I B.Com.

-CA (HONOURS) : Semester-I BHARATHI DEGREE COLEGE : CHIRALA

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BHARATHI DEGREE COLLEGE : CHIRALA
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
B.COM.-CA (HONOURS) : 2023-24
SEMESTER – I
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COMPUTER SCIENCE - SYLLABUS ( UNIT-V)

COURSE 2
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION

Unit 5: Computer Essentials:

Milestones of Computer Evolution – Computer, Block diagram, generations of computer
Internet Basics - Internet, history, Internet Service Providers, Types of Networks, IP, Domain
Name Services, applications.
Ethical and Social Implications - Network and security concepts- Information Assurance
Fundamentals, Cryptography - Symmetric and Asymmetric, Malware, Firewalls, Fraud
Techniques, privacy and data protection

Student Activity
• Identifying the attributes of network (Topology, service provider, IP address and bandwidth
of your college network) and prepare a report covering network architecture.
• Identify the types of malwares and required firewalls to provide security.
Latest Fraud techniques used by hackers.

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Unit 5: Computer Essentials:

Milestones of Computer Evolution – Computer, Block diagram, generations of
computer
Internet Basics - Internet, history, Internet Service Providers, Types of Networks, IP,
Domain Name Services, applications.
Ethical and Social Implications - Network and security concepts- Information
Assurance Fundamentals, Cryptography - Symmetric and Asymmetric, Malware,
Firewalls, Fraud Techniques, privacy and data protection.

Milestones in Computer Development

2000 B.C. : Abacus first used in computation
1642 A.D. : Blaise Pascal creates a mechanical adding machine for tax computations
1670 : Gottfried von Leibniz creates a more reliable adding machine that adds, subtracts,
multiplies, divides, and calculates square roots
1842 : Charles Babbage designs analytical engine to perform calculations automatically; Ada,
countess of Lovelace, programs this machine
1890 : Herman Hollerith designs census recording system that uses punched cards; starts a
company that later becomes IBM
1939 : John Atanasoff designs and builds first electronic digital computer (w/ graduate student
Clifford Berry); called the ABC
1946 : J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly design and build the ENIAC; considered the first
modern computer, used vacuum tubes
1946 : John von Neumann proposes stored program architecture that bears his name CSCI
1951 : Eckert & Mauchly build the first general-purpose computer, the UNIVAC I
1957 : John Backus and his IBM team complete the first Fortran compiler
1958 : IBM introduces the 7090 series, first to use transistors
1958 : Seymour Cray builds CDC 1604, first fully transistorized computer
1964 : IBM announces the 360, first to use integrated circuitry (IC)
1975 : The Altair, the first microcomputer, is introduced
1975 : The Cray-1, the first supercomputer, is announced
1976 : DEC introduces its popular minicomputer, the VAX 11/780
1977 : Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs found Apple Computers
1981 : IBM introduces its own PC
1984 : Apple introduces the Macintosh
1994 : Netscape Navigator 1.0 is released; the WWW takes off
1995 : Sun releases Java 1.0; object-oriented programming takes off

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
In ancient times, from Egypt to china merchants used ABACUS to perform the calculations.
ABACUS having heads on wires to represent the data, and can possible to calculate the addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. It can produce the accurate values for the mathematical
expressions at that times.
The term “Computer” is derived from the Latin word “Compute”, which means to calculate.
The computer is also calculate just like a calculator, but it can perform more than calculations.
Charles Babbage, is an English Scientist and Mathematician created the first fully modern
computer design, and he is called as the “Father of Computers”.

COMPUTER
A Computer is an electronic and programmable device, it accepts data from the user as an input
and processes it, convert into information and return back it to the user as an output.

DATA I NFORMATION

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Data : Data is the plural of “datum”, Data can be defined as facts. In general, It is a
Raw material, which is used to enter into the computer for process.
Input : The Data is used to enter into the computer is called as an Input.
Information : The processed data is called as an Information. (or) The result which is outcome after
processed from the computer is called as an Information.
Output : The Information or processed data, which is outcome after process from the
computer is called as an Output.
User : The person, who utilizes the input, process and output using the system.

Thus, in any calculation the computer can perform three operations. These operations are
mainly enter the data into the computer, perform the process and taking the output.
They are
1. Input
2. Process
3. Output.

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

EX: Let us take one example addition , 5+3 = 8

Here, 5, 3 Data (Input)
+ Process
8 Information (Output)

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE COMPUTER

The block diagram of the computer is represented different kind of functional parts in which all are
together inter connected and used as a single unit for performing the operations.
The Digital Computer is used for our personal works, or small individual works is also called
as a Personal Computer or Desktop computer.
In the Block Diagram of Computer, the computer is mainly divided into three main functional
units. They are
1. INPUT UNIT
2. C.P.U. ( CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)
3. OUTPUT UNIT

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These three units are combined, called as the computer system. All these functional units
are connected with cables to each other. This can be diagrammatically represented as in fig.

A.L.U.

Input Unit C.U. Output Unit

Ex: Key Board Ex: Monitor (VDU)

Mouse Printer
Scanner
M.U. Plotter
Micro Phone, etc.. PRIMARY MEMORY Speakers, etc..
ROM RAM

Secondary Memory

C.P.U.
1. INPUT UNIT
The Data which is used to enter into the computer for processing is called as an Input. We can
enter the data using Input Devices. These are used to enter data into the computer by
converting the data into signals which are readable by the computer.
Ex:- Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, etc….
2. C.P.U
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. This is treated as the brain of the computer system.
This is the part of the computer that execute the program instructions of the computer. This
unit includes all the devices which are required for execution of the program, like mother
board, chips, components, and etc.., all are representing in a house like cabinet.
C.P.U contains three main functional parts.
They are
1. A.L.U. ( Arithmetic and Logic Unit )
2. C.U. ( Control Unit)
3. M.U. ( Memory Unit )
I. A.L.U. : This unit is designed to perform arithmetic and logical operations. This unit can
perform the Arithmetic Operations like Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division and
etc., and also perform the Logical Operations, when it is required to take the decision
based on some programming execution. After completing the operations the data and
the results will be sent to the memory unit.
II. C.U. : By its name suggest it control all the internal operations in the system, and it
transfer the data for processes. It gives the signal to the other units to execute the
instructions.
III. M.U. : This unit can perform the memory management of the computer. The storage
capacity of the computer is known as its memory. We have mainly two types of
memories are available.
They are i) Primary Memory
ii) Secondary Memory

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i. Primary Memory – It contains the data which is required to execute the current
running programs. It is small in capacity but the processing speed is high. It is a
temporary memory.
Ex:- RAM, ROM
ii. Secondary Memory – It is a permanent memory which is used to store data and
information of the computer files.
Ex:- Hard Disc, CD, DVD, etc.,
3. OUTPUT UNIT
The processed data or the resultant information received from the computer is called as an
output. We can see the output using with devices, like
Ex:- Monitor ( V.D.U. – Visual Display Unit ), Printer, Plotters, Speakers

FEATURES OR CHARACTERISTICS (ADVANTAGES) OF A COMPUTER

Computers have so many advantages when compare with all available instruments in Modern
Technology. We are using the computer for all aspects of our life, because of its Characteristics.
The main Characteristics of Computers are
1. Speed
2. Storage
3. Accuracy
4. Reliability
5. Versatility
6. Diligence
7. Automation
8. No Intelligence
9. Processing
10. Communication

1. Speed
Computers work at very high speed and are much faster than humans. A computer can
perform billions of calculations in a second. The time used by a computer to perform an
operation is called the processing speed. Now a days computers speed is calculated in
nano (10-9 sec) and pico (10-12 sec) & MIPS / MOPS.
2. Storage
Storage is the major advantage of the computer, it can store a large amount of data
permanently. User can use this data at any time.
Here, we can maintain the memory management with two types of memories. They are
Primary memory devices and Secondary memory devices.
3. Accuracy
Accuracy is the best feature of the computer. It must give the assured values, and it doesn’t
not give any chance to make a mistake. So, Computers are very reliable, it never makes a
mistake. Most probably the error occurs due to the user, rather than the computer
4. Reliability
Computers can perform the operations in high reliability, even the processing of the computer
is very high, but it does not give a chance to make a mistake and must give the exact and
accurate values in all times.
5. Versatility
Computers are used for different works in different areas. Computers can perform any type
of works. Now a days the modern computers used as personal computers, for home uses,
for business oriented tasks, weather forecasting, space explorations, teaching, railways,
banking, medicine, etc.
A single computer can perform all these works, so it a versatile machine.
6. Diligence
Diligence is the biggest issue for human beings. Because of tiredness, and lack of
concentration, not interest in particular work we will do some mistakes, but Being a machine,

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a computer does not suffer from the human characteristics of tiredness and lack of
concentration. If 3 million calculations have to be performed it will perform the 3 millionth with
exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first
7. Automation
Now a days the computers are used for all purposes which are done by the employees in any
office or organization. It is used to maintain all the data and information, and keep
computerized and stored for future references.
8. No Intelligence ( I.Q.(Intelligence Quotient) )
Computer is not a magical device. It has no intelligence of it’s own. User can give the
instructions to the computer to perform the tasks. So, computer cannot take its own decision,
its work only depends on the user decisions.
9. Processing
The major quality in computer is the Processing ability. The computer must perform the
calculation at a high speed and accurately. It can process all types of data which is very
much usable and can’t expected by the user.
10. Communication
Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other computers. We can
connect two or more computers is called network. A group of inter connected networks is
called internet. These computers can share data, instructions, and information.

LIMITATIONS OF THE COMPUTER (DISADVANTAGES)

Computers can perform all the works with a great Speed, Accuracy, Reliability, Versatility and
having the concepts like storage, processing, automation, communication and Automation but the
computers are also have some disadvantages or limitations. They are
1) Computer can’t do any thing without instruct by the user.
2) It does not work on its own and need set of instructions to be given.
3) It can’t get experience from previous operations, because it can’t learn any thing.
4) Due to Power failures, software or hardware failures, our valuable data may be Lost,
so that, we need to back up the valuable data every time.

USES OF COMPUTERS
Now a days, computers are used in various places in our society, and in and around of the world.
Computers are emerging day to day, and merges into our lives also.
Computers have become an essential part of modern human life. Since the invention of
computer they have evolved in terms of increased computing power and decreased size. Owing to
the widespread use of computers in every sphere, Life in today’s world would be unimaginable
without computers. They have made human lives better and happier. There are many computer
uses in different fields of work. Engineers, architects, jewelers, and filmmakers all use computers to
design things. Teachers, writers, and most office workers use computers for research, word
processing and emailing. Small businesses can use computers as a point of sale and for general
record keeping.
Now the computers are used in all types of major fields in our society. They are mainly
1. Education
Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can significantly enhance
performance in learning. Even distance learning is made productive and effective through
internet and video-based classes. Researchers have massive usage of these computers in
their work from the starting to till the end of their scholarly work.
2. Business & Commercial
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business
organizations for: Payroll calculations, Sales analysis, Budgeting, Financial forecasting,
Managing employees database and Maintenance of stocks etc.
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3. Banking and Automation
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the facilities of:
Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,
overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
4. Science and Technology
With the growth of the computer, Most of the science and technology aspects are emerged
in different approaches. Scientific researches including the high efficient technical aspects
all are very effectively using with computers.
5. Medicine
Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to reports.
Computation in the field of medicine allows us to offer varied miraculous therapies to the
patients. ECG’s, radiotherapy wasn’t possible without computers.
6. Engineering
As per the technology improved, the major planning designs of buildings, bridges,
magazines and many others using the computers in very effective and efficient manner.
The designs and constructive layouts are designed beautifully on system using different
type of tools and software.
7. Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The
insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers
for their concerns.
8. Aero Space
The technology is used not only on earth, its also emerged in space also. The Aircrafts,
space shuttles, satellites are used to bring its presence in the technology of computers. We
can communicate with Aircrafts or satellites using with signals of computers only.
9. Atmospheric
With the use of the computers, the research on atmosphere is also merely changed, and it
reaches very good results. The study on atmosphere or nature is used this computer
technology.
10. Entertainment
People can find entertainment on the internet. They can watch movies, listen to songs, and
watch videos download different stuff. They can also watch live matches on the internet.
Chatting & Social Media
People can chat with friends and family on the internet using different software like Skype
etc. One can interact with friends over social media websites like Facebook, Twitter &
Google Plus. They can also share photos and videos with friends.
11. Domestic
Computer uses in home depend on the user. There are so many people using the computer
at home. Some people are using the computer to take online classes. Some people using
the computer to do online business. Some people are using the computer listen to songs
and to watch movies etc.
Else the use of the computer in the home provides great advantages. Such you can access
banking and business services from home. You can communicate with people around the
world by the use of the computer.
Not only the above, it is used in all fields of our life.

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TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified based on the following methods.
They are
1) Computations or processing
2) Size and capability.

1. Classification based on computations

Based on the way a system performs the computations, a computer can be classified into 3
types. They are
A. Analog computers
B. Digital computers
C. Hybrid computers
A. Analog computers
Analog computers are special purpose computers that represent and store data in
continuously varying physical quantities such as current, voltage or frequency. These
computers are programmed for measuring physical quantities like pressure, temperature,
speed etc. and to perform computations on these measurements. These computers are
used to measure always varying factors.
Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering applications.
Ex: Petrol pump meters, mileage meters, speed meters of vehicles.
B. Digital computers
These can represent Data by means of digits and performs arithmetic and logical operations
on such data and produces results as output. The digits are 0 and 1 are used and can
represent data in binary format. These are used for real time processing.
Ex: All the Electronic computers.

C. Hybrid computers
These computers can have both analog and digital properties. Hybrid computers
incorporate the technology of both analog and digital computers. These computers store
and process analog signals which have been converted into discrete numbers using analog-
to-digital converters. They can also convert the digital numbers into analog signals or
physical properties using digital-to-analog converters. These computers are mainly used in
AI (Robotics) and Computer Aided Manufacturing, and etc.
Ex: Patient monitoring system in a hospital, computers used in control of space
vehicles.
2. Classification based on size and capability
Based on the size and capability computers are classified into four types.
a) Micro computers
b) Mini computers
c) mainframe computers
d) super computers
a) Micro computers
These are single user system. So these can also called as personal computers [PC]. These
are very small computers. Now-a-days micro computer is available in different sizes. Some
of them are
1. Laptop computers:
These are also called as Note book computers these are well settled in small briefs.
Ex: Lenovo, Dell, Compaq
2. Palmtop computers:
These are very small computers with a size of man’s palm.
Ex: Personal digital assistant

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b) Mini computers
These systems are multi user systems. They are designed for using more than one user at a
time. A small group of people are formed as a network and used this computer at a time.
Each user has an individual terminal. A time sharing operating system is used in those
systems, where a predefined space is allotted to each user.

c) Mainframe computers
Main Frame computers are less powerful and cheaper than the Super Computers. These are
general purpose computers capable of handling all kinds of scientific and business
applications. It can process Millions of instructions per second. It can support thousands of
terminals at a time. It contain the huge storage data for maintaining the databases.
Mainframes such as ES/9000 family computers of the IBM(International Business Machine).

d) Super computer
These are the fastest and largest computers ever in the world. It is used in Specialized areas
like in Defense, Aircraft design, highly budged computer generated movies, and weather
research, etc. It can process the instructions in MIPS/MOPS ( Million Instructions per second
/ Million Operations per second), its nearly 1.2 billion Instructions per second. It can support
10,000 terminals at a time. The First super computer was the ILLIAC IV, made by Bur
Roughs, and others are CRAY series, CDC, and etc. The first super computer introduced in
India is “PARAM”.
These computers are used for
(i) Designing of super-sonic air crafts.
(ii) Scientific researches
(iii) Designing of Robots
(iv) Defense use

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The evolution of computer has passed through different stages before it reached the present state
of development. The evolution probably started from the 3500 BC, when human being first started
to learn the calculations using the machine like ABACUS. Thus, started the evolution, then
BLAISSE PASCAL, the French mathematician, made the foundation of the automatic computing
using with his Adding Machine in 1662, used for only additions and subtractions. This machine
was later improved by GOTTFRIED, Germany to perform the multiplication and division.
Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics of Cambridge University invented a machine
called “Differential Engine”, which can evaluate the algebraic expressions and mathematical tables
accurately up to 20 decimal places. Later, he developed “Analytical Machine”. His efforts are
taken the technology to improve the stages of computers, so he is remembered as the “Father of
Computing”, and his co-worker “Lady Lovelace” (ADA LOVELACE) is remembered as the first
programmer in the world.
Later on,
MARK I COMPUTER
In 1934, Harvard Professor H. Eiken developed an automatic calculating machine, it was called as
MARK I digital computer.
ENIAC
In 1946, a team of professors at Moore School of University of Pennsylvania, built the first
electronic general purpose computer called ENIAC ( Electronic Numeric Integrator And Calculator).
It consists of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 60, switches and a large
size occupying 1500 sq.feet of space. It can perform 5000 additions or 350 simple multiplications
in one second.
UNIVAC
In 1946, Eckert and Mauchly founded the UNIVAC ( Universal Automatic Computer).
In 1951, Remington Rand developed UNIVAC-1, and followed by EDVAC (Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
In computer talk a generation means “A step a head in Technology”. Every step includes a major
change in the components used for constructing a computer. It provides a frame work for the
growth of computer industry. After development of ENIAC system, in computer’s history we found
five generations.
They are
1. First Generation Computers
2. Second Generation Computers
3. Third Generation Computers
4. Fourth Generation Computers
5. Fifth Generation Computers

1. First Generation (1945-55)

• First generation computer was used vacuum tubes in its circuitry.
• Thousands of vacuum tubes ware used in this computer. So, it occupied more place
and it produced more heat.
• It uses Low Level Language for coding It is very tough to code for programmers while
working on Low Level Programming, because each and every instruction should be
converted into machine code by the programmer.
• IBM-650 was the popular first generation computer. It was intended to develop for both
business and scientific applications.
• Some more examples of the first generation computers are : IBM 700 series,
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator), EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer) and UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer).
Disadvantages :
1. Bulk in size, it occupies nearly a building size
2. Unreliable for excessive heat generation, for this Special designed Air-condition is must.
3. It consumes a lot of Electricity
4. It uses only Low level language i.e. Binary Language only
5. It is used in basic mathematical expressions
6. Processing is very slow
7. Frequently maintenance is required.
8. It takes very costly at that time

2. Second Generation (1955 – 1965)

• The second generation computers were used transistors in the place of vacuum tubes.
• A transistor is a two state device made from Silicon, and it is smaller in size, cheaper
and durable.
• All these machines were much faster and more reliable than their earlier computers.
• They occupied less space, required less power and produced much less heat.
• Here High level language FORTRAN was used.
• Examples of second generation computers are: IBM 700 series, Univac 1108, etc.
Advantage
1. It uses Transistors, so that it turns into Small in size, when compared to first
generation computers, reduced to room size.
2. More reliable, when compared to first generation computers
3. Electricity consumed less, when compare to first generation computers
4. Less Heat generated, when compare to first generation computers
5. Faster processing speed, when compare to first generation computers
6. Supports Assembly level language and High level languages
7. Its also costly at the time
Disadvantages
1. A/C is required
2. Frequent maintenance is required
3. Commercial production was difficult and costly.
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3. Third generation (1965 – 1975)

• These computers were made with Integrated Circuits (IC).
• These are also known as chips. The use of IC chips in the place of transistors gave birth
to the third generation computers.
• A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry.
• The IC was invented by Jack Kilby.
• These computers were smaller, faster and less expensive than then previous
generation.
• In the beginning third generation computers used magnetic core memory, but later on
semiconductor memories (RAM and ROM) were used.
• Semiconductor memories were LSI (Large Scale Integration) chips.
• Cache memory was also incorporated in these computers.
• Some of the examples are IBM370 series.
• The third generation computers used high level languages such as COBOL,
FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL, ALGOL, etc.,
Advantages
1. Smaller in size
2. more reliable and faster that previous generation computers
3. It supports all types of High level languages
4. Easy portability and total general purpose.
5. Commercial production was easy and cheep.
6. Low maintenance cost
7. Consumes less electricity
Disadvantages
1. A/C is required in some / many cases
2. Highly sophisticated technology required for production of ICs.

4. Fourth generation (1975 – 1985)

• Initially a chip contains 10 to 20 components on it. This is known as SSI (Small Scale
Integration).
• Later with the advancement of technology LSI (Large Scale Integration) made, it possible
to integrated more than 30,000 components on a single chip.
• With VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology more than 3,00,000 components are
integrated on a small single chip.
• These are also known as microprocessors.
• Fourth generation computers are made with this VLSI chips.
• In this generation, Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System
were used.
• All the higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE, etc., were used.
• Examples of fourth generation computers are : IBM PCs, Apple Macintosh, etc.,
Advantages
1. Smallest in size
2. High speed
3. Large memory
3. More reliable
4. Easily portable
5. Heat generation negligible, so A/C is not compulsory.
6. Cheapest among all generations
7. Communication between computers are possible ( Networking )
Disadvantage
1. Highly sophisticated technology is required for manufacturing of LSI and VLSI chip.

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5. Fifth generation (1985 - till to date )

• The fifth generation computers are under development stage.
• The scientists are assuming the Artificial Intelligence concept, which makes the
computer functions and take the decisions like human being, implementation of Expert
Systems, Robots, Intelligent systems, Neural Networks and etc. .
• Its an assumption, a promise, but not turn in reality.
• These computers used ULSI (Ultra large scale integration) and SLSI (Super Large
scale Integration) chips.

NETWORK
When two or more computers are connected with wire or without wire, which can possible to send or
receive the data and information from one computer to another computer, then these computers are
in a network.

Definition of Network: Computer network means interconnected collection of autonomous systems

by cables and/or different communication links.
A network is a collection of computers,
servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or
other devices connected to one another to allow the
sharing of data.
An excellent example of a network is
the Internet, which connects millions of people all
over the world. Below is an example image of a home
network with multiple computers and other network
devices all connected to each other and the
Internet.

NETWORK COMPONENTS
The important components used in the computer network are:
• Media
It is the medium through which the data travels. The various alternatives for transmission media
are: twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fibre optics, etc.
• Processor
Processor is the hardware which helps to transfer the data from source to destination. Different
processors used in the data communication are: modem, router, bridge, etc.
• Software
To transfer the data from source to destination we require software, examples are: networking
operating system software, internet explorer, etc.
• Topology
It is the way which data travels, the various topologies available are:
star, ring, bus, mesh, tree, etc.

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ADVANTAGES AND DIS-ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS
Advantages
• Sharing
We can share the information with other computers on the network
• Sharing resource
This means that you can setup certain computer resources like input and output devices of
the computers on the network can access them.
• High reliability
Networks are reliable they can work without any failure
• Backup
All the data and information is stored on the server, backing up the critical data is a simple
process.
Dis-advantages
• Crash
If the server crashes, then whole of the system will be disturbed.
• Data integrity
As all the data is shared it is possible unauthorized person can access the data if the network
security is poor or weakly implemented.
• No privacy
Network may also means loss of privacy. Especially your boss, with the right network
privileges may be in the position to read your private email.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
There are three types of network.
They are:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan/ Medium area network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
1. Local area Network (LAN)
When two or more computers are connected with wires in a small area i.e., with in a room, or
building or within a diameter of not more than a few kilometers, then such network is known as
local area network. It is made for an organization and most of the times it is within a single
building. The data rate in LAN is in the form of Mbps.
The characteristics of LAN are:
a. It covers in a room or within a building or an area of less than 5 kilometers
b. It provides high speed data communication
c. They have low error rates.
d. They use simple data communication protocols.
2. Metropolitan area Network (MAN)
It resides between LAN and WAN. It interconnects the computer within a city. It uses dual queue
dual bus protocol. The implementation for MAN provides transfer rates from 34 mbps which is not
very slow as compared to LAN. They use broad band cables as transmission media. They also
use fibre optical cable as transmission media.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

A wide area network is connection of two or more computers which are geographically dispersed.
It has longer distance communications than LAN. It uses public networks like telephone network
or microwave relays for communication facilities. A cost is involved with such networks so high
mostly it is used by government agencies. The characteristics of WAN are:
a. It inter connects computers at different sites.
b. It can connect two or more LAN’s too
c. It operates nationwide or worldwide.
d. Links are slow as compared to LAN’s i.e. 1200 kbps
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SIGNALS USED IN NETWORK COMMUNICATION
To transfer the data we use different types of signals in communication,
they are
1. Analog 2. Digital

1. Analog signal
Analog refers to continues set of specific points of data and all possible points between.
Analog signals can have any value in a range.

2. Digital signal
Digital signal is discrete. It can have only limited number of defined value often as simple as
1 and 0. It is as a light being switched off and on. Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes
(sender and receiver) through lines of connection. Topology is a structure representing how the
systems are connected in a network. The systems or nodes are connected in different way to form a
network.
Types of Network Topologies
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Mesh Topology
4. Hybrid Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Star Topology

1. Bus Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer
computer and network device is connected to
single cable.
Features of Bus Topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single
cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other
network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the networknetwor
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.

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2. Ring Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring
as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the
first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
1. The transmission is unidirectional, but it
can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
Topology
2. In Dual Ring Topology, Topology two ring
networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction
ction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup,
to keep the network up.
3. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to
pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring r topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3. Mesh Topology
Generally, there are two types of Mesh Topologies
they are
1. Partial Mesh Topology
2. Full Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology

In this topology some of the systems are
connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only
connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology

In this topology Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

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4. Tree Topology (Hierarchical Topology) T
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology.
topology It should at least
have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

5. Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a
mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in
an office in one department ring topology is used and
in
n another star topology is used, connecting these
topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of
the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

6. Star Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated
connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical
Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low
network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only thatt node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
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Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

INTERNET
The international network is broadly called as internet.
• The internet is a global network that connects billions of computers all over the world.
• It is also called as network of networks.
networks
• The internet links different organizations, academic institutions, government offices,
and home users to share information among large group of users.
• Internet is a worldwide global system of interconnected different kind of computers.
• Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic
devices.. With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information,
communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more. You can do all of this
by connecting a computer to the Internet,
Internet, which is also called going online.

HISTORY OF INTERNET
• In 1971, the first email was sent using @ sign in ARPANET.
• In 1983, the TCP/IP protocols became more strong and sophisticated. Some attributes
addition like acknowledgment (ACK) and reverse acknowledgment (RAK) made the
internetworking as a good outlook.
• In 1990, a CERN scientist Tim Berners Lee proposed a markup language which is named
HTTP later. In this proposed method, Lee connected CERN employees by sharing messages
through this language platform. But this method was limited to CERN members only.
• In 1993, the proposed method of Lee was open to the public and the first website launched in
the world. Although some say that the first website was launched in 1991 but that wasn’t
public or free
• In 1995, famous market place and shop cart amazon.com made their first launch and still
they’re the best sellers in online shopping. Google introduced itself as a search engine in
1997 with yahoo. Both are top search engine now.

Advantages of the Internet

A) We can get information on almost all subjects
B) Internet have powerful search engines.
C) It provides fast communication
D) Chatting around the world will be possible
E) Students can get their subjects as easy as possible.
F) Researchers can get their work very easily from
internet
G) Entertainment can be 24x7 on internet.
H) All types of news, reports can get instantly.
I) It provides audio, video communications also.
J) Can do any thing using online at home
K) Study and jobs also available online using internet.

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Disadvantages of the Internet
1. There are huge amount of data is exist, that may be wrong information exists.
2. Any person can post any thing.
3. Rumors can spread very fastly
4. Some people can getting addicted for unnecessary things like games, jokes, movies, etc..
5. Lots of adultery and violent content will be harmful to children.
6. Every one can easily waste their valuable time on it.
7. It contains fake websites
8. Virus, hackers, etc can be damage to ours a lot.
9. We easily lost our identity or integrity on internet.
10. Medically its very important to know, we will effect so many physical problems as well as
psychological problems.

INTERNET APPLICATIONS
Internet is interconnection of large number of heterogeneous computer networks all over the world that
can share information back and forth.
The internet is treated as one of the biggest invention and it has large number of uses.
They are mainly
1. Search engine
It can be used to search anything and everything. Most popular search engines are Google
and yahoo.
2. Communication
This is a major role of the internet. It helps people to communicate either with the use of
social networking websites or through e mails. Even chatting is a major use of the internet.
3. Studying
Now right from kinder garden children are exposed to internet and computers. They find
many useful things to learn on the internet.
4. Health and Medicine
Internet provides information and knowledge about field of health and medicine. People can
have information about various diseases and can receive help. Patient can be taken to virtual
check room where they can meet doctors.
5. Travel
One can use internet to gather information about various tourist place. It can be used for
booking holiday tours, hotels, train and flights. Some of the web sites providing this service air
India travels. Org. com, raj travel. Com, make mytrip. Com.
6. Entertainment
Songs, movies, latest sports update through internet some of the web sites providing this
services are cricinfo.com.
7. Shopping
Internet is also used for online shopping. By just giving accounts details you can perform the
transaction you can even pay your bills and perform bank related transaction.
8. Stock Market Updates
You can sell or bases shares white sitting on computer through interest several websites like
ndtv profit.com, money pore.com, provide information regarding investment.
9. Research
A large number of people are using internet for research purposes you can download any kind
information by using internet.

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DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)

Domain names are specific names used in URLs to identify particular Web pages. A name that
identifies one or more IP addresses.
For example, in the URL http://www.hotmail.com, the domain name is hotmail.com.

• DNS stands for Domain Name System.

• DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the
network and its numerical address.
• DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
• Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols
specified by dots.
• DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users of
networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of remembering
the IP addresses.
• For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most
people would reach this site by specifying ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is
more reliable than IP address.

The domain name space is divided into three different sections:

1. GENERIC DOMAIN
2. COUNTRY DOMAINS
3. INVERSE DOMAIN.

1. Generic Domains
It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.
Label Description
aero Airlines and aerospace companies
biz Businesses or firms
com Commercial Organizations
coop Cooperative business Organizations
edu Educational institutions
gov Government institutions
info Information service providers
int International Organizations
mil Military groups
museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations
name Personal names
net Network Support centers
org Nonprofit Organizations
pro Professional individual Organizations

2. Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character country
abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character organizational
abbreviations.

3. Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has received a
request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized clients. To determine
whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for
mapping an address to the name.
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Working of DNS
• DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send requests to
the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
• Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a forward
DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted into a name known
as reverse DNS lookups.
• DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on the
internet.
• If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of
software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP address
of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP address associated with a hostname,
then it forwards the request to another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver,
which in turn completes the request over the internet protocol

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

The term “internet service provider (ISP)” refers to a company that provides access to the internet to
both personal and business customers. ISPs make it possible for their customers to surf the web,
shop online, conduct business, and connect with family and friends—all for a fee.
ISPs may also provide other services, including email services, domain registration, web hosting,
and browser packages. An ISP may also be referred to as an information service provider, a storage
service provider, an internet network service provider (INSP), or any combination of these three
based on the services offered by the company.
• An internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides web access to businesses and
consumers.
• ISPs may also provide other services such as email services, domain registration, web
hosting, and browser services.
• An ISP is considered to be an information service provider, storage service provider, internet
network service provider (INSP), or a mix of all of them.
• Internet use has evolved from only those with university or government accounts having
access to nearly everyone having access, whether it’s paid or free.
• Access has gone from dial-up connections to high-speed broadband technology.

PURPOSE OF ISP
Internet service was originally limited to government agencies and specific university Departments.
The technology was developed to provide access to the general public through the World Wide Web
in the late 1980s. Initially, consumers were able to gain limited access through a few ISPs—America
Online (AOL) being one of the most recognized names at the time—that used dial-up connections
using a phone line.
The number of ISPs increased to several thousand during the mid-1990s, and the boom was
on. As the options for connectivity increased and speeds moved away from slower dial-up
connections, the internet economy was born. Providers developed more advanced technology,
allowing customers high-speed access via broadband technology through cable and digital
subscriber line (DSL) modems.
Internet service providers provide their customers access to the internet—plain access
providers just handle the traffic between the individual and the internet as a whole. But there may
also be other services bundled in depending on the customer’s location and availability.
Some of these services include:
• Email services
• Web hosting services
• Domain registration
• Browser and software packages

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HOW INTERNET WORKS
When you turn on your computer and type a domain name in the browser search bar, your browser
sends a request to the DNS server to get the corresponding IP address. After getting the IP
address, the browser forwards the request to the respective server. Once the server gets the
request to provide information about a particular website, the data starts flowing. The data is
transferred through the optical fiber cables in digital format or in the form of light pulses. As the
servers are placed at distant places, the data may have to travel thousands of miles through optical
fiber cable to reach your computer.

The optical fiber is connected to a router, which converts the light signals into electrical
signals. These electrical signals are transmitted to your laptop using an Ethernet cable. Thus, you
receive the desired information through the internet, which is actually a cable that connects you
with the server.
Furthermore, if you are using wireless internet using wifi or mobile data, the signals from the
optical cable are first sent to a cell tower and from where it reaches to your cell phone in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
The internet is managed by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers) located in the USA. It manages IP addresses assignment, domain name registration, etc.
The data transfer is very fast on the internet.
The moment you press enter you get the information from a server located thousands of
miles away from you. The reason for this speed is that the data is sent in the binary form (0, 1), and
these zeros and ones are divided into small pieces called packets, which can be sent at high
speed.

INTERNET SERVICES:
Important services of the internet are
1. World Wide Web:
• This also called web or www.
• The collection of all web pages.
• Those web pages provide a information in the form of text, pictures and audio.
2. E-mail:
• E-mail stands for electronic mail. It is most popular fastest mailing service.
• We can send and receive messages is seconds.
3. News groups:
• They are discussion groups on internet.
• They are used for free exchange of information.
4. E-commerce:
• It stands for Electronic commerce.
• Buying and selling can be done through internet. Ex: online shopping and banking.
5. FTP:
• FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It can be used to transfer files easily.
• Multimedia files can be uploaded and downloaded using FTP.
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6. Telnet:
• It is used to access remote computer.
7. Chat:
• Two or more users can live chat with each other.
8. Gopher:
• Gopher is used to search for files via menus.

IP ADDRESS
The format of an IP address is a 32-bit numeric address written as four numbers separated by
periods. Each number can be zero to 255.
For example, 1.177.10.248 could be an IP address.
It is an identifier for a computer on a TCP / IP network.

INTERNET ADDRESSING
To Enter into the network, we have to type the address of the particular website.
• An internet address uniquely identifies a computer on the internet.
• It may also referred to the name or IP address of a website.
• Format of IP address is a 32 bit numeric address written as 4 numbers,
separated by dots. Ex: 1.160.10.240
• IP addresses as four natural numbers from 0-255.
• 4 numbers in an IP address are used in different ways to identify a particular
network and a host on that network.

Three classes of IP address:

1) Class A: supports 16 million hosts on each of 126 networks
2) Class B: supports 65 thousand hosts on each of 16 thousand networks.
3) Class C: suppors 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.

URL - UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR

Just as buildings and houses have a street address, webpages also have unique addresses to help
people to locate them. On the Internet, these addresses are called URLs (Uniform Resource
Locators).
• URL is an acronym for Uniform Resource Locator
• URL is a reference (an address) to a resource on the Internet.
URL has two main components:
1. Protocol identifier:
For the URL http://example.com, the protocol identifier is http.
2. Resource (host)name:
For the URL http://www.example.com , the resource name is example.com .
Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar.
A typical URL could have the form
http://www.example.com/index.html,
which indicates a protocol (http), a hostname (www.example.com), and a file name
(index.html)

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Examples
• Example 1: https://www.bharathidegree.com.
• Example 2: https://www.facebook.com/rameshpuppala79/
• Example 3: anu.ac.in
• Example 4: https://en.wikipedia.org

Types of URL
URL s varies depending on the location of the documents to which user will link. Basically URLS
fall into two categories; Absolute and relative URL. They are described below.
I) Absolute URL
An absolute URL contains all the information necessary to find the files on the internet.
It contains the protocol indicator, host name, folder name and File name.
Absolute URL are similar to address used by the postal service, which include a name,
street address, apartment number, city, state and pin code.
If the protocol indicator or host name is missing some information from a URL, browsers can
not link to a specific file because they won’t know where and how to look for the file.

II) Relative URLS:

A relative URL usually contains only the folder name and file name or just the file name. We
can use these partial URLs when we are pointing to a file that’s located within the same folder
or on the same server as the originating file.
User can use relative URLS to refer to documents in relation to the originating
documents, which is called document. Relative URLS or to the server on which the
originating document resides, which is called server – related URLS.

SEARCHING THE INTERNET

A search engine is used to search the internet.
• A search engine is a software that is designed to carry out web searches.
• It is used to search the www in a systematic way for particular specified information in a
textual web search query.
Some popular search engines :
• Google
• Yahoo
• MSN (Microsoft network)
• AOL (America online)
• BING (Microsoft bing)

Following steps are used to search the internet.

1. Select a search engine.
Ex: google, yahoo.
2. After typing whatever we need to search, and press enter key on the keyboard.
3. Access your results.
4. If we find the required result we can access the data otherwise repeat the above steps as
necessary.

BROWSER
A browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve and display content on the World Wide
Web, including Web pages, images, video and other files.
Browser is a software application which is used as gateway to enter into the network using
the computer system.

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Types of Browsers
Web Browsers are software installed on your PC. To access the Web, you need a web browser,
such as Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox.

Internet Explorer (IE) is a product from software giant Microsoft. This is the most
commonly used browser in the universe. This was introduced in 1995 along with
Windows 95 launch.

Google Chrome web browser is developed by Google and its beta version was first
released on September 2, 2008 for Microsoft Windows. Today, chrome is known to be
one of the most popular web browsers with its global share of more than 50%.

Mozilla Firefox is a new browser

wser derived from Mozilla. It was released in 2004 and
has grown to be the second most popular browser on the Internet.

Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. and included in Mac OS X. It was
first released as a public beta in January 2003. Safari
Safari has very good support for
latest technologies like XHTML, CSS2 and the iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad. etc.

Opera is smaller and faster than most other browsers, yet it is full-
full featured. Fast,
user-friendly,
friendly, with keyboard interface, and more.

Lynx is a fully featured web browser for users on unix.

NetScape Navigator was developed by Netscape Communications Corporation and

was most popular in the 1990’s. Exceptional features were it to rise to fame with a
market share of more than 50%. In
I the 1990’s.

NETWORK SECURITY
Network security is a set of technologies that protects the usability and integrity of a company's
infrastructure by preventing the entry or proliferation within a network of a wide variety of potential
threats
The main concepts of Network security are :
accountability, authentication, authorizations, privacy, confidentiality, integrity, and non-repudiation.
non

Network Security Concepts

1. Firewall
A network device that controls network traffic based on predetermined rules. Firewalls can
also be software-based
based or hardware-based,
hardware based, depending on your network requirements.
2. Intrusion Detection System (IDS)
A network security system designed to detect malicious activity within a network. IDS
systems can be either
her network-based
network or host-based
based and are often used in conjunction with
other network security mechanisms such as firewalls.
3. Intrusion Prevention System (IPS)
A network security system designed to prevent malicious activity within a network by
monitoring network
etwork traffic for suspicious patterns and blocking any activities that appear
dangerous or potentially malicious.

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4. Access Control List (ACL)
A list of rules used to control access to resources on a network, including specific IP
addresses, users, and ports. ACLs can be configured for either read or write operations on
specific network.
5. Network Access Control (NAC)
A network security solution that allows administrators to restrict access to a network based
on the user’s identity, device type, and other criteria.
6. Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
An encrypted network connection used to securely connect two or more private networks
over a public network such as the Internet.
7. Cryptography
The study of how data is protected through encryption algorithms and cryptographic
protocols.
8. SSL/TLS
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) are network protocols used
to secure network traffic.
9. PKI
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a network security solution that uses public-key
cryptography to authenticate network users and their devices.
10. NAT
Network Address Translation (NAT) is a network security technique that allows private
networks to use one or more public IP addresses for outgoing traffic.
11. DDoS
Distributed Denial of Service attacks are malicious attempts to overwhelm network resources
with large amounts of network traffic from multiple sources or locations.
12. IPSec
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) is an internet standard protocol suite for establishing
secure, encrypted connections between network devices.
13. TACACS
Terminal Access Controller Access Control System (TACACS) is a network security protocol
used to authenticate network users and their devices.
14. RADIUS
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) is a network authentication protocol
used to securely connect network users with network services such as VPNs, network
access control (NAC), and wireless networks.
15. WPA/WPA2
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA/WPA2) is the most commonly used wireless network security
protocol for encrypting traffic between Wi-Fi access points and clients.
16. SASL
Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) is a network authentication protocol used to
securely authenticate network users.
17. IPSO
Intrusion Prevention System/Intrusion Detection System (IPSO) is a network security solution
that combines network intrusion detection with network intrusion prevention capabilities.
18. SIEM
Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) is a network security solution that
consolidates log data from multiple sources into one centralized repository for monitoring,
analysis, and reporting.
19. Endpoint Security
Endpoint security is network security solution designed to protect network devices from
malicious activity and threats, including malware and unsecured network connections.
20. UTM
Unified Threat Management (UTM) is a network security solution that combines multiple
network security solutions, such as firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention systems, antivirus
software, and more into one unified platform.
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INFORMATION ASSURANCE
Information assurance (IA) is the practice of assuring information and managing risks related to the
use, processing, storage, and transmission of information. Information assurance includes
protection of the integrity, availability, authenticity, non-repudiation and confidentiality of
user data.

Authentication
Authentication refers to the verification of the validity of a transmission, originator, or process within
an information system.
• Authentication provides the recipient confidence in the data senders validity as well as the
validity of their message.
• There exists many ways to bolster authentication, mainly breaking down into three main
ways, personally identifiable information such as a person's name, address telephone
number, access to a key token, or known information, like passwords.

Integrity
Integrity refers to the protection of information from unauthorized alteration. The goal of information
integrity is to ensure data is accurate throughout its entire lifespan. User authentication is a critical
enabler for information integrity. Information integrity is a function of the number of degrees-of-trust
existing between the ends of an information exchange One way information integrity risk is mitigated
is through the use of redundant chip and software designs. A failure of authentication could pose a
risk to information integrity as it would allow an unauthorized party to alter content.
For example, if a hospital has inadequate password policies, an unauthorized user could gain
access to an information systems governing the delivery of medication to patients and risk altering
the treatment course to the detriment of a particular patient.

Availability
The availability refers to the preservation of data to be retrieved or modified from authorized
individuals.
• Higher availability is preserved through an increase in storage system or channel reliability.
• Breaches in information availability can result from power outages, hardware failures, DDOS,
etc. The goal of high availability is to preserve access to information.
• Availability of information can be bolstered by the use of backup power, spare data channels,
off site capabilities and continuous signal.

Confidentiality
Confidentiality is in essence the opposite of Integrity. Confidentiality is a security measure which
protects against who is able to access the data, which is done by shielding who has access to the
information.
This is different from Integrity as integrity is shielding who can change the information.
Confidentiality is often ensured with the use of cryptography and steganography of data..

Non-repudiation
Non-repudiation is the integrity of the data to be true to its origin, which prevents possible denial that
an action occurred.
• Increasing non-repudiation makes it more difficult to deny that the information comes from a
certain source.
• In other words, it making it so that you can not dispute the source/ authenticity of data.
• Non-repudiation involves the reduction to data integrity while that data is in transit, usually
through the use of a man-in-the-middle attack or phishing.

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CRYPTOGRAPHY
Cryptography is the process of hiding or coding information so that only the person a
message was intended for can read it.
The art of cryptography has been used to code messages for thousands of years and
continues to be used in bank cards, computer passwords, and ecommerce.

There are three types of cryptography:

1. Symmetric key cryptography.
2. Asymmetric key cryptography.
3. Hash Function.

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography

Symmetric key cryptography is also known as secret-key cryptography, and in this type of
cryptography, you can use only a single key. The sender and the receiver can use that single
key to encrypt and decrypt a message. Because there is only one key for encryption and
decryption, the symmetric key system has one major disadvantage: the two parties must
exchange the key in a secure manner. An example of symmetric key cryptography is Blowfish.

2. Asymmetric Key Cryptography

Asymmetric key cryptography is also known as public-key cryptography, and it employs the use
of two keys. This cryptography differs from and is more secure than symmetric key
cryptography. In this system, each user encrypts and decrypts using two keys or a pair of keys
(private key and public key). Each user keeps the private key secret and the public key is
distributed across the network so that anyone can use those public keys to send a message to
any other user. You can use any of those keys to encrypt the message and can use the
remaining key for decryption. An RSA algorithm is an example of asymmetric key cryptography.

3. Hash Function
This algorithm makes no use of any keys. A hash value with a fixed length is calculated based
on the plain text, making it impossible to recover the plain text’s contents. Many operating
systems encrypt passwords using hash functions.

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MALLWARE ("Malicious Software")

Malware, short for malicious software, refers to any intrusive
software developed by cybercriminals (often called hackers) to
steal data and damage or destroy computers and computer
systems.
• Examples of common malware include viruses, worms,
Trojan viruses, spyware, adware, and ransomware.
• Recent malware attacks have exfiltrated data in mass
amounts.
Hackers or cybercriminals use malware to disrupt or
damage a user's system. It is designed to destroy the data
and resources of an organization or an individual. It can cause
an error and can slow down the performance. It can be
delivered by software installations, emails, internet surfing, etc.

Malware can do
• Intelligence and intrusion
Exfiltrates data such as emails, plans, and especially sensitive information like passwords.
• Disruption and extortion
Locks up networks and PCs, making them unusable. If it holds your computer hostage for
financial gain, it's called ransomware.
• Destruction or vandalism
Destroys computer systems to damage your network infrastructure.
• Steal computer resources
Uses your computing power to run botnets, cryptomining programs (cryptojacking), or send
spam emails.
• Monetary gain
Sells your organization's intellectual property on the dark web
It is an umbrella term that includes all types of malicious software like a virus, Trojan horses,
worms, spyware, etc. Almost every kind of disruptive program is included in malware. It
can cause many advertisements to appear on our computer screens, and those ads can be
harmful if we accidentally click on them.
The most common way to keep your system protected from malware is by installing anti-
malware or anti-virus software. Most of the malware can be scanned or removed by using an
antivirus program.

FIREWALLS
A firewall can be defined as a special type of network security device or a software program that
monitors and filters incoming and outgoing network traffic based on a defined set of security rules. It
acts as a barrier between internal private networks and external sources (such as the public
Internet).
The primary purpose of a firewall is to allow non-threatening traffic and prevent malicious or
unwanted data traffic for protecting the computer from viruses and attacks.
A firewall is a cyber security tool that filters network traffic and helps users block malicious
software from accessing the Internet in infected computers.

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This is one of the most problematic questions whether a firewall is a hardware or software.
As stated above, a firewall can be a network security device or a software program on a computer.
This means that the firewall comes at both levels, i.e., hardware and software, though it's best to
have both.

Why Firewall
Firewalls are primarily used to prevent malware and network-based attacks. Additionally, they can
help in blocking application-layer attacks. These firewalls act as a gatekeeper or a barrier. They
monitor every attempt between our computer and another network. They do not allow data packets
to be transferred through them unless the data is coming or going from a user-specified trusted
source.
Firewalls are designed in such a way that they can react quickly to detect and counter-
attacks throughout the network. They can work with rules configured to protect the network and
perform quick assessments to find any suspicious activity. In short, we can point to the firewall as a
traffic controller.

FRAUD TECHNIQUES
Privacy and Data Protection
Although both data protection and privacy are important and the two often come together, these
terms do not represent the same thing.
• Data privacy is focused on defining who has access to data
• Data protection focuses on applying those restrictions.

Data protection safeguards information from loss through backup and recovery. Data
security refers specifically to measures taken to protect the integrity of the data itself against
manipulation and malware. It provides defense from internal and external threats. Data privacy refers
to controlling access to the data.
Data privacy is essential for protecting personal information, establishing trust, complying
with regulations, maintaining ethical practices, driving innovation, and preserving individual
autonomy.
Data privacy Data protection
It focuses on protecting the data from unauthorised
Data privacy is defined as the one having
access. It serves as a technical control over one’s
authorised access to the data.
data.
Data privacy is a form of regulation that Data protection is the mechanism that enforces the
governs and controls the data shared with policies and regulation into motion and prevents it
an entity. from unauthorised access or use.
It is the company’s responsibility of protecting the
data and ensuring the level of privacy set by the
Data privacy is controlled by the user.
users. The company must take precautions for
protecting the data.
Data privacy is concerned about the
Data protection is concerned with keeping the
information not being sold either online or
information safe from hackers.
offline.
Data privacy is to have control over your Data protection ensures that your data is protected
data and use of it. from unethical intervention and access.
Data privacy measure precedes the query
Data protection is the act of safeguarding the data
of security. We often overlook and avoid
already obtained.
this fact.

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