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Cognitive Development
Role of Culture in Cognitive Development
Cognitive Development Is Inseparable From Its Cultural Context
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Cognitive Artifacts That Support and Extend Thinking: Tools of
Intellectual Adaptation
Language Names and Numeracy
Age of Digital Natives
Sociohistorical Influences
Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies
Studying Children in Natural Settings
Zone of Proximal Development
Apprenticeship in Thinking and Guided Participation
Sociocultural Theory and Cognitive Development
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 4. Infant Perception and Cognition
Basic Perceptual Abilities of Young Infants
Methodologies Used to Assess Infant Perception
“This Sucks”: Using Infant Sucking to Provide Insight Into Infant
Perception
Visual Preference Paradigm
Habituation/Dishabituation Paradigm
Development of Visual Perception
Vision in the Newborn
Development of Visual Preferences
Development of Face Processing
Auditory Development
Speech Perception
Music Perception
Combining Senses
Intersensory Integration
Intersensory Matching
Perceptual Narrowing
Perceptual Narrowing for Facial Discrimination
Perceptual Narrowing in Speech Perception
Perceptual Narrowing and Music
Perceptual Narrowing Within Intersensory Integration
Perceptual Narrowing as an Evolved Social-Cognitive Mechanism
How Do We Know What Babies Know? The Violation-of-Expectation
 Method
Core Knowledge
Object Representation
Early Number Concepts
Newborn Statisticians?
Arguments Against Core Knowledge
What Is Infant Cognition Made Of?
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 5. Thinking in Symbols: Development of Representation
Learning to Use Symbols
Young Children’s Interpretation of Pictures and Models
Appearance/Reality Distinction
Piaget’s Theory
Some Assumptions of Piaget’s Theory
Stages of Development
Culture and Symbolic Development
State of Piaget’s Theory Today
Everyday Expressions of the Symbolic Function
Symbolic Play
Distinguishing Between Fantasy and Reality
Causal Representation
Constructing Causal Maps
Role of Play in Causal Learning
Fuzzy-Trace Theory
Assumptions of Fuzzy-Trace Theory
Developmental Differences
The Symbolic Species
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 6. Development of Folk Knowledge
Theory Theories of Cognitive Development
Folk Psychology: Developing a Theory of Mind
Basic Social-Cognitive Skills Underlying Theory of Mind
Development of Mind Reading
Theory of Mind, Evolved Modules, and Autism
Extending Theory of Mind
Final Reflections on Theory of Mind
Folk Biology: Understanding the Biological World
Is It Alive?
 What Young Children Know and Don’t Know About Biology
Where Do Babies Come From?
Folk Physics: Understanding the Physical World
Development of Spatial Cognition
Object-Oriented Play and Tool Use
Tool Innovation
Children’s Understanding of Time
Final Reflections on Children’s Understanding of the Physical
World
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 7. Learning to Think on Their Own: Executive Function, Strategies,
and Problem Solving
Assumptions of Information-Processing Approaches
Development of Basic-Level Processes: Executive Function
Speed of Processing
Memory Span and Working Memory
Learning How Not to Respond: Inhibition and Resistance to
Interference
Cognitive Flexibility
Executive Function, Self-Control, and “Hot” EF
Executive Functioning and Brain Development
Final Thoughts on Executive Function
Development of Strategies
Increases in Strategy Use, Improvements in Performance
Utilization Deficiencies
How Do Children’s Strategies Develop?
Development of Memory Strategies
Factors That Influence Children’s Strategy Use and Effectiveness
Culture and Strategies in the Classroom
Learning to Solve Problems
Development of Problem Solving
Reasoning
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 8. Memory Development
Representation of Knowledge
Memory Development in Infancy
Preference for Novelty as an Indication of Memory
Kicking Up Their Heels
 Deferred Imitation as a Measure of Memory
Neurological Basis of Infant Memory
Infantile Amnesia
Why Can’t We Remember Events From Infancy and Early
Childhood?
Infantile Amnesia and Hypnotic Age Regression
Implicit Memory
Development of Event Memory
Script-Based Memory
Role of Parents in “Teaching” Children to Remember
Children as Eyewitnesses
Age Differences in Children’s Eyewitness Memories
Age Differences in Suggestibility
Final Thoughts on Children as Eyewitnesses
Remembering to Remember
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 9. Language Development
What Is Language?
Describing Children’s Language Development
Phonological Development
Morphological Development
Syntactic Development
Semantic Development
Pragmatics
Some Theoretical Perspectives of Language Development
Nativist Perspectives on Language Development
Social-Interactionist Perspectives of Language Development
Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning
Sex Differences in Language Acquisition
Language and Thought
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 10. Social Cognition
Social Learning
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Forms of Social Learning
Age Differences in Social Learning
Mirror Neurons: The Foundation of Social Learning?
Social Information Processing
 Development of a Concept of Self
Beginning of Self-Awareness
Development of Self-Efficacy
Cognitive Bases of Gender Identity
Gender Constancy
Gender Schemas
Gender Cognition in Transgender Children
Children’s Theories of Gender
How Special Is Social Cognition?
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 11. Schooling and Cognitive Development
Development of Reading Skills
Overview of Learning to Read
Cognitive Development and Reading
Sex Differences in Reading and Verbal Abilities
Children’s Number and Arithmetic Concepts
Integrative Theory of Numerical Development
Development of Conceptual and Procedural Mathematical
Knowledge
Variations in Developing Mathematical Proficiency: Math
Disabilities, Cultural Differences, and Sex Differences
Schooling and Cognitive Development
Schooling Versus Age Effects on Intelligence
Effect of Schooling on IQ
Evolutionary Educational Psychology
Principles of Evolutionary Educational Psychology
Costs and Benefits of Academic Preschools
“Educational” DVDs and Videos for Infants
Physical Activity
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 12. Approaches to the Study of Intelligence
Psychometric Approach to the Study of Intelligence
Factors of Intelligence
IQ Tests
Information-Processing Approaches to the Study of Intelligence
Basic-Level Processes
Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities
Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence
 Sternberg’s Contextual Subtheory, or Practical Intelligence
Sternberg’s Experiential Subtheory, or Creative Intelligence
Sternberg’s Componential Subtheory, or Analytic Intelligence
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Criteria of an Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences and Education
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Chapter 13. Origins, Modification, and Stability of Intellectual Differences
Transactional Approach to the Study of Intelligence
Behavioral Genetics and the Heritability of Intelligence
Concept of Heritability
Elementary Cognitive Tasks and Intelligence
Familial Studies of Intelligence
Role of the Environment in Behavioral Genetics Analyses
Experience and Intelligence
Establishing Intellectual Competence
Modification and Maintenance of Intellectual Functioning
How Modifiable Is Human Intelligence?
Stability of Intelligence
Defining Stability
Predicting Later Intelligence From Tests in Infancy
Stability of IQ Scores During Childhood
Patterns of IQ Change During Childhood
Are People Getting Smarter? The Flynn Effect
Key Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Glossary
References
Index
Preface

There has been both continuity and change in the 6th edition of Children’s Thinking.
Concerning continuity, we continue to see cognitive development as a dynamic field.
Theories and research findings from a variety of areas combine to produce a picture of
a developing child who is born prepared to make some sense of the world but whose
mind is also shaped by forces in the physical and social environment. This theme, of the
continuous transaction between an embodied child embedded in a social world,
continues to serve as the focus of the 6th edition. Throughout this book we attempt to
present cognitive development not as a series of separate accomplishments (e.g.,
memory, language, theory of mind, executive function) but as a process that involves the
dynamic interaction between an active organism with a changing environment. As such,
we strive to integrate biological (e.g., genetics, brain functioning) with sociocultural
and evolutionary factors to describe and explain human cognitive development.

In addition, as in past editions, we emphasize not only the typical patterns of change in
thinking observed over time (cognitive development) but also individual differences in
children’s thinking in infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Moreover, children use their
developing cognition to solve real-world problems, and many of those problems are
related to acquiring the skills necessary for success in a highly technological world.
Research and theory in cognitive development should do more than inform researchers:
They should also provide insights, both for parents and teachers, in how best to deal
with children. Although this new edition is in no way a “how to” book for educating
children, as in previous editions, we describe research that has implications for
education, making it useful for students training to be teachers as well as psychologists.

Concerning changes, there are two big ones and many smaller ones. The big changes
include a new publisher, SAGE, that recognizes the importance of a book like this for
the field of developmental psychology, and a new coauthor, Kayla Causey. Kayla is a
lecturer in the Departments of Environmental Studies and Psychology at California
State University, Fullerton. Trained as a cognitive developmentalist and well versed in
the latest statistical techniques, theories, and methodologies of cognitive development,
she brings a fresh perspective and lively pen to the book, especially important for a
discipline that is being influenced by innovations in related fields, such as neuroscience
and quantitative analyses.

Somewhat smaller changes in the book include the integration of several contemporary
themes in cognitive development, including the neoconstructivist approach, the
Goldilocks effect, Bayesian probabilistic reasoning, “hot” and “cold” executive
functioning, perceptual narrowing, and causal representation, among others. We also
expanded discussion of sociocultural perspectives in several key areas, including
gender cognition, language, and the effects of media on the development of attention.

This edition also extends a trend begun in earlier editions of including more research
from developmental cognitive neuroscience. There has been a “biologizing” of
cognitive development in recent years, and this is most reflected in research looking at
how the brains of infants and children change over time and are associated with
different patterns of cognitive functioning. We firmly believe that mind is a state of
brain, and, although knowing what’s happening in the brain will not, by itself, tell us
what we, as psychologists, need to know, it is an essential ingredient in understanding
cognitive development. However, having a developmental theory of the brain does not
obviate having a developmental theory of the mind. Our job is to develop an
understanding of how children’s thinking changes over time and how such changes
affect children’s functioning in their world. Knowing something about the biology of
thinking can help us achieve this goal, although it is not the goal itself. We were careful
not to make this book about developmental cognitive neuroscience but to keep the focus
on cognitive development, with neuroscience research supporting, rather than
replacing, the psychological perspective.

Related to this biologizing of development is an increased interest in evolutionary

thinking—how selective pressures in our ancient past may influence how children
develop and function today. We have been proponents of the field of evolutionary
developmental psychology and believe that such a perspective has much to offer the
discipline of cognitive development. This perspective is outlined in Chapter 2,
“Biological Bases of Cognitive Development,” and found, where appropriate, in
various chapters in the book.

Several pedagogical features from the earlier editions have been retained in the 6th
edition. These include a glossary that has all the key terms at the end of the book and the
Key Terms and Concepts and Suggested Readings sections at the end of each chapter.
As in the 5th edition, we provide a Scholarly Works category and Reading for
Personal Interest category in the Suggested Readings section, the latter including
books, articles, and websites suitable for an educated lay audience. Each suggested
reading is followed by a brief paragraph explaining why a particular entry is worth
perusing.

Other pedagogical features are new to the 6th edition. Long end-of-chapter summaries
were replaced with more concise Section Reviews following each major section within
the chapter. The 6th edition also features Ask Yourself … questions, consecutively
numbered after each Section Review, to engage students in reflection and critical
thinking. Instructors may find it helpful to assign these questions to students as a
“reading check.” Boxes were omitted, with most of the information integrated within
the text. Feedback we received from students and some instructors suggested that boxed
material was the most likely to be skipped material in a chapter. Although textbook
writers and instructors often see boxes as an opportunity to include some interesting
information related to a topic, students are more apt to see them as an opportunity to
reduce their reading with little fear of missing “anything important.” We decided that if
it’s important enough to put in the book, it’s important enough to be integrated in the
text.

As in previous editions, the 6th edition provides up-to-date research and theory on
cognitive development appropriate for graduate and upper-level undergraduate
students. Although the total number of references cited in the book remains about the
same as in the previous edition, approximately 30% of all references are new to the 6th
edition. We aimed to make the book reader-friendly and accessible throughout, reducing
discussion of some topics while adding topics that may be of greater interest to a
broader range of students. Each chapter starts with a vignette illustrating some concept
or phenomenon discussed in the chapter, easing students into the chapter.

The general organization of the book remains unchanged from the 5th edition—13
chapters, all with the same titles as found in the previous edition. However, continuity
at the chapter level belies some substantial changes in the content of many chapters.
Several chapters have been reorganized, and, throughout each chapter, recent
groundbreaking research is summarized to demonstrate and support important concepts
and theories in the field. The following provides specific chapter-by-chapter changes to
the 6th edition.
Chapter-by-Chapter Examination of Changes Between
5th and 6th Editions
All chapters in the 6th edition have been substantially revised. There are many new
tables and figures, sometimes replacing older research discussed in previous editions,
sometimes presenting new phenomena. Here we discuss what we see as major
organizational changes (and stabilities) between the 5th and 6th editions of Children’s
Thinking.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Cognitive Development

Chapter 1 has been streamlined to provide a more reader-friendly introduction to the
field of cognitive development. We retained all major sections from the previous
edition (Basic Concepts of Cognitive Development, Six Truths of Cognitive
Development, and Goals of Cognitive Developmentalists) but reduced coverage of
some topics that are discussed in more detail elsewhere in the book (for example, What
Does It Mean to Say Something Is Innate? and Dynamic Systems Approaches to
Development). This chapter now provides what we believe is a comprehensible
introduction to the major concepts and issues of cognitive development, giving students
the background to understand what is to come, without bogging them down in details
that will make more sense to them as they read further in the book.

Chapter 2. Biological Bases of Cognitive Development

The organization of this chapter remains essentially the same between the 5th and 6th
editions. The opening section Evolution and Cognitive Development discusses
evolutionary theory and features an expanded section on evolutionary developmental
psychology, including some of the material omitted from Chapter 1 of the previous
edition (e.g., a discussion of the various types of constraints on development) and a
new section, Evolved Probabilistic Cognitive Mechanisms. The remaining major
sections—Models of Gene-Environment Interaction, Development of the Brain, and
Developmental Biology and Cognitive Development—are the same in both editions,
although they have been substantially updated. For example, we modified the
discussion of recovery of function from brain damage to discuss the early plasticity
versus early vulnerability perspectives, included a section on interactive specialization
models of brain development, and eliminated sections on neural Darwinism and the
evolution of the human brain.
Chapter 3. Social Construction of Mind: Sociocultural
Perspectives on Cognitive Development
We made both substantial additions to and deletions from this chapter. As in the
previous edition, we begin the chapter with an overview of the sociocultural
perspective on cognitive development, giving special attention to Vygotsky’s theory and
related research. We replaced the two previous major chapter headings, Implications
for Education and Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development, with two new
ones: Cognitive Artifacts That Support and Extend Thinking: Tools of Intellectual
Adaptation and Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies. These changes
reflect mostly a reorganization of information, intended to provide an easier-to-follow
organization, as well as the inclusion of new topics (for example, WEIRD—Western,
educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic—societies; children as digital natives).
The chapter is slightly shorter than in the 5th edition, in part because issues related to
the sociocultural perspective of cognitive development are found increasingly in other
chapters of the 6th edition.

Chapter 4. Infant Perception and Cognition

This chapter maintains much of the organization of the previous edition, providing an
introduction to methods used to study infant cognition as well as a review of the
literature on perceptual and cognitive abilities during infancy. We discuss the
development of many of these capacities through childhood in later chapters, and so this
chapter remains focused on those abilities that are present at birth and/or come online
within the first year of life. We added a section on perceptual narrowing, incorporated
discussions of Bayesian learning and the neoconstructivist (or rational constructivist)
approach, and omitted the former sections Intersensory Redundancy Hypothesis and
Category Learning, making reference to this latter topic in the section
Habituation/Dishabituation Paradigm.

Chapter 5. Thinking in Symbols: Development of

Representation
This chapter is longer in the 6th edition, reflecting the continued interest in the
important topic of the development of representation among developmental scientists.
However, the basic organization of the chapter remains unchanged from the 5th edition
(Learning to Use Symbols, Piaget’s Theory, Everyday Expressions of the Symbolic
Function, Fuzzy-Trace Theory, and The Symbolic Species), with the exception of the
addition of a new major section, Causal Representation. We also added or expanded
coverage of some hot topics in the development of representation, including the role of
symbolic play in cognitive development and young children’s difficulty distinguishing
real objects from their symbolic representation, as reflected by their “scale errors,”
their ability to hold multiple representations in mind, and by the ease with which
imaginary objects or events can be brought to mind.

Chapter 6. Development of Folk Knowledge

The general organization of Chapter 6 remains the same as the 5th edition. We begin
with an overview of the theory theory approach to cognitive development, followed by
major sections devoted to folk psychology, folk biology, and folk physics. We
incorporated the neoconstructivist perspective introduced earlier in the text and
included description of some relevant findings in brain imaging. We largely omitted the
discussion on children’s intuitive theories of the afterlife in the folk psychology section
but added research describing children’s theories about prelife, as well as a brief
discussion of second-order theory of mind. We added a section on tool innovation
under the folk physics section, as well as information regarding the role of executive
function in children’s understanding of time. We updated research on cross-cultural
comparisons in multiple sections.

Chapter 7. Learning to Think on Their Own: Executive

Function, Strategies, and Problem Solving
The major headings for Chapter 7 are the same in the 6th edition as in the 5th edition:
Assumptions of Information-Processing Approaches, Development of Basic-Level
Processes: Executive Function, Development of Strategies, and Learning to Solve
Problems. We expanded coverage of executive function, reflecting the increasing
importance of this area of research in cognitive development, and added two
subsections: Executive Function, Self-Control, and “Hot” EF and Executive
Functioning and Brain Development.

Chapter 8. Memory Development

Most of the topics examined in this chapter in the 5th edition are also examined in the
current edition, as reflected by the same major headings in the two editions:
Representation of Knowledge, Memory Development in Infancy, Infantile Amnesia,
Implicit Memory, Development of Event Memory, Children as Eyewitnesses, and
Remembering to Remember. While expanding coverage of research on these central
topics—including developmental neuroscience studies—we omitted the section
Consistency and Stability of Memory, believing it to be a bit esoteric for most readers,
and expanded discussion of the development of prospective memory in the
Remembering to Remember section.

Chapter 9. Language Development

The organization of Chapter 9 is the same in the 6th edition as in the 5th edition: What
Is Language?, Describing Children’s Language Development, Some Theoretical
Perspectives of Language Development, Bilingualism and Second-Language
Learning, Sex Differences in Language Acquisition, and Language and Thought, with
each major section updated to reflect the most current thinking in the field. One major
deletion is the previous discussion on language learning in chimpanzees (Is Language
Unique to Humans? Can Apes “Talk”?). Although especially interesting for many
people, this research topic is only tangentially related to children’s language
development. A major addition to this edition is a new subsection titled Effects of
Socioeconomic Status on Language Development, focusing especially on the 30-
million-word gap between the number of words children from high-income versus low-
income families hear by their 3rd birthdays and its consequences.

Chapter 10. Social Cognition

Most of the same topics covered in this chapter in the 6th edition were also covered in
the 5th edition (social learning, social cognitive theory, social information processing,
the development of a concept of self, and cognitive bases of gender identity), although
the organization has changed a bit. We incorporated discussion of most aspects of
Bandura’s social cognitive theory under the Social Learning main heading, with self-
efficacy now discussed in the section Development of a Concept of Self. The
subsection Age Differences in Social Learning was substantially expanded, including
new research on overimitation. We deleted the former section Social Learning in
Chimpanzees, although some research discussed in this former section, as well as more
recent research, was integrated in other subsections in the chapter. We deleted the
section Gender Knowledge and Sex-Typed Behavior: Possible Predispositions,
replacing it with the section Gender Cognition in Transgender Children.

Chapter 11. Schooling and Cognitive Development

The same general topics are covered in the 6th as in the 5th edition of this chapter, but
the organization has changed some, with some substantial additions to and deletions
from the chapter. With respect to the major section Development of Reading Skills, we
merged the former section Emergent Literacy with Overview of Learning to Read,
adding a subsection titled Stages of Learning to Read. We reorganized the section
Cognitive Development and Reading, including new subsections titled Letter
Knowledge and Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN), along with subsections titled
Phonemic Awareness, Working Memory, and Phonological Recoding. We deleted the
former section How to Teach Children to Read. We also reorganized the major section
Children’s Number and Arithmetic Concepts. The first major subsection is new,
presenting Siegler and Lortie-Forgues’s integrative theory of numerical development,
followed by sections titled Development of Conceptual and Procedural Mathematical
Knowledge and Variations in Developing Mathematical Proficiency: Math
Disabilities, Cultural Differences, and Sex Differences. We deleted the former section
What Do Mathematically Gifted Females Do? Coverage in the major section
Schooling and Cognitive Development is much as it was in the 5th edition, although
we moved the subsection Costs and Benefits of Academic Preschools to the section
Evolutionary Educational Psychology. This latter section was modified quite a bit,
including an expanded section contrasting discovery learning and direct instruction and
the addition of a subsection titled “Educational” DVDs and Videos for Infants, in
which we discuss the video-deficit effect reported in young children, all framed by
evolutionary educational theory.

Chapter 12. Approaches to the Study of Intelligence

We cover most of the same topics in the 6th edition as in the 5th edition: Psychometric
Approach to the Study of Intelligence, Information-Processing Approaches to the
Study of Intelligence, Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence, and Gardner’s
Theory of Multiple Intelligences. We made a number of minor deletions and a
comparable number of additions, mostly updating research findings.

Chapter 13. Origins, Modification, and Stability of

Intellectual Differences
We cover the same major topics in this chapter in the 6th edition as we did in the 5th
edition: Transactional Approach to the Study of Intelligence, Behavioral Genetics
and the Heritability of Intelligence, Experience and Intelligence, and Stability of
Intelligence, with most additions expanding important topics but also with some
significant deletions. The deletions include the discussion of prenatal factors
influencing estimates of heritability, the section How Seriously Should We Take
Heritability Studies of IQ?, and the discussion of the Becker and Gersten (1982)
research on the results of Project Follow Through.
Acknowledgments

Anyone who writes a book such as this does so with much help from many people.
David Bjorklund would like to express his greatest gratitude to his wife, Barbara, who
provided constructive criticism on many chapters, while working on a textbook of her
own—all in addition to being a supportive and understanding spouse. Kayla Causey
thanks her husband, Aaron Goetz, for encouraging her to pursue this textbook. Despite
his own substantial professional obligations, he always finds time to be an enthusiastic
sounding board and capable parent to their son, Simon, providing her the time (and
quiet) needed to write. Kayla would also like to acknowledge Simon for the anecdotes
he provides and the theoretical questions he poses, just by being himself. He’s an
excellent pilot subject too. There is perhaps no greater joy to a cognitive
developmentalist than observing what she already knows (and to a larger extent, what
she’s yet to understand) in the behavior of her own child.

We would like to thank our editor, Lara Parra, for her willingness to take on this
project, as well as the many other specialty editors and support people at SAGE for
making this book possible. We want to thank our students and colleagues for their many
discussions with us over the years on issues central to this book, especially Carlos
Hernández Blasi, Marc Lindberg, Wolfgang Schneider, Patrick Douglas Sellers II,
Karin Machluf, and Martha Hubertz. Finally, we would like to thank the conscientious
professional reviewers for their consistently constructive comments:

Cristina Atance, University of Ottawa

Vivian M. Ciaramitaro, University of Massachusetts Boston

Renee A. Countryman, Austin College

Maya M. Khanna, Creighton University

James R. May, Oklahoma State University

Elizabeth P. Pungello, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Roman Taraban, Texas Tech University

Monica Tsethlikai, Arizona State University

One of the benefits of writing a textbook is how much you learn in the process. We hope
that this book conveys the excitement we felt in discovering some of these new findings
in the field of cognitive development. The book is not just about “what’s new,”
however, but about the field as a whole, including classic studies from earlier decades.
Although we have often focused on the new, we have attempted not to forget the tried
and true research that still informs us about the nature of children’s thinking today. And
we have tried to make connections among different levels of analysis—macroprocesses
and microprocesses, biology and environment, cognitive development and individual
differences—to provide a synthesis of the field of cognitive development. And we
enjoyed (almost) every minute while doing it.

David F. Bjorklund

Jupiter, Florida

Kayla B. Causey

Perris, California
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