This disease, in its chief characteristics, closely resembles poll

evil. It, however, differs from that disorder in one fortunate
particular; poll evil must come to maturity before its cure can be
attempted with any hope of success. Injury to the withers is easiest
eradicated when attacked upon its earliest appearance; both,
however, in their worst periods, proceed from pus being confined,
from it decomposing and its establishing numerous sinuses. When
disease has reached this stage, the only certain cure is the free but
skillful use of the knife.
Fistulous withers, in the first instance, is an injury to one of
the superficial burst which nature has provided to facilitate the
movement of the vertebral, points spinal under the skin. The hurt is
occasioned by badly-made saddles, but more especially by the
ladies' saddles. Some fair equestrians delight to feel their bodies
lifted into the air, and enjoy the trivial shock of the descent; such
movements, however, necessitate the weight should be leaned upon
the crutch and stirrup. This kind of exercise is never indulged in by
good female riders, as no saddle, however well constructed, can
resist the constant strain to one side. Friction is produced; a bursa is
irritated, and the animal will, under the best treatment, be rendered
useless for a fortnight. Rolling in the stalls is also reported to have
occasioned this affection; so likewise is the heavy hammer of the
shoeing smith, intemperately employed to chastise the transient
movement of an observant horse.
When first produced, the remedy is certain and easy. A swelling
about the size of an egg appears near the withers, upon the off side
of the body. Go up to the horse upon that side; have with you a
keen-edged and sharply-pointed knife of pocket dimensions. Stand
close to the animal; then impale the tumor, and, having the back of
the blade toward the quadruped, cut quickly upward and outward.
Mind, and stand very close to the center of the body, as the pain of
this trivial operation is apt to make the creature lash out and prance.
At the spot indicated a person is perfectly safe; neither hoof nor leg
will touch that particular place, or even come near it. Rest one hand
on the back, and by your voice reassure the startled creature.
The swelling being divided, exchange the knife for a lunar caustic
case; smear over the interior well with the cautery, and all the
business is over. Never, however, attempt to pass by the heels of a
steed which has been pained. The animal may suspect your motives,
and the hind feet of the horse are the most powerful weapons of
offense and of defense. Have the creature backed from the stall ere
you attempt to quit it. Subsequently keep the wound moist with the
lotion composed of chloride of zinc—one grain to the ounce of
water; also have the part covered with a rag, moistened with
solution of tar. In nine or ten days the incision will have healed, and
after the lapse of a fortnight the animal may return to its ordinary
employment.
Should this remedy be neglected, pus is soon formed within the
enlargement, and the formation is accompanied by swelling, heat,
and pain. The horse is useless, and continues thus till the affection is
 eradicated. The animal cannot
wear a collar; it cannot endure
a saddle; at length numerous
holes are formed upon the
enlargement. These are the
mouths of so many sinuses, and
from each exudes a foul
discharge. The poor quadruped
evidently suffers greatly; it will
almost stand still and starve
rather than brave agony by
violent motion.
The only remedy is by
operation; make an incision so
THE SLIGHT as to embrace the greatest
ENLARGEMENT number of holes. Then cut from
WHICH, the other openings into the
BADLY TREATED
main channel; this done, have
OR UNATTENDED
TO, the sides of the wound held
MAY END IN back, while the center of
FISTULOUS corruption is cleaned out. Such
WITHERS. is a very filthy and unpleasant
office; if the bones are affected,
all the diseased parts must be removed. When slight, the tainted
portions may be scraped away; when of long standing, the spines of
the vertebræ have been sundered with the saw and thus taken from
the body. At any risk, none but healthy bone must be suffered to
remain; all discolored or white portions of the bony structure must
be extirpated, and none but that which, is of a healthy pink color
suffered to continue. If a particle of unhealthy, osseous growth is left
behind, the wound may close, but it will break out again, and the
disease become as bad as ever.
The cleansing being accomplished, apply the cloth over the
wound, and keep wet with the lotion formerly directed to be used.
 Sometimes the sinuses will
take a dangerous direction,
and, favored by the action of
the shoulder, will burrow from
the withers to the chest or
elbow. Then the knife cannot be
employed. Should a pipe incline
to this course, but be of
comparatively short extent,
insert a little bichloride of
mercury down the channel. This
A HORSE WITH FISTULOUS
is best done by powdering WITHERS IN THE WORST STAGE.
some of the salt. Dip the elastic
probe, which has recently been
down the sinus, into the powder. Reinsert it, and continue to repeat
this action till all the bichloride is expended.
If the sinus should have run its entire course, but not have found
an exit below, then employ a long guarded seton needle, such as
can be purchased at all veterinary instrument makers. Insert this in
its guarded state, and, having pushed it as far as it will go, give,
upon the end of the handle, a moderately sharp blow; this will force
out the cutting edge and drive the point through the flesh. Pass a
long tape, with a knot at the further end of it, through the opening
near the point, and withdraw the instrument, leaving the tape in
after another knot has been tied at the other extremity.
Thus a seton is established, and a depending orifice is instituted.
The tape will act as a drain to the morbid secretion, while the
irritation produced by it will also remove the callous lining of the
pipe. A healthy action will thereby be established; and so soon as
the inferior wound discharges a full stream of thick, creamy pus, the
seton may be cut out, with a conviction that its office is fulfilled.
 A GUARDED SETON NEEDLE.

THE SETON NEEDLE PROTRUDED, AND SECURED WITHIN THE HANDLE

BY MEANS OF A SCREW.
The screw being loosened, the button is struck, and the sharp needle
shoots forward, cutting its way through any interposing obstacle.

However, never turn animals afflicted with fistulous withers or

with poll evil out to grass. In the last disease, the motion of the
head, the outstretching of the neck, and movement of the jaws
occasion agony; and in the first instance, the necessity for perpetual
action entails so much misery as soon renders the life worthless. The
horse which is not worth the best of food in the best of stables,
should not be doomed to a life of starvation and of torture. It is the
shame of society that rich men are tempted by a few pounds to
dispose of the creature which has been maimed in their service.
Wounds endured when obeying the wishes of the master should
endear the slave unto his lord. In the case of the willing steed, the
law is reversed. The owner blemishes; and instead of nursing the
wounded life, he disposes of it. The injured animal is sold to the first
purchaser for so much as the damaged article will fetch.

FISTULOUS PAROTID DUCT.

This is a most serious evil, rather than a quickly-killing disease.

The animal which is thus afflicted may endure for years; but each
meal consumed and each day survived rates as a period of misery.
When it is considered how much the happiness of the lower order of
beings depends on merely feeding and living, it will be at once
apparent how much the horse has lost when all enjoyment has
departed from eating; when mere existence is embittered by being a
prolongation of the suffering. The digestion becomes deranged,
because the saliva, or a valuable secretion imperative to the proper
performance of the function, is absent; while every movement is a
pain occasioned by the agony of a diseased stomach and the
anguish attendant upon a fistulous sore. The wretched creature, in
this condition, speedily becomes an object of disgust to the most
humane master; and, according to the convenient morality of
modern times, is therefore sold to the highest bidder. Purchased only
for the work which remains in the carcass, a fearful doom lies before
the sick and debilitated quadruped. It rapidly sinks lower and lower,
at each stage of its descent the food growing more scanty as the
labor becomes more exhausting.
The parotid duct is the tube by which the saliva secreted by the
gland is, during the act of mastication, conveyed into the mouth and
mingled with the food. The parotid gland lies at the spot where the
neck joins the jaw; within the interior of that body numerous fine
hollow vessels connect and unite. These at each junction become
larger and fewer in number, till at length they all terminate in one
channel, which is the duct immediately about to be considered. It
leaves the gland and travels for some space upon the inner side of
the jaw; after which it curls under the inferior border of the bone
and runs in front of the large masseter muscle of the horse's cheek.
Its injury is frequently occasioned by hay-seeds or particles of
food, during the process of comminution, entering the open mouth
of the duct; these, subsequently becoming swollen, prevent the free
egress of the saliva. The secretion, nevertheless, goes forward and
accumulates within the tube, which it greatly distends. A confined
secretion produces the most exquisite agony. The motion of the jaw
stimulates the gland to pour forth its fluid; thus every mouthful
which the animal is forced to eat not only is the cause of suffering,
but likewise occasions additional pressure to a channel already
enlarged to bursting, and which at length bursts.
 Another provocative is
calculus, or stone, which is
sometimes taken from the
cheeks of horses, they being of
enormous comparative
magnitude; the natural tube
would not admit a pea.
Concretions have been removed
from this narrow passage as
large as a pullet's egg. Such an
obstacle not only impedes the
flow of saliva, but produces
additional anguish by the
distention it occasions, and by
THE PAROTID DUCT DISTENDED BY
the hinderance so hard a A
substance offers to every SALIVARY CALCULUS.
motion of the animal jaw during
the necessary period of
mastication.
Every puncture made into the substance of the duct, and every
rupture of the canal, speedily becomes fistulous sores. The saliva
constantly pours through the opening thus instituted; the healing
process is thereby prevented, and the edges of the wound rapidly
become callous. It is, however, painful to be obliged to state that the
stable fork, in the hand of an intemperate groom, is the instrument
by which these punctures are too frequently occasioned.
Gentlemen when engaging people to attend upon their animals
should always be very particular concerning temper. An irritable
person, however smart he may appear, is obviously disqualified for
such an occupation. A man of an evil temper should never be
engaged. Still, the great majority of present grooms are rather
conspicuous for an exuberance of conceit, than remarkable for any
openness of countenance. Smartness may gratify the pride of the
master; but it is difficult to comprehend in what manner it possibly
can benefit his horse.
 There is an old proverb which, being "the condensed wisdom of
ages," teaches that "the master's eye fattens the steed." Most of
modern masters dislike nothing so much as trouble. The stable is
given over to the servant. No Eastern despot is so absolute as the
groom in his dominions: he kicks and abuses its inhabitants at his
pleasure. If the free exercise of his will occasions injury, a lie is
easily invented and readily believed by the lazy superior. All that
comes into or passes out of the building pays toll to the invested
ruler. Five per cent. is levied upon the hay and corn merchant; the
dung is sold as a legitimate perquisite; the bills of the harness and
the coach makers are taxed one shilling in the pound by the most
ignorant groom, and often much higher by the properly initiated.
Thus the idle man pays dearly for his ease. There is no luxury so
expensive as a want of wholesome energy.
The process of mastication
causes the saliva to be
secreted. At each motion of the
jaw it is squirted forth with
violence; every drop of the fluid
passes through the false
opening—no portion finds its
way into the mouth. The
running of the stream down the
cheek wears away the hair,
while the absence of a valuable
A HORSE, HAVING A FISTULOUS constituent toward perfect
PAROTID
DUCT, IN THE ACT OF EATING.
digestion occasions the diet not
to nourish the body. The animal
loses flesh, and quickly
assumes a miserable appearance, which makes the proprietor long
to rid his sight of so pitiable an object.
The cure for this disease was aptly illustrated by Mr. Gowing, the
excellent veterinary surgeon of Camden Town. That gentleman made
an adhesive fluid, by either saturating the strongest spirit of wine
with gum mastic, or dissolving India-rubber in sulphuric ether. Then,
when the horse was not eating, he pared off the hardened edges of
the wound till blood issued therefrom. He subsequently allowed the
bleeding to stop, and placed over the orifice a piece of strained
India-rubber. Over that he put a thin layer of cotton; fastened one
end of the cotton to the hair of the cheek by means of the adhesive
preparation. That being dry, he tightened the cotton and glued down
the opposite extremity. Next he attached another layer of cotton,
and subsequently another. Afterward he fastened more cotton, some
of it crossways; and, having added as many layers as would make a
good body, saturates the whole with the adhesive solution before
alluded to.
The hair affords a good ground to which any other substance can
be fastened; but it is rendered better by being thoroughly washed
with soft soap and warm water. The ablution deprives the skin of the
horse of its naturally unctuous secretion, and permits the adhesive
application a better chance.
The horse should be allowed no food which necessitates
mastication. The head should be fastened to the pillar-reins during
the process of cure. Thin gruel only should be presented while
treatment is progressing, and that should be continued until the
covering falls off. Should the wound not be healed, allow a couple of
days to elapse; but give no solid food. Permit the horse to rest on
refuse tan—not straw, which might be eaten—during all this time.
Afterward renew the attempt, and repeat it again if necessary—
though the first trial generally succeeds.
Before concluding, it may be well to arm the reader against those
practices generally adopted by horse doctors. These practices consist
in the use of the red-hot budding iron, which is among them a very
popular application to a fistulous parotid duct. The theory which
induces this resort is, a belief that the heated iron induces an eschar,
and the wound closes before the crust falls off. Red-hot iron is,
however, far more disposed to destroy substance than to favor
growth; and, probably, its curative properties could have gained faith
among no other class. Possibly there exists no other body which
would credit that, to burn a hole larger, was the best way to close it.
Another artifice is to inject caustic lotions up the duct, and thereby
occasion the gland to slough out. Against such cruelty the author is
pleased to think little need be said. The operation, when successful,
causes so much irritation as endangers the life; for the body of the
gland is permeated by so many and such important vessels as
render the termination always very dubious.

PHLEBITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN.

Formerly it was the custom to bleed horses for everything and for
nothing. It was not even suspected that a creature which exists only
to labor unto the limit of possibility is far more likely to be the victim
of debility than of repletion. It never occurred to any master that his
wretched animal wanted blood putting into it rather than abstracting
the smallest quantity of blood from it. However, formerly bleeding
was a favorite resort with the apothecary, and the old veterinary
surgeon seems to have followed the bad example. Aged people have
informed the writer that they remember the time when, on a Sunday
morning, a long shed was filled with agricultural horses standing in a
row. These victims were all waiting to be bled. The veterinary
surgeon's assistant used to take the fleam, and to open a vein in the
first animal's neck. Then he would proceed to the second; and thus,
in turn, he would open the jugulars of the entire number. No account
was taken of the quantity of blood lost; that flowed forth till the last
had been operated upon, when all the creatures stood
simultaneously draining forth their lives.
The veterinary surgeon's assistant subsequently returned, and
pinned up the orifice of the first horse; then he went and performed
that office for the succeeding animal. Thus he, a second time,
progressed down the row, pinning up as he proceeded; and the poor
horses often tottered before he came. All this was done for a human
fancy: man thought the loss of blood, at spring and autumn,
beneficial to all kinds of life. The writer has heard of old ladies who
were very skillful in bleeding cats. Most cats, however, resist such an
application of medical talent; not so the horse: this animal submits
itself patiently to the master's will. The creature seems to recognize
that it has no right to exist except by the permission of its owner.
There is no living being which acknowledges so abject a
dependence.
In return it is made a sport of the idlest whims. Hence horses,
after bleeding, were all thought to be much benefited. They were
expected to perform greater labor and to continue in sounder health.
In vain did the disease visit the stable more frequently; to no
purpose was diminished capability displayed. The ungrateful bodies
of the "plaguy beasts" were blamed, which would go wrong even
after mortal science had expended its wealth upon them. Man never
doubted his own wisdom; he never questioned his own conduct; and
it is astonishing the quantity of prejudice which is from year to year
perpetuated for the want of a small amount of so cheap an article as
mental inquiry.
The worst of the evil still remains to be told. The creatures, being
bled, were esteemed so greatly benefited as to require no
subsequent attention. Phlebitis was consequently, in other days, a
rather common affection. If neglected, the disease may terminate in
death. In cases aggravated by mistaken measures, the disorder
mounts to the brain, and occasions awful agonies. Taken early and
properly administered to, this disposition is easily arrested. It was
formerly wrongly treated, and was traced to an erroneous origin.
Phlebitis was, to the perfect satisfaction of learned judges seated on
the bench, attributed to the surgeon's want of care. So serious an
evil was imagined to be caused by culpable neglect during a trivial
operation. It was thought to have been provoked by the use of a
foul instrument, or by employing anything else to strike a fleam than
a properly-made blood-stick.
Experiments, however, which were instituted at the Royal
Veterinary College, have proved that no want of care, during the
performance of bleeding, can provoke the disorder. Wretched horses,
in that establishment, have been punctured with dirty, rusty, blunt,
and jagged fleams; all manner of blood-sticks have been employed
in every description of way. These have been struck violently and
tapped in the gentlest fashion. Every possible sort of pinning up has
been adopted; but the utmost endeavor of intentional perversion
could not produce inflammation of the vein. There appears to be
only one ascertained cause: that is, bleed; do not tie up the head,
but turn it into a field, or present fodder to be eaten off the ground,
and the animal will have phlebitis. The pendulous position of the
head and the motion of the jaws alone seem capable of starting
inflammation in the jugular vein. Therefore, should the reader ever
permit a horse to be bled—which, save in extreme cases, is perfectly
unnecessary—let him remember to place the animal subsequently in
the stable, to tie the halter to the rack for twenty-four hours, and,
during the same space, to abstain from allowing any food. These
injunctions, however, do not refer to the bleedings sometimes
adopted to counteract acute disease.
There is one circumstance which should always be well
considered before any horse is bled: Certain animals have a
constitutional predisposition toward this peculiar form of disease.
The horse whose vein shall inflame no man can, by sign, mark, or
investigation, pick from a herd. It is, however, an ascertained fact
that particular animals, of no fixed breed, and apparently
characterized by no recognized state of body, have a mighty
tendency to exhibit this particular disorder. The horse may appear
unexceptionable as regards health; but, nevertheless, strike it with a
fleam or puncture it with a lancet, and phlebitis will undoubtedly be
generated; none of the usual precautions can always prevent the
misfortune. Such predisposition evidently depends on a determinate
condition of system which science has hitherto failed to recognize.
This fact, or eccentricity in the constitutions of isolated horses,
ought to be generally known. Men have recovered heavy damages in
courts of law, and blameless veterinary surgeons have been ruined,
by circumstances over which the utmost stretch of human
precaution could possibly exercise no control. However, a more
extended knowledge concerning the real origin of this disorder may
do some good, since it will guard juries from delivering wrongful
verdicts, and may tend to check that love of venous depletion which
is still too prevalent with ignorant horse owners.
There was formerly a great diversity of opinion concerning a
supposed eccentricity in the facts observed during this disease. If a
horse was bled in the neck, and subsequently exhibited phlebitis, the
brain became affected. If an animal was depleted from the fore leg,
and displayed the disease, the heart became involved. In one case,
the disorder proceeded from the center of circulation; and in the
other, it mounted directly toward the organ. A great many
hypotheses were published to explain or to account for this
imaginary peculiarity. Much nonsense was spoken, and more was
written, to point out the real cause of an imaginary difference. Yet,
calmly viewed, the seeming diversity appears to agree with the
commonest law of nature. Phlebitis always closes the vessel at the
seat of injury. The disease, therefore, in each case, is prevented
from descending, and consequently ascends above the orifice—the
only peculiarity being the relative situations of the structures
involved.
This affection is most common after blood has been taken from
the neck. That seeming preference for a particular part may,
however, be nothing more than a circumstance dependent upon the
greater number of animals which have their jugulars opened. Were
the brachial or the saphena veins punctured as frequently as the
vessel which carries the blood from the brain, the apparent
difference might appear in the opposite direction. However, from
whichever vessel the depletion is effected, always tie the
quadruped's head up, and present no food. A stall is to be preferred
to a loose box, as the confined space is more likely to prevent
action. Motion is the source of all danger. This fact was aptly
illustrated by an anecdote which used to be related by the late Mr.
Liston, the eminent surgeon. In his lecture, that gentleman surprised
his class by stating that the last person whom he bled perished of
phlebitis. Bleeding is the most simple operation in human surgery.
Most surgeons leave this office to the apothecary; consequently it
was rather a condescension in one who deservedly ranked so high in
his profession to stoop to such an act. What, therefore, could
possibly cause disease to follow the operation, when performed by
him who was accustomed to surgery upon its grandest scale?
The cause was soon explained. The person operated upon
chanced to be a lunatic. This insane individual embraced the notion
that the healing process was much favored by constant motion;
consequently he kept on flexing and extending his arm with all the
violence which is natural to the demented. In vain was every effort
made to persuade him from so mad an action. He clung with
extraordinary pertinacity to his unwholesome theory. On the
following day, Mr. Liston was surprised to find his patient in bed, but
still moving the arm in which disease had already declared itself.
Measures were taken to keep the limb quiet, but it was found
impossible to accomplish this in a satisfactory manner; and when Mr.
Liston again called, the patient was no more!
A vein being about to inflame, the earliest intimation of the fact
is given by the separation of the lips of the wound, while through
the opening drains a small quantity of a thin discharge. Should this
warning excite no attention, a round and hard swelling appears.
That may be like a hazel-nut in size, or it may resemble half a
chestnut in magnitude; and this is soon followed by a swollen state
of the vein superior to the orifice.
Then supervenes the second stage of the disorder. Unhealthy
abscesses are formed along the course of the vein. As these mature,
they burst, and send forth an unsightly and filthy liquid resembling
thin, contaminated pus. On examination, these tumors are found to
be united. They penetrate to the interior of the vessel, and are
joined together by numerous sinuses. They literally constitute so
many holes in the neck.
If no attention be now paid to the aggravated symptoms, worse
speedily ensues. In the direction formerly indicated the vessel feels
hard under the skin. Supposing
this sign to be neglected,
unhealthy pus issues in quantity
from the wounds and soils the
neck. This secretion is soon
converted into a dark, impure,
and fetid discharge resembling
decayed blood. The horse
grows dull and stupid; the
inflammation ultimately affects A HORSE WITH PHLEBITIS, OR
the brain, when the suffering INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN,
IN THE SECOND STAGE.
and the life are extinguished in
the violent agonies of phrenitis.
The cure is easy, but
everything depends upon the
energy of him who undertakes
it. When the lips of the wound
which have been brought
together by means of the
twisted suture—as the "pin with
tow wrapped round it" is
THE THIRD STAGE OF PHLEBITIS.
professionally termed—display a
tendency to separate, and,
instead of being dry, appear moist, let no prejudice incline toward
the ancient practice of fomenting and poulticing the injury. Without
the loss of a moment in hesitation, withdraw the pin; remove the
substance which was twined round it, and apply a moderate-sized
blister immediately over and around the puncture. Should the
disease have ascended up the neck, still rub in a blister; only a
proportionate amount of surface must then be acted upon. If the
case be as bad as possible, and yet the animal is alive, still a blister
is indicated.
With the progress of the disease a larger space should always be
subjected to irritation, so as to cover every part the most active
imagination could suppose to be involved. One blister, moreover, will
 not suffice; another, and
another, and another must be
employed, till every sign of
disorder has vanished. They
must, however, be applied in
quicker succession as the
symptoms are more urgent,
while a greater interval may be
THE TWISTED SUTURE. allowed between each when the
A pin is first stuck affection is less serious. In the
through the lips worst stage of phlebitis,
of the wound; a another blister must be put over
portion of tow, the part upon which the
thread, or hair is irritation of the first has not
then wrapped
round the pin, entirely ceased to act. In the
and, to complete second stage, the surface must
all, the point of have been barely healed before
the pin is lastly another vesicatory is resorted
clipped off. to. During the primary
symptom, a single application
frequently is sufficient; or, at most, two blisters generally suffice.
When the vessel assumes the corded state, a blister can effect
no more than to check the progress of the disorder; no agency,
however, which science has placed at the disposal of man can
restore the uses of the vein. The vessel is lost, and lost forever. If a
foul and black discharge issue from the openings, insert a director
and enlarge the wounds, joining the holes by slitting up the sinuses
which unite them; but do not cut the entire extent of the hardened
vessel, as in that case you may be deluged in blood. The
employment of the knife and the free use of blisters constitute the
chief means toward the cure of phlebitis. The sinuses must be laid
open. The probe should then be most patiently employed, for every
sinus must be slit up. This may be done at once, when the hardness
indicates the vessel to be closed above the part which the incision
interferes with. To such an extent the knife may always be
employed, while blisters after blisters are used, regardless of the
severe wounds over which they are applied.
Much relief is afforded by the large and pendulous incision,
through which the corruption freely finds an exit. Some horses,
however, from the pain occasioned by the raw and inflamed
condition of the neck, will not allow the blister to be rubbed in after
the ordinary fashion, especially when the irritation caused by the
former application has not thoroughly subsided. In cases of this sort,
do not employ the twitch or resort to greater restraints. Exercise
your reason. Regard the painful aspect of the wounds. Ask yourself
how you should enjoy the hard hand of a groom violently scrubbed
over such a part, were the soreness upon your own body. Act upon
the response. Procure a long-haired brush, such as pastry-cooks use
to egg over their more delicate manufactures. Go then into the next
stall. Speak kindly to a sick inferior that is at your mercy. Have the
creature led forth, and, with the brush just described, smear the part
with oil of cantharides or liquid blister. The extract of the Spanish fly
does not occasion immediate agony, and the application of oil will
cool or soothe the anger of the wounds.
With the jugular vein inflamed, the horse, during the period of
treatment, should consume no solid food. Hay tea, sloppy mashes,
and well-made gruel should constitute its diet. However, the gruel
must not be given in such quantities or made so thick as the same
substance would be allowed to a healthy horse. Gruel may not be
very sustaining to the human being, but it is nothing more than the
oat divested of the shell or refuse part. To the equine species such
food, whether given dry or boiled in water, is highly stimulating; and,
as fever invariably accompanies inflammation, oats in any form
evidently are contraindicated. Should the animal, however, become
ravenous, a portion of potatoes, being first peeled, may be boiled to
a mash. Some water and a sufficiency of pollard ought to be added,
and the whole presented in such a state as requires no mastication,
but in a condition that will allow the mixture to be drawn between
the teeth. The same thing may be done with carrots and with
turnips, only all mashed roots, except potatoes, should be passed
through a colander, and moistened with some of the water in which
they are boiled.
Any animal, during treatment, should be placed in a loose box.
No creature should be turned into the field. It is cheaper to pasture
than to stable a horse; but the constant motion of the legs, as the
field is traversed, is injurious to the punctured vein of the limbs,
while the pendulous state of the head and the perpetual movement
of the jaws are most prejudicial when venesection has been
performed upon the neck. The stable is, in every point of view, the
cheapest and the best residence. The head of the animal must be
tied to the rack throughout the day; while, at night, the halter may
be lengthened, permitting the creature to lie down; but the floor
should be littered with tan, as straw might be eaten.
Let the horse remain thus for six weeks subsequent to the
completion of a cure. Then give gentle exercise to the extent which
it can be borne—the quantity being small, and the pace very slow at
first, but gradually augmented. This exercise should be maintained
for three months. The animal may afterward return to slow work;
but if the neck is the place affected, it must not wear a collar or be
harnessed to the shafts for the next six months. At the end of that
time the horse may return to its customary employment; but, if
ridden or driven, it is always well to bear in mind the late affliction,
and to grant more than the usual time for the performance of the
journey. At the expiration of the year, the smaller veins, having
become enlarged, have adapted themselves to the loss which the
circulation has sustained, and the horse may resume full work.
For the first year, gruel, crushed and scalded oats, with two
bundles of cut grass per day, should constitute the diet. The manger
should be heightened, and the halter be so arranged as to prevent
the head being much lowered. Do all in your power to render
useless violent mastication; and, as the horse never chews when the
operation is unnecessary, the animal will obviously second your
endeavors.
 At the expiration of twelve months the animal which has lost a
vein may be sold, and, in law, has been accounted sound. Such a
blemish, however, is far from a recommendation; in this case law
and common sense may be at variance. The reader, therefore, is
advised never to purchase a nag in such a condition without insisting
upon a special warranty, in which it is provided that the animal is to
be taken back should the loss of a vessel be productive of any evil
effects within the space of one twelvemonth.

BROKEN KNEES.

These accidents affect the exterior of the central joint of the fore
legs. They may be very trivial or very serious: they may simply ruffle
the hair or scratch the cuticle covering the integument; the same
cause may, however, remove the hair and lay bare the cutis.
Moreover, the wound is often aggravated by the nature of the road
on which the animal is traveling. A fall upon a very rough surface
might even destroy a portion of the skin, and deprive more or less of
the cellular tissue of vitality.

BROKEN KNEES OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF

INTENSITY.
The hair ruffled and the cuticle scratched. The hair removed and
the true skin exposed. The skin destroyed and the cellular tissue
injured.

Accompanying such accidents there is generally some amount of

contusion. When it falls, the horse is in motion, and the impetus
lends violence to the descent. Probably the animal is being ridden
when it comes to the ground. The weight of the blow is not only
then proportioned to the heavy body of the horse and the rate at
which it is progressing, but its effect is augmented by the load upon
its back. These considerations render broken knees the proper
dread of every horse proprietor. An animal may stumble and come
down which, prior to the mishap, would have been sold cheap for
several hundreds. It may be raised from the ground with almost all
its worth demolished. The nature of the hurt is not, however, always
shown at first. The chief danger, in broken knees, lies in the
accompanying contusion. The horse which rises without a hair
ruffled, but which fell with violence, is always, with informed
persons, a cause of considerable anxiety. Contusion is to be more
dreaded in its consequences than is the largest wound when devoid
of anything approaching to a bruise.
The reason why contusion is thus gravely regarded is because,
when that occurs in severity, the vitality of all the coverings to the
knee is destroyed, and, in very bad cases, even the bones are
materially injured. All dead parts must be cast from a living body;
and no man can predicate how deep may be the injury, or how
important may be the structures which shall be opened, when the
slough takes place.
Proprietors of horses thus injured are commonly very earnest in
their solicitations for a professional opinion as to the extent and
probable consequences of the accident. No certain judgment can,
however, be pronounced, nor should one be given. Any surgical
calculation, notwithstanding it may be most prudently qualified, is
apt to be misconstrued by the anxiety of distress. The most guarded
hint at a probability of recovery is too likely to be seized upon as a
positive guarantee of perfect restoration; and the possible evils
which may have been alluded to, confusion causes the individual not
to remember. Therefore silence is wisdom in these cases, however
slight the broken knee may appear in the first instance.
Broken knees are principally caused by the imprudence of him in
whom authority is invested. Certain people imagine the public
admire the man who chastises a horse. Such persons slash away for
every trivial error. Every imaginary fault is punished with the whip,
which too often curls around parts that should be respected. The
animal, pained and frightened, thinks only of the slasher behind it,
and entirely disregards the path upon which its eyes should be
directed. The cutting is incessant, and the horse's pace is
incautiously fast. An impediment is encountered; the animal trips; it
is cast to the ground with violence, while the man is probably
rendered fitter for a hospital than for the continuance of his travels.
Other riders and drivers always visit with severity the slightest
indication of weak limbs. A sudden drop or a false step is, to such
people, the signal for the reins to be jagged, the voice to be raised,
and the whip to be freely exercised upon all parts of the animal's
body, but mostly about the face and ears. The man likes to behold
the poor creature shake its head, and loves to imagine he is then
teaching the terrified quadruped to be careful. Equine pupils, no
more than human scholars, are to be tutored by barbarity, which
may slay the reason long before it can instruct the mind. Composure
is imperative to the acquirement of any knowledge. Thrashing calls
forth terror, and alarm is synonymous with confusion of mind. The
horse is susceptible of a fear which humanity, happily, finds it
difficult to conceive; and how far such a creature is calculated to be
educated by cruelty, the intelligent reader is left to infer.
Could the animal argue, it might plead that the weakness
objected to was caused by exertion made in man's service; that the
stumbling gait was consequent upon no negligence on its part; that
it afforded the beaten wretch no pleasure to have the knees broken,
but, if the quadruped might profess a choice, it would prefer not
falling down, etc. etc. If such pleas were properly considered, they
perhaps might still the turbulence of the punisher.
The great majority of these injuries are consequent upon the
prejudice or thoughtlessness of mankind. Popular admiration is, in
this country, much in favor of a good crest. Every animal, no matter
how nature may have formed the neck, must carry a good head. The
rider, therefore, drags upon the bridle, while the form of nearly every
gentleman's harness-horse is distorted by the bearing-rein. The
constraint thus enforced not only obliges additional muscular action,
but it disqualifies the animal to see the ground. In England there
should be no objection to a blind horse, since such of the species as
have eyes are, by the prejudices of society, seldom permitted to use
them. The horse, being urged on when virtually blindfold, must of
necessity stumble upon any unusual impediment being encountered.
Such an accident shows no fault in the quadruped; but the man is
truly responsible for those consequences which his folly has induced.
When a horse stumbles, never raise your voice—the creature
dreads its master's chiding; never jag the reins—the mouth of the
horse is far more sensitive than the human lips; never use the lash—
the horse is so timid that the slightest correction overpowers its
reasoning faculties. Speak to the creature; reassure the palpitating
frame; seek to restore those perceptions which will form the best
guard against any repetition of the faulty action. When the legs are
weak, the greater should be the care of him who holds the reins. No
cruelty can restore the lost tonicity of the limbs; therefore all
slashing is utterly thrown away. If the reader regard his own safety,
let him not, when riding, hold the head up, or, when driving,
sanction the employment of a bearing-rein. No inhumanity can
convert an animal with a ewe neck into the creature with a naturally
lofty crest. The disguise of such a defect as a head badly placed on
the neck is an impossibility. Therefore, if you are desirous of a well-
carried head, think of it when making the purchase. Pay something
more, and any kind of quadruped is obtainable; but be above the
meanness which purchases for a low figure, and then endeavors to
palm off its cheap article as a jewel procured at the highest price.
When a horse has been down, never judge of the injury by the
first appearance. While the animal stands in the yard, order the
groom to fetch a pail, with milk-warm water and a large sponge.
With these he is to clean the knees—not after the usual coarse and
filthy fashion now universal; not by first sopping the part, and then
squeezing the soiled sponge into the pail whence more fluid is to be
abstracted. The dabbing and smearing a wound simply irritates it;
and the dirt, having all entered into the pail, the fluid is rendered
unsuited to after cleanly purposes.
To perform the office properly, the
knee should not be touched. The
sponge should be saturated, then
squeezed dry above the seat of injury.
The water thus flows in a full stream
over the part, and, by the force of
gravity, carries away any loose dirt that
may be upon the surface. Sopping,
dabbing, wiping, and smearing occasion
pain, and can remove nothing which
may have entered the skin and which is
protected from the action of the sponge
by a covering of hair; whereas by the THE PROPER WAY TO WASH
A BROKEN KNEE.
plan recommended the dirt is removed,
the part is not debilitated, neither is its
natural energy destroyed. The last drop of water, moreover, is as
clean as was the first, and the animal is not irritated immediately
prior to a surgical examination.
The wound being cleansed, a certain time should be allowed to
elapse for the horse to recover its composure. It should return to the
stable, have a feed of corn, and be watered. Then the real business
commences. The animal should be gently approached; its condition
should be observed. If any nervousness is exhibited, the person
ought to retire, and a further pause should be allowed. If, on the
second visit, any unusual symptoms are displayed, have the
quadruped led into the yard and blindfolded. Let a man take up the
other fore leg, when the knee may be examined with safety.
Place the palm of the hand over the joint. Hold it there to
ascertain if any heat or swelling is to be detected. Should there be
swelling, make gradual and gentle pressure upon it with the thumb
or one finger. If, upon suddenly removing the hand, an indent is
conspicuous, it argues considerable effusion, and justifies fear as to
the result. Should neither heat nor swelling be remarked, further
pressure is to be made with the thumb upon the knee. The force
should be gentle at first and gradually increased. If the action is
sustained well, or even moderately endured, it allows of hope being
entertained. But should the horse attempt to rear upon the first
impress of the thumb, the result is very dubious. The absence of
agony is far from anything approaching to a positive proof, as bone
and synovial membrane, tendon and ligament, do not take on acute
inflammation when first injured; but, from the response thus elicited,
a fair inference as to the probability may be drawn.
Should the skin be lacerated, the probe must be employed. Such
injuries are very deceptive. They may be much more extensive than
the size of the wound would indicate. The probe being of metal,
ought not to be thrust violently against every exposed part. This
kind of proceeding can effect no good. The probe should be held
lightly between the thumb and fore finger; no pressure should be
made upon it—the instrument ought rather to fall of its own gravity
than be forced into the flesh. A thin piece of wire can be readily
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