Question ID 5c38a6d5

Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 5c38a6d5
In studying the use of external stimuli to reduce the itching sensation caused by an allergic histamine
response, Louise Ward and colleagues found that while harmless applications of vibration or warming can
provide a temporary distraction, such ______ stimuli actually offer less relief than a stimulus that seems less
benign, like a mild electric shock.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. deceptive

B. innocuous

C. novel

D. impractical

ID: 5c38a6d5 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Ward and colleagues’ findings. As
used in this context, “innocuous” means mild or unharmful. The text describes the vibration and warming that Ward and
colleagues used to alleviate itching as “harmless applications” and goes on to contrast these applications with another
stimulus that actually offers more relief even though it seems to be stronger and “less benign.” This context conveys the idea
that vibration and warming were innocuous stimuli.

Choice A is incorrect because the text focuses on a distinction between harmless stimuli and those that seem to be less
benign. Nothing in the text suggests that any of the treatments are “deceptive,” or misleading; indeed, even the less effective
ones are described as offering some relief. Choice C is incorrect because the text focuses on the amount of relief from
itching offered by harmless stimuli and those that seem to be less benign. The text doesn’t suggest that any of these stimuli
are “novel,” or original and new; heat, vibration, and electricity aren’t new inventions. Choice D is incorrect because it wouldn’t
make sense to describe an application of vibration or warming as “impractical,” or not suitable for use. The text indicates
that these harmless applications are useful in that they offer at least some temporary relief.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4165e701
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 4165e701
Given that the conditions in binary star systems should make planetary formation nearly impossible, it’s not
surprising that the existence of planets in such systems has lacked ______ explanation. Roman Rafikov and
Kedron Silsbee shed light on the subject when they used modeling to determine a complex set of factors that
could support planets’ development.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. a discernible

B. a straightforward

C. an inconclusive

D. an unbiased

ID: 4165e701 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s description of efforts to explain the existence of
planets in binary star systems. As used in this context, describing an explanation as “a straightforward” one would mean that
the explanation is direct and uncomplicated. The text asserts that since it should be “nearly impossible” for planets to form
in binary star systems, it’s “not surprising” that there isn’t a straightforward explanation for the existence of planets in such
systems; the fact that one potential approach involves “complex” factors offers further contextual support for this idea.

Choice A is incorrect because it would not make sense in context to say that there isn’t “a discernible” explanation—meaning
an explanation capable of being perceived—for the existence of planets in binary star systems. The text discusses just such
an explanation offered by Roman Rafikov and Kedron Silsbee, which indicates that their explanation can be
discerned. Choice C is incorrect because the text emphasizes how difficult it is to explain the existence of planets in binary
star systems, suggesting that the situation isn’t marked by the lack of “an inconclusive” explanation—an explanation that
does not resolve the issue—but rather that if any explanations have been offered, they’ve likely been inconclusive
ones. Choice D is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests that there is a lack of “an unbiased,” or impartial and
unprejudiced, explanation for the existence of planets in binary star systems. The text indicates that it’s difficult to explain
the existence of planets in such systems and it describes one attempt to do so, but there is no evidence that explanations
from Roman Rafikov and Kedron Silsbee or others are biased.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 841a15d0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 841a15d0

Text 1
Films and television shows commonly include a long list of credits naming the people involved in a
production. Credit sequences may not be exciting, but they generally ensure that everyone’s contributions are
duly acknowledged. Because they are highly standardized, film and television credits are also valuable to
anyone researching the careers of pioneering cast and crew members who have worked in the mediums.

Text 2
Video game scholars face a major challenge in the industry’s failure to consistently credit the artists,
designers, and other contributors involved in making video games. Without a reliable record of which people
worked on which games, questions about the medium’s development can be difficult to answer, and the
accomplishments of all but its best-known innovators can be difficult to trace.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 1 most likely respond to the discussion in Text 2?
A. By recommending that the scholars mentioned in Text 2 consider employing the methods regularly used
by film and television researchers

B. By pointing out that credits have a different intended purpose in film and television than in the medium
addressed by the scholars mentioned in Text 2

C. By suggesting that the scholars mentioned in Text 2 rely more heavily on credits as a source of
information than film and television researchers do

D. By observing that a widespread practice in film and television largely prevents the kind of problem faced
by the scholars mentioned in Text 2

ID: 841a15d0 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it reflects how the author of Text 1 would most likely respond to Text 2 based on the
information provided. Text 2 discusses how the inconsistent use of credits to identify the contributors to video games can
pose an obstacle to scholars of the medium, who rely on such credits to answer questions about the medium’s development.
Text 1 notes that in film and television, on the other hand, credits are used consistently and are valuable to researchers
studying the cast and crew members in these mediums. Since Text 1 asserts how the consistent use of credits benefits
scholars of film and television, it can be inferred that this text’s author would respond to the discussion in Text 2 by
observing that the kind of problem faced by scholars of video games—the inability to know who contributed to a particular
production and how—is, in film and television studies, largely prevented by the widespread practice of credits in these
mediums.

Choice A is incorrect. Although Text 1 discusses a method used by film and television researchers—namely, relying on
credits to research the careers of cast and crew members—the author doesn’t explicitly recommend that or any other
method. Moreover, Text 1 states that films and television shows themselves, not their researchers, regularly use the method
of listing credits. Choice B is incorrect. It can be inferred from Text 2 that when video games do feature credits, they have
essentially the same function as credits in film and television—namely, to identify the individuals who worked on a particular
production. Therefore, it is unlikely that the author of Text 1 would characterize video game credits as differing in purpose
from film and television credits. Choice C is incorrect because, as Text 2 explains, credits are not consistently used in video
games. Therefore, it is unlikely that the author of Text 1 would argue that scholars of the medium discussed in this text—
video games—rely more heavily on credits than scholars of film and television, two mediums where credits consistently
appear.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 123cf5db
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 123cf5db
The work of Kiowa painter T.C. Cannon derives its power in part from the tension among his ______
influences: classic European portraiture, with its realistic treatment of faces; the American pop art
movement, with its vivid colors; and flatstyle, the intertribal painting style that rejects the effect of depth
typically achieved through shading and perspective.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. complementary

B. unknown

C. disparate

D. interchangeable

ID: 123cf5db Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the artistic styles that have
influenced Cannon’s work. As used in this context, “disparate” means distinct or dissimilar. The text indicates that a tension
exists among the styles that have influenced Cannon’s work and goes on to describe how those styles differ: classic
European portraiture favors realism, American pop art uses vivid colors, and intertribal flatstyle rejects the use of shading
and perspective to achieve depth. This context suggests that the styles that have influenced Cannon’s work are disparate.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that there is a tension among the influences on Cannon’s artwork, so it
wouldn’t make sense to say that the influences are “complementary,” or that they complete one another or make up for one
another’s deficiencies. Choice B is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to characterize Cannon’s influences as
“unknown,” or not familiar; it’s clear that the influences are known because the text goes on to list them. Choice D is incorrect
because the text indicates that there is a tension among the influences on Cannon’s work, not that they are
“interchangeable,” or capable of being used in one another’s place.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 64506024
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 64506024
Individual elephants and Arctic herbivores such as caribou tend to have fixed geographic ranges throughout
their lifetimes, which had prompted some researchers to speculate that the Arctic woolly mammoth, an
extinct elephantid, might have exhibited similar behavior. Mammoth tusks grew in sequential layers,
incorporating ingested minerals and organics, and so each ivory stratum reflects the ratio of strontium
isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) in the local environment; thus, the sequence of strata shows where the animal roamed
during life. Recent analysis of the strontium ratios in the strata of one Arctic woolly mammoth tusk in relation
to the geographic distribution of strontium ratios in the environment shows the animal’s range begin to
expand as it reached sexual maturity, only to contract again in its final 1.5 years.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined statement in the text as a whole?
A. It discusses a characteristic shared by certain animals in order to explain why researchers raised a
possibility that turned out not to be supported by data described later in the text.

B. It illustrates a pattern of behavior among certain animals in order to present a theory about exceptions to
that pattern that is weakened by a finding described later in the text.

C. It describes a similarity in the behavior of certain animals in order to show why a method described later
in the text did not reveal whether another animal also showed that behavior.

D. It introduces a trait shared by certain animals in order to contextualize a hypothesis about the origin of
that trait that is advanced later in the text.

ID: 64506024 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined statement functions in the text as a
whole. The underlined statement mentions a category of animals that have a feature in common: they tend to have fixed
geographic ranges throughout their lifetimes. The text then presents the speculation of some researchers that the Arctic
woolly mammoth might also share this characteristic. However, an examination of the content of strontium in the strata (or
layers) of a woolly mammoth tusk indicated that contrary to the researchers’ hypothesis, the mammoth had an expanding
range in its environment that contracted in its last 1.5 years of life. Thus, the underlined statement discusses a characteristic
shared by certain animals in order to explain why researchers raised a possibility that turned out not to be supported by data
described later in the text.

Choice B is incorrect. Though the underlined statement presents a pattern of behavior (the habit of certain animals of
staying within a fixed geographic range), the rest of the text does not present a theory of exceptions to that pattern; rather,
the researchers are merely concerned with whether one particular animal has behavior consistent with the pattern. Choice C
is incorrect. Though the underlined statement does describe a similarity in the behavior of certain animals (their tendency to
stay within a fixed geographic range), this is not done in order to show why a method described later in the text failed to
show whether another animal showed that behavior; rather, the method of analysis of strata of a woolly mammoth tusk
showed that the mammoth’s behavior was different from that of the animals mentioned in the underlined statement. Choice
D is incorrect. Though the underlined statement mentions a trait shared by a number of animals (their fixed geographic
range), the rest of the text does not present a hypothesis regarding the origin of that trait; rather, the researchers are
concerned with whether another particular animal shares that trait.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 5fcb69f9
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 5fcb69f9
Barring major archaeological discoveries, we are unlikely to ever have ______ account of ancient Egypt under
the female pharaoh Hatshepsut, as much of the evidence of her reign was deliberately destroyed by her
successors.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. an imaginative

B. a superficial

C. an exhaustive

D. a questionable

ID: 5fcb69f9 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of historical evidence about ancient
Egypt under the reign of the pharaoh Hatshepsut. In this context, "an exhaustive" account would be a thorough one. The text
states that much of the evidence from her reign was purposely destroyed—in other words, there is a lack of surviving
records. This context conveys that unless there are major new archaeological discoveries, an exhaustive account of
Hatshepsut’s reign is unlikely.

Choice A is incorrect because in this context, "an imaginative" account would be an account based on imagination, or ideas
and speculation, rather than facts. The text indicates that much of the evidence of Hatshepsut’s reign was deliberately
destroyed, and a lack of evidence actually makes it more likely that accounts will be imaginative to some degree and not
strictly factual. Choice B is incorrect because in this context, "a superficial" account would be one that is lacking in depth or
concerned only with what is obvious. The text indicates that most evidence of Hatshepsut’s reign was purposely destroyed,
which suggests that accounts of that time are likely already somewhat superficial, since there is little information available
to support deeper knowledge. Further, it would be illogical to suggest that discovering major new evidence would make it
more likely that accounts would be superficial. Choice D is incorrect because "a questionable" account would be one likely to
be challenged or doubted, and since the text suggests that little evidence of Hatshepsut’s reign has survived, accounts of
that time probably involve some speculation and thus may already be open to doubt. Further, it would be illogical to suggest
that discovering major new evidence would make it more likely that accounts would be questionable.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 9c607676
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 9c607676
Text 1
Growth in the use of novel nanohybrids—materials created from the conjugation of multiple distinct
nanomaterials, such as iron oxide and gold nanomaterials conjugated for use in magnetic imaging—has
outpaced studies of nanohybrids’ environmental risks. Unfortunately, risk evaluations based on nanohybrids’
constituents are not reliable: conjugation may alter constituents’ physiochemical properties such that
innocuous nanomaterials form a nanohybrid that is anything but.
Text 2
The potential for enhanced toxicity of nanohybrids relative to the toxicity of constituent nanomaterials has
drawn deserved attention, but the effects of nanomaterial conjugation vary by case. For instance, it was
recently shown that a nanohybrid of silicon dioxide and zinc oxide preserved the desired optical transparency
of zinc oxide nanoparticles while mitigating the nanoparticles’ potential to damage DNA.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the assertion in the underlined
portion of Text 1?

A. By concurring that the risk described in Text 1 should be evaluated but emphasizing that the risk is more
than offset by the potential benefits of nanomaterial conjugation

B. By arguing that the situation described in Text 1 may not be representative but conceding that the effects
of nanomaterial conjugation are harder to predict than researchers had expected

C. By denying that the circumstance described in Text 1 is likely to occur but acknowledging that many
aspects of nanomaterial conjugation are still poorly understood

D. By agreeing that the possibility described in Text 1 is a cause for concern but pointing out that
nanomaterial conjugation does not inevitably produce that result

ID: 9c607676 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The author of Text 2 acknowledges that nanohybrids may be more toxic than their constituent
parts, but also provides an example of a nanohybrid that has reduced toxicity compared to its components: silicon dioxide
and zinc oxide together have all the benefits of zinc oxide nanoparticles without any of the DNA harm zinc oxide has on its
own.

Choice A is incorrect. While the author of Text 2 gives an example of a nanohybrid that isn’t as toxic as its constituent parts,
they don’t argue that the benefit outweighs the risk. They merely argue that “the effects of nanomaterial conjugation vary by
case.” Choice B is incorrect. The author of Text 2 states that the effects of nanomaterial conjugation “vary by case,” and that
the attention that their potential toxicity has drawn is warranted. If the situation in Text 1 weren’t representative, then there
would be less attention to the potential danger of these materials. Furthermore, neither passage suggests that researchers
had expected that they could predict the effects of nanomaterial conjugation. Choice C is incorrect. The author of Text 2
agrees that the potential toxicity of nanohybrids “has drawn deserved attention,” so they aren’t denying the problem.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d995ff9d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: d995ff9d
Historians have argued that a crucial component of the Civil Rights Movement’s success in the 1960s was
the Southern Christian Leadership Conference’s Citizen Education Program (CEP), which invited promising
activists from across the South to its one-week training sessions in Dorchester, Georgia. Led by experienced
organizers such as Dorothy Cotton and Septima Clark, CEP attendees—more than 7,000 in all—participated in
workshops on topics ranging from public speaking to legal doctrine before returning home and using their
newly acquired knowledge to spearhead local civil rights initiatives.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It underscores the extent of the CEP’s impact on the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s.

B. It illustrates the CEP organizers’ efforts to educate participants on a wide variety of topics.

C. It suggests that CEP attendees held a diverse array of opinions about the Southern Christian Leadership
Conference’s political philosophy.

D. It establishes that criticism of the CEP was limited to a few individuals in the Southern Christian
Leadership Conference.

ID: d995ff9d Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a
whole. The first sentence of the text states that the CEP had a positive impact on the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
The next sentence explains that the CEP organized workshops for attendees, who later used the knowledge they gained to
lead civil rights initiatives. And the underlined portion indicates the number of activists—more than 7,000—who participated
in the workshops. Thus, the underlined portion provides a number that underscores the extent of the CEP’s impact on the
Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the sentence that contains the underlined portion mentions some CEP workshop topics, the
underlined portion itself addresses the number of participants in the CEP workshops, not the number of topics covered.
Choice C is incorrect. Although the underlined portion refers to attendees of the CEP workshops, nothing in the underlined
portion or the text as a whole addresses the Southern Christian Leadership Conference’s philosophy or the attendees’
opinions thereof. Choice D is incorrect because neither the underlined portion nor the text as a whole mentions any criticism
of the CEP by members of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a84b11c2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: a84b11c2
Some scientists have suggested that mammals in the Mesozoic era were not a very ______ group, but
paleontologist Zhe-Xi Luo’s research suggests that early mammals living in the shadow of dinosaurs weren’t
all ground-dwelling insectivores. Fossils of various plant-eating mammals have been found in China,
including species like Vilevolodon diplomylos, which Luo says could glide like a flying squirrel.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. predatory

B. obscure

C. diverse

D. localized

ID: a84b11c2 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the kinds of mammals alive during
the Mesozoic era. As used in this context, “diverse” means to have a significant amount of variety. The text indicates that
some scientists have suggested that Mesozoic mammals can’t be characterized in a certain way, then contrasts the view put
forward by those scientists with Luo’s research, which shows that Mesozoic mammals “weren’t all ground-dwelling
insectivores” and instead were “various.” This context suggests that some scientists have viewed Mesozoic mammals as
being all alike, or not a very diverse group.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that some scientists have suggested that Mesozoic mammals
weren’t very “predatory,” or that they didn’t prey on other animals, since the text establishes a contrast between what some
scientists have suggested and Luo’s research showing that Mesozoic mammals “weren’t all ground-dwelling insectivores.”
This context suggests that some scientists have regarded Mesozoic mammals as all being insectivores, or animals that prey
on insects, not that some scientists have suggested that Mesozoic mammals didn’t prey on other animals. Choice B is
incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that some scientists have suggested that Mesozoic mammals weren’t very
“obscure,” or concealed or not well known, since the text establishes a contrast between what some scientists have
suggested and Luo’s research showing that Mesozoic mammals were a varied group. There’s no contrast between saying
that the mammals weren’t concealed or well known and the mammals being varied. Choice D is incorrect because it wouldn’t
make sense to say that some scientists have suggested that Mesozoic mammals weren’t very “localized,” or confined to a
particular area, since the text establishes a contrast between what some scientists have suggested and Luo’s research
showing that Mesozoic mammals were a varied group. There’s no contrast between saying that the mammals weren’t
localized and the mammals being varied. Although the text mentions mammal fossils found in China, nothing in the
discussion of Luo’s research addresses the limits of Mesozoic mammal habitats.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID f2e39001
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: f2e39001
Scholarly discussions of gender in Shakespeare’s comedies often celebrate the rebellion of the playwright’s
characters against the rigid expectations ______ by Elizabethan society. Most of the comedies end in
marriage, with characters returning to their socially dictated gender roles after previously defying them, but
there are some notable exceptions.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. interjected

B. committed

C. illustrated

D. prescribed

ID: f2e39001 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of gender roles in Shakespeare’s
comedies. As used in this context, “prescribed” would mean laid down as rules. The text indicates that the characters in the
comedies often defy gender roles that are “socially dictated” (even if most characters do return to those roles eventually)
and that scholars have been very interested in these acts of defiance. This context indicates that what the characters are
rebelling against are standards of behavior prescribed by the society of the time.

Choice A is incorrect because saying that expectations about gender were “interjected,” or suddenly inserted between other
things, wouldn’t make sense in context. There’s no suggestion in the text that the issue of gender roles was inserted between
other things or was an interruption in a larger discussion. Choice B is incorrect because the text indicates that Shakespeare
depicts characters rebelling against expectations about gender that have been “socially dictated,” not expectations that
society has “committed,” or carried out, entrusted, or promised. Choice C is incorrect because the text indicates that
Shakespeare depicts characters rebelling against expectations about gender that have been “socially dictated,” not
expectations that have been “illustrated,” or clarified with examples. Although it’s possible for expectations about gender
roles to be illustrated, there’s nothing in the text to indicate that characters in Shakespeare’s comedies rebel against
illustrations of gender expectations.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 401e1856
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 401e1856
Changes to vegetation cover and other human activities influence carbon and nitrogen levels in soil, though
how deep these effects extend is unclear. Hypothesizing that differences in land use lead to differences in
carbon and nitrogen levels that are not restricted to the topsoil layer (0–30 cm deep), Chukwuebuka Okolo
and colleagues sampled soils across multiple land-use types (e.g., grazing land, cropland, forest) within each
of several Ethiopian locations. They found, though, that across land-use types, carbon and nitrogen
decreased to comparably low levels beyond depths of 30 cm.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It describes a phenomenon that scientists do not fully understand, explains a research team’s hypothesis
about that phenomenon, and then describes a finding that led the team to refine the hypothesis.

B. It introduces an unresolved scientific question, presents a research team’s hypothesis pertaining to that
question, and then describes an observation made by the team that conflicts with that hypothesis.

C. It discusses a process that scientists are somewhat unclear about, introduces competing hypotheses
about that process, and then explains how a research team concluded that one of those hypotheses is
likely correct.

D. It explains a hypothesis that has been the subject of scientific debate, discusses how a research team
tested that hypothesis, and then presents data the team collected that validate the hypothesis.

ID: 401e1856 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most accurately describes the overall structure of the text. The text begins by
explaining that human activities influence carbon and nitrogen levels in soil, but how deeply these effects are seen in the soil
remains an unresolved question. Next, the text summarizes Okolo and colleagues’ hypothesis regarding this question—
which is that the different effects on carbon and nitrogen levels associated with different types of land use would also be
observed below the topsoil layer—and then briefly explains the methods they used to test this hypothesis. Finally, the text
states that the researchers found that at depths below the topsoil layer, carbon and nitrogen decreased to similarly low
levels across all land-use types, a finding that conflicts with the team’s hypothesis presented earlier in the text. Thus, the text
introduces an unresolved scientific question, presents a research team’s hypothesis pertaining to that question, and then
describes an observation that the team made that conflicted with their hypothesis.

Choice A is incorrect. Although the text introduces a phenomenon (the fact that human activities influence carbon and
nitrogen levels in the soil) that isn’t fully understood by scientists and explains a research team’s hypothesis about the
phenomenon, the text doesn’t describe how the team refined their hypothesis when a research finding contradicted it. Choice
C is incorrect because the text doesn’t discuss a process at all; rather, it poses an unsolved scientific question and presents
a hypothesis that Okolo and colleagues tested to answer that question. Moreover, the text only describes one hypothesis; it
doesn’t mention any competing hypotheses, nor does it suggest that Okolo’s team was able to determine which hypothesis
was correct. Choice D is incorrect because the text doesn’t begin by presenting a hypothesis that is under scientific debate;
rather, it presents a question that scientists have been unable to answer and then introduces a hypothesis formulated by
Okolo and colleagues. While the text does explain how Okolo’s team tested their hypothesis, the text goes on to say that their
data conflicted with their hypothesis, not that the data validated, or supported, their hypothesis.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bfcbec2d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: bfcbec2d
A number of Indigenous politicians have been elected to the United States Congress since 2000 as members
of the country’s two established political parties. In Canada and several Latin American countries, on the
other hand, Indigenous people have formed their own political parties to advance candidates who will
advocate for the interests of their communities. This movement has been particularly successful in Ecuador,
where Guadalupe Llori, a member of the Indigenous party known as Pachakutik, was elected president of the
National Assembly in 2021.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To trace the history of an Indigenous political movement and speculate about its future development

B. To argue that Indigenous politicians in the United States should form their own political party

C. To highlight two approaches to achieving political representation for Indigenous people

D. To consider how Indigenous politicians in the United States have influenced Indigenous politicians in
Canada and Latin America

ID: bfcbec2d Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text, which is to illustrate two
approaches that Indigenous politicians have taken to achieve political representation for their communities. The text begins
by explaining that one approach is exemplified by Indigenous politicians in the United States who, in an effort to ensure that
the interests of their communities are represented in government, joined preexisting political parties and were subsequently
elected to Congress. The text goes on to highlight a second approach adopted by Indigenous leaders in Canada and several
Latin American countries: rather than joining established political parties, many Indigenous politicians in these countries
have instead formed their own parties to promote candidates for office who support causes that are important to their
communities.

Choice A is incorrect because the text’s focus is on the contrasting approaches adopted by different Indigenous political
movements in different countries; thus, it isn’t accurate to say that the text traces the history of one political movement.
Moreover, the text only discusses examples from 2000 to 2021, a relatively short period of time; therefore, it provides very
little in the way of discussion of larger historical developments, nor does it make any predictions about how these
movements might continue to develop in the future. Choice B is incorrect because the text never urges Indigenous
politicians in the US to alter their strategy of striving for representation through the established political parties, nor does it
suggest that this strategy is inferior to that of Indigenous politicians in Canada and Latin America, who have formed their
own parties. In fact, the text notes that both strategies have resulted in the election of Indigenous politicians to national
governments. Choice D is incorrect because the text never suggests that Indigenous politicians in the US have influenced
those in Canada and Latin America; instead, it stresses how Indigenous politicians’ approach toward achieving
representation in the US government has differed from the approach Indigenous politicians have taken to achieve
representation in national governments elsewhere in the Americas.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bf0c8b48
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: bf0c8b48
The following text is adapted from George Eliot’s 1871–72 novel Middlemarch.

[Mr. Brooke] had travelled in his younger years, and was held in this part of the country to have
contracted a too rambling habit of mind. Mr. Brooke’s conclusions were as difficult to predict as the
weather.

As used in the text, what does the word “contracted” most nearly mean?
A. Restricted

B. Described

C. Developed

D. Settled

ID: bf0c8b48 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because as used in the text, “contracted” most nearly means developed. The text explains that
Mr. Brooke has a “too rambling habit of mind,” which the text likens to a disease, saying he is thought to have contracted it.
To contract a disease means to acquire or develop a disease. In other words, the text indicates that Mr. Brooke is believed to
have acquired, or developed, the habit of mind described in the text.

Choice A is incorrect. Although “contracted” can mean limited or restricted in some contexts, here Mr. Brooke is said to draw
unpredictable conclusions, suggesting that he exhibits this “too rambling habit of mind,” not that it has been somehow
limited or restricted. Choice B is incorrect. Although the text describes Mr. Brooke’s habit of mind, nothing suggests that
those are his descriptions or, indeed, that he described his habit of mind at all. Choice D is incorrect because settled means
calmed or mitigated, but here Mr. Brooke is said to draw unpredictable conclusions, suggesting that he exhibits this “too
rambling habit of mind,” not that it has been somehow calmed or mitigated.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID da17503b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: da17503b
Space scientists Anna-Lisa Paul, Stephen M. Elardo, and Robert Ferl planted seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana in
samples of lunar regolith—the surface material of the Moon—and, serving as a control group, in terrestrial
soil. They found that while all the seeds germinated, the roots of the regolith-grown plants were stunted
compared with those in the control group. Moreover, unlike the plants in the control group, the regolith-grown
plants exhibited red pigmentation, reduced leaf size, and inhibited growth rates—indicators of stress that
were corroborated by postharvest molecular analysis.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It describes an experiment that addressed an unresolved question about the extent to which lunar regolith
resembles terrestrial soils.

B. It compares two distinct methods of assessing indicators of stress in plants grown in a simulated lunar
environment.

C. It presents evidence in support of the hypothesis that seed germination in lunar habitats is an
unattainable goal.

D. It discusses the findings of a study that evaluated the effects of exposing a plant species to lunar soil
conditions.

ID: da17503b Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text describes an experiment wherein space scientists compared plant growth in terrestrial
and lunar soil conditions. It then discusses the findings of the study, including the fact that all the seeds germinated but that
the plants grown in lunar soil exhibited signs of stress.

Choice A is incorrect. The text doesn’t address this question, and never describes any specific characteristics of either soil. It
merely describes the outcome of an experiment that exposed a plant species to lunar soil conditions. Choice B is incorrect.
The text never compares methods of assessing indicators of stress—instead, it simply mentions several stress indicators
observed in the study (red pigmentation, reduced leaf size, and inhibited growth rates). Choice C is incorrect. The text doesn’t
present any evidence that we could never achieve seed germination in lunar habitats, and in fact states that the seeds in the
lunar soil did germinate.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6a9bf335
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 6a9bf335
Studying late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century artifacts from an agricultural and domestic site in
Texas, archaeologist Ayana O. Flewellen found that Black women employed as farm workers utilized hook-
and-eye closures to fasten their clothes at the waist, giving themselves a silhouette similar to the one that
was popular in contemporary fashion and typically achieved through more restrictive garments such as
corsets. Flewellen argues that this sartorial practice shows that these women balanced hegemonic ideals of
femininity with the requirements of their physically demanding occupation.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To describe an unexpected discovery that altered a researcher’s view of how rapidly fashions among
Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas changed during the period

B. To discuss research that investigated the ways in which Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and
early twentieth-century Texas used fashion practices to resist traditional gender ideals

C. To evaluate a scholarly work that offers explanations for the impact of urban fashion ideals on Black
female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas

D. To summarize the findings of a study that explored factors influencing a fashion practice among Black
female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas

ID: 6a9bf335 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text provides an overview of a scholarly work discussing the fashion practices of Black
female farmworkers in late 19th- and early 20th-century Texas, and how these practices were influenced by both the fashion
ideals of the time and the demands of farmwork.

Choice A is incorrect. The text never discusses the rate of fashion change among Black female farmworkers. The text also
never categorizes Flewellen’s findings as "unexpected." Choice B is incorrect. The text actually explains that Black female
farmworkers were trying to achieve traditional feminine ideals, not resist them. Choice C is incorrect. The text doesn’t
evaluate a scholarly work but rather simply describes it. Furthermore, the text is focused on "agricultural and domestic"
fashion, not urban fashion as this choice suggests.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 26ac2597
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 26ac2597
The following text is from the 1989 novel The Ancient Child by Kiowa writer N. Scott Momaday. The main
character has achieved tremendous commercial success as a painter.

More and more often he was asked to compromise his art or himself in one way or another, and more
often than not he did so, for he was inclined to be passive and naïve; it was difficult for him to say no.
Those who exhibited his work, who praised and purchased it, and who demanded its proliferation began
to determine it.
©1989 by N. Scott Momaday

As used in the text, what does the word “determine” most nearly mean?
A. Conclude

B. Dictate

C. Evaluate

D. Select

ID: 26ac2597 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because as used in the text "determine" most nearly means "dictate." The text describes the
relationship between the main character and those who exhibit, praise, and purchase his artwork. The text states that the
main character is often asked to change his art or himself based on outside influences, and he usually acquiesces. Because
the main character admits that those who support his work often shape it based on their demands, it follows that those
outside influences dictate, or guide or dominate, the direction his work takes.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t suggest that outside influences "conclude," or end, the main character’s work.
The text states that many supporters of the main character’s art "demand its proliferation," not its conclusion. Choice C is
incorrect because the text doesn’t suggest that outside influences are "evaluating," or judging the main character’s work.
According to the text, the main character’s art has already achieved great commercial success, with many people exhibiting,
purchasing, and praising his work. Thus, outsiders have already supported the main character’s work and are not questioning
or evaluating its success or worth. They are instead influencing its initial direction. Choice D is incorrect because the text
doesn’t suggest that outside influences "select," or choose the main character’s work. According to the text, the main
character’s art has already achieved great commercial success, with many people exhibiting, purchasing, and praising his
work. Thus, outsiders have already supported the main character’s work and are not selecting it. They are instead influencing
its initial direction.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID 7424ea31
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 7424ea31
Text 1
Fossils of the hominin Australopithecus africanus have been found in the Sterkfontein Caves of South Africa,
but assigning an age to the fossils is challenging because of the unreliability of dating methods in this
context. The geology of Sterkfontein has caused soil layers from different periods to mix, impeding
stratigraphic dating, and dates cannot be reliably imputed from those of nearby animal bones since the
bones may have been relocated by flooding.
Text 2
Archaeologists used new cosmogenic nuclide dating techniques to reevaluate the ages of A. africanus
fossils found in the Sterkfontein Caves. This technique involves analyzing the cosmogenic nucleotides in the
breccia—the matrix of rock fragments immediately surrounding the fossils. The researchers assert that this
approach avoids the potential for misdating associated with assigning ages based on Sterkfontein’s soil
layers or animal bones.

Based on the texts, how would the researchers in Text 2 most likely respond to the underlined portion in Text
1?
A. They would emphasize the fact that the A. africanus fossils found in the Sterkfontein Caves may have
been corrupted in some way over the years.

B. They would contend that if analyses of surrounding layers and bones in the Sterkfontein Caves were
combined, then the dating of the fossils there would be more accurate.

C. They would argue that their techniques are better suited than other methods to the unique challenges
posed by the Sterkfontein Caves.

D. They would claim that cosmogenic nuclide dating is reliable in the context of the Sterkfontein Caves
because it is applied to the fossils directly.

ID: 7424ea31 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. Text 2 states that the researchers used cosmogenic nuclide dating to "avoid the potential for
misdating" caused by the geology of Sterkfontein, which Text 1 describes as "challenging" and unreliable.

Choice A is incorrect. Neither text suggests that the A. africanus fossils have been "corrupted," but only that traditional dating
methods are difficult in Sterkfontein because of floods and soil mixing where the fossils were found. Nothing is implied to
have compromised the fossils themselves. Choice B is incorrect. This choice misreads Text 2. Text 2 agrees that
stratigraphy and other methods are prone to error in the context of Sterkfontein: there’s a "potential for misdating" when
evaluating age based on soil layers and bones. Choice D is incorrect. Text 2 does not state that cosmogenic nuclide dating is
applied to the fossils directly but rather to the breccia that surrounds them.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 674aae7d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 674aae7d
Astronomers are confident that the star Betelgeuse will eventually consume all the helium in its core and
explode in a supernova. They are much less confident, however, about when this will happen, since that
depends on internal characteristics of Betelgeuse that are largely unknown. Astrophysicist Sarafina El-Badry
Nance and colleagues recently investigated whether acoustic waves in the star could be used to determine
internal stellar states but concluded that this method could not sufficiently reveal Betelgeuse’s internal
characteristics to allow its evolutionary state to be firmly fixed.

Which choice best describes the function of the second sentence in the overall structure of the text?
A. It describes a serious limitation of the method used by Nance and colleagues.

B. It presents the central finding reported by Nance and colleagues.

C. It identifies the problem that Nance and colleagues attempted to solve but did not.

D. It explains how the work of Nance and colleagues was received by others in the field.

ID: 674aae7d Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it best describes how the second sentence functions in the text as a whole. The first
sentence establishes something astronomers believe with some certainty: that Betelgeuse will explode in a supernova. The
second sentence then introduces a problem: astronomers aren’t certain when Betelgeuse will explode because they don’t
have enough information about the star’s internal characteristics. Finally, the third sentence indicates that researcher
Sarafina El-Badry Nance and colleagues investigated a possible method of obtaining the necessary information about
Betelgeuse’s internal characteristics, though they found that the method wouldn’t be sufficient. Thus, the function of the
second sentence is to identify the problem that Nance and colleagues attempted to solve but didn’t.

Choice A is incorrect because the second sentence introduces the general problem Nance and colleagues hoped to solve,
not a serious limitation of how Nance and colleagues tried to solve it. It is the third sentence that introduces Nance and
colleagues, but no serious limitation of their approach to studying a method of determining internal stellar states is
described. Choice B is incorrect because the second sentence introduces the general problem Nance and colleagues hoped
to solve, not the central finding they ultimately reported. It is the third sentence that presents Nance and colleagues’
conclusion that a potential method for determining internal stellar states would be insufficient. Choice D is incorrect
because the second sentence doesn’t indicate how other astronomers or astrophysicists responded to the work done by
Nance and colleagues; the text doesn’t address this information at all.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 9c97cc5d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 9c97cc5d
Political blogs with conspicuous ideological alignments became an integral component of US media in the
early 2000s. While some commentators lauded this development, asserting that such blogs had a welcome
transparency missing from traditional news, less ______ observers countered that such blogs tended to
ideological extremes that exacerbated political polarization to problematic levels.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. sanguine

B. recalcitrant

C. misanthropic

D. earnest

ID: 9c97cc5d Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of political blogs. In this context,
"sanguine" means optimistic. The text begins by noting the rise of political blogs with readily identifiable ideological
alignments in the early 2000s. The text then indicates that some commentators saw this as a positive development, citing a
reason why (their difference from traditional news). Finally, the text goes on to contrast those commentators with others
who have a negative opinion of the rise of political blogs (because they increase political polarization among their readers).
This context supports the idea that the second group of commentators is less positive than the first: thus, the second group
of commentators is less optimistic, or sanguine.

Choice B is incorrect because it would not make sense in this context to describe those commentators who have a negative
opinion of political blogs as less "recalcitrant," or obstinately uncooperative, than those commentators who supported
political blogs. Choice C is incorrect because the text gives no indication that those commentators who have a negative
opinion of political blogs are less "misanthropic," or less contemptuous of humankind, than those commentators who have a
positive opinion of political blogs—there is no indication in the text that those commentators who like political blogs would
be contemptuous of humankind at all. Choice D is incorrect because there is no evidence that those commentators who
have a negative opinion of political blogs are less "earnest," or sincere, than those who have a positive opinion of such blogs
—presumably, both groups of commentators hold their beliefs with equal conviction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 83e4ea9a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 83e4ea9a
According to Indian economist and sociologist Radhakamal Mukerjee (1889–1968), the Eurocentric
concepts that informed early twentieth-century social scientific methods—for example, the idea that all social
relations are reducible to struggles between individuals—had little relevance for India. Making the social
sciences more responsive to Indians’ needs, Mukerjee argued, required constructing analytical categories
informed by India’s cultural and ecological circumstances. Mukerjee thus proposed the communalist “Indian
village” as the ideal model on which to base Indian economic and social policy.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The text recounts Mukerjee’s early training in the social scientific disciplines and then lists social policies
whose implementation Mukerjee oversaw.

B. The text mentions some of Mukerjee’s economic theories and then traces their impact on other Indian
social scientists of the twentieth century.

C. The text presents Mukerjee’s critique of the social sciences and then provides an example of his attempts
to address issues he identified in his critique.

D. The text explains an influential economic theory and then demonstrates how that theory was more
important to Mukerjee’s work than other social scientists have acknowledged.

ID: 83e4ea9a Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The text does indeed present Mukerjee’s critique of the social sciences—that they were too
Eurocentric—and then provides an example of how he attempted to address the issues he identified: by suggesting a social
science model based on the Indian village.

Choice A is incorrect. The text doesn’t discuss Mukerjee’s early training or his oversight of the implementation of social
policies at all. Choice B is incorrect. The text never discusses any other Indian social scientists. Choice D is incorrect. The
text never mentions other social scientists’ responses to Mukerjee’s work.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 92328e3b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 92328e3b
As discussed by scholar Anna Mladentseva, many artworks produced in the mid-1990s to the early 2000s
exclusively for exhibition on the internet, such as Sinae Kim’s Genesis (2001), have become inaccessible
because viewing them requires the use of ______ software (most notably Adobe Flash, discontinued in 2021).

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. defunct

B. arcane

C. ubiquitous

D. extraneous

ID: 92328e3b Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of artworks that were produced for
exhibition on the internet. In this context, "defunct" means no longer existing or functioning. According to the text, many
artworks that were produced in the mid-1990s to the early 2000s for exhibition on the internet have become inaccessible
due to their reliance on certain software. As an example, the text cites Sinae Kim’s Genesis, which relied on software that
was discontinued in 2021. This context supports the idea that the software is defunct.

Choice B is incorrect because the text indicates that viewing artworks produced in the mid-1990s to the early 2000s for
exhibition on the internet requires the use of software. Artists generally want their works to be seen by many people, so it
wouldn’t make sense for creators of internet art to require the use of software that is "arcane," or known or knowable to only
a few people. Moreover, the text states that a prominent example of software used to view these artworks is Adobe Flash,
which was discontinued in 2021, meaning it’s now defunct. Choice C is incorrect because "ubiquitous" would mean found
everywhere, which wouldn’t make sense in this context. The text indicates that the reason why many artworks that were
produced in the mid-1990s to the early 2000s for exhibition on the internet have become inaccessible has to do with the
software required for viewing them. According to the text, one example of such software is Adobe Flash, which was
discontinued in 2021, meaning it’s now defunct. Choice D is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests that the software
used to view artworks produced in the mid-1990s to the early 2000s for exhibition on the internet is "extraneous," or
irrelevant. Instead, the text indicates that use of specific software is required to view certain artworks from this period and
that the discontinuation of the software renders the works inaccessible.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 306f6d2a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 306f6d2a
The following text is adapted from Herman Melville’s 1855 novel Israel Potter. Israel is a young man
wandering through New England during the late eighteenth century.

He hired himself out for three months; at the end of that time to receive for his wages two hundred acres
of land lying in New Hampshire. [...] His employer proving false to the contract in the matter of the land,
and there being no law in the country to force him to fulfil it, Israel—who, however brave-hearted, and
even much of a dare-devil upon a pinch, seems nevertheless to have evinced, throughout many parts of
his career, a singular patience and mildness—was obliged to look round for other means of livelihood
than clearing out a farm for himself in the wilderness.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?
A. It implies that Israel treasures a particular characteristic of his personality when that characteristic should
usually be regarded as a flaw.

B. It suggests that if not for a certain aspect of his character, Israel might not have been as easily thwarted
in his ambition to establish a farm.

C. It shows why Israel would not have been able to undertake the enormous amount of labor necessary to
run a farm even if he had owned the necessary property.

D. It explains why, when the situation requires it, Israel is able to undertake courageous acts that others
would generally avoid.

ID: 306f6d2a Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole. The text
describes the failed attempt of Israel Potter to establish a farm in New England during the late eighteenth century: according
to his contract, he was to receive two hundred acres in exchange for three months’ work, but his employer then refused to
fulfill the bargain and Israel had no recourse to law to obtain the land he was owed. Israel was therefore forced to find
another means of supporting himself. To explain why Israel was particularly susceptible to his employer’s dishonesty, the
underlined portion states that though Israel was "brave-hearted, and even much of a dare-devil upon a pinch," he also
possessed "a singular patience and mildness." In other words, Israel could be courageous in certain circumstances, but he
was usually meek and disinclined to argument, from which it is reasonable to infer that Israel was often taken advantage of.
Thus, the underlined portion suggests that if not for a certain aspect of his character, Israel might not have been as easily
thwarted in his ambition to establish a farm.
Choice A is incorrect because although the underlined portion describes aspects of Israel’s personality, it does not address
how he feels about his own personality. Choice C is incorrect because the underlined portion addresses Israel’s occasional
courage and frequent meekness but does not address whether he would have the skills and resolve necessary to operate a
farm if he owned sufficient property. Choice D is incorrect. Though the underlined portion does indicate that Israel could be
courageous in certain circumstances, it does not say that he undertook acts of courage that others avoided, but rather that
he was habitually meek. Even if the underlined portion did say that Israel was more courageous than most, this would not
explain why he found himself under the circumstances described in the text—that is, as a consequence of his meek nature,
cheated of the property to which he had a right.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID fda65f0a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: fda65f0a
Text 1
Soy sauce, made from fermented soybeans, is noted for its umami flavor. Umami—one of the five basic
tastes along with sweet, bitter, salty, and sour—was formally classified when its taste receptors were
discovered in the 2000s. In 2007, to define the pure umami flavor scientists Rie Ishii and Michael O’Mahony
used broths made from shiitake mushrooms and kombu seaweed, and two panels of Japanese and US
judges closely agreed on a description of the taste.

Text 2
A 2022 experiment by Manon Jünger et al. led to a greater understanding of soy sauce’s flavor profile. The
team initially presented a mixture of compounds with low molecular weights to taste testers who found it
was not as salty or bitter as real soy sauce. Further analysis of soy sauce identified proteins, including
dipeptides, that enhanced umami flavor and also contributed to saltiness. The team then made a mix of 50
chemical compounds that re-created soy sauce’s flavor.

Based on the texts, if Ishii and O’Mahony (Text 1) and Jünger et al. (Text 2) were aware of the findings of both
experiments, they would most likely agree with which statement?
A. On average, the diets of people in the United States tend to have fewer foods that contain certain
dipeptides than the diets of people in Japan have.

B. Chemical compounds that activate both the umami and salty taste receptors tend to have a higher
molecular weight than those that only activate umami taste receptors.

C. Fermentation introduces proteins responsible for the increase of umami flavor in soy sauce, and those
proteins also increase the perception of saltiness.

D. The broths in the 2007 experiment most likely did not have a substantial amount of the dipeptides that
played a key part in the 2022 experiment.

ID: fda65f0a Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. Ishii and O’Mahony were trying to isolate the pure umami flavor, while Jünger was trying to
recreate soy sauce, which has a mix of flavors that includes umami. Accordingly, the broths from Text 1 are not described as
having any soy sauce in them—just “shiitake mushrooms and kombu seaweed.” So they probably don’t have as much of the
dipeptides described in Text 2, which were found to be a key part of soy sauce’s umami-ness and its saltiness.
Choice A is incorrect. Neither text supports this. Neither text gets into the diets of people in the United States, nor the diets
of people in Japan. Choice B is incorrect. Neither text supports this. Text 2 does talk about the molecular weights of
chemical compounds, but there isn’t enough information provided about molecular weights in Text 1 to make an inference
about what the scientists in Text 1 would say. Choice C is incorrect. Neither text supports this. Text 1 briefly mentions that
soy sauce is “made from fermented soybeans,” but it never claims that fermentation is responsible for its flavor in any way.
And Text 2 never mentions fermentation at all.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e0cdb559
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: e0cdb559
Text 1
Mycoprotein is a fungal biomass that can be eaten as an alternative to meat. Studies of the environmental
impact of its manufacture generally agree it is lower than that of beef and closer to that of chicken or pork.
But the expense of producing mycoprotein restricts its availability to a few countries with postindustrial
economies. Knowing that cost reductions would expand access to mycoprotein, biochemists are exploring
solutions, such as a cheaper substrate to feed the mycoprotein as it grows.

Text 2
Cattle farming is a principal cause of global deforestation, and a study by Florian Humpenöder and his
colleagues found that replacing 20% of beef consumption worldwide with consumption of mycoprotein
would cut deforestation by half if accomplished over the next thirty years. However, this would likely involve
only a small change in agricultural water consumption, since water once dedicated to raising cattle would be
diverted to raising crops instead.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 1 most likely respond to the study findings mentioned in
Text 2?
A. By emphasizing that since agricultural water consumption would remain static in the event of replacing
beef consumption with mycoprotein consumption, an effort must be made to substitute mycoprotein for
chicken and pork in diets as well

B. By asserting that the development of a more inexpensive substrate for mycoprotein production would
contribute to the goal of decreasing worldwide deforestation over time

C. By noting that most people would be more likely to use mycoprotein as a substitute for chicken or pork in
their diets than as a substitute for beef

D. By pointing out that some countries are responsible for greater deforestation than others and thus, to
have any significant effect on the environment, will have to replace more than 20% of their beef
consumption with mycoprotein

ID: e0cdb559 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it reflects how the author of Text 1 would most likely respond to the study findings
described in Text 2. The author of Text 2 discusses a study by Florian Humpenöder and his colleagues that found that
deforestation would be reduced by half over the next thirty years if 20% of the beef consumed worldwide were replaced with
mycoprotein. The author of Text 1 points out that mycoprotein is not widely available because of its high production cost, but
goes on to note that this problem could be addressed by the creation of a cheaper substrate to feed mycoprotein. This
suggests that the author of Text 1 would assert that the development of a less expensive mycoprotein substrate would
contribute to the reduction in deforestation described in the study findings discussed in Text 2: if reducing the cost of
mycoprotein increases people’s access to it, then mycoprotein may be able to replace beef in more people’s diets, thereby
reducing the deforestation associated with beef production.

Choice A is incorrect because the author of Text 1 indicates that the environmental impact of mycoprotein production is
close to that of chicken or pork production, so there is no reason to think that the author would assert that replacing chicken
or pork with mycoprotein would be environmentally beneficial: such a replacement would not lessen the total environmental
impact of food manufacture. Additionally, the specific issue of agricultural water consumption is never mentioned in Text 1,
so there is no evidence indicating what the author of Text 1 would say about that issue. Choice C is incorrect. Although Text
1 does compare the environmental effects of producing mycoprotein to those of producing chicken or pork, nothing in Text 1
suggests that the author believes that people are more likely to replace chicken or pork with mycoprotein than they are to
replace beef with mycoprotein. Choice D is incorrect because Text 1 makes no mention of countries’ varying contributions to
deforestation, so there is no evidence that the author of Text 1 would respond to the finding described in Text 2 by saying
that some countries will have to replace more than 20% of their beef consumption with mycoprotein.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e3d3d5f1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: e3d3d5f1
Critics have asserted that fine art and fashion rarely ______ in a world where artists create timeless works for
exhibition and designers periodically produce new styles for the public to buy. Luiseño/Shoshone-Bannock
beadwork artist and designer Jamie Okuma challenges this view: her work can be seen in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art and purchased through her online boutique.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. prevail

B. succumb

C. diverge

D. intersect

ID: e3d3d5f1 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion about the relationship between fine art
and fashion. As used in this context, “intersect” means to connect or overlap. The text indicates that Jamie Okuma
challenges the position held by critics because her work can be seen at an art museum and can be bought by the public from
her online boutique. The text also presents the critics’ view as being influenced by a perception that fine artists create works
that are “timeless” and meant for exhibition, whereas fashion designers periodically produce new styles that are meant for
purchase. This context suggests that the critics believe that fine art and fashion tend not to overlap—in other words, that
they rarely intersect.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to say that critics contend that fine art and fashion rarely
“prevail,” or prove to be triumphant or widespread. The text indicates that Okuma is an example of an artist who
demonstrates that it’s possible to make fine art that is also available to the public as fashion. Choice B is incorrect because
it wouldn’t make sense in context to say that fine art and fashion rarely “succumb,” or surrender. The text establishes that
unlike what critics believe, Okuma creates works that are in art museums and available for the public to purchase,
suggesting that critics believe fine art and fashion rarely overlap, not that they rarely succumb. Choice C is incorrect because
saying that critics believe that fine art and fashion rarely “diverge,” or disagree or move in different directions, wouldn’t make
sense in context. The text presents Okuma’s work as both fine art and fashion, thereby undermining what the critics assert.
This suggests that the critics believe that fine art and fashion rarely intersect rather than that the two rarely diverge.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 939f1fe8
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 939f1fe8
In Jane Austen’s novel Mansfield Park, an almost imperceptible smile from potential suitor Henry Crawford
causes the protagonist Fanny Price to blush; her embarrassment grows when she suspects that he is aware
of it. This moment—in which Fanny not only infers Henry’s mental state through his gestures, but also infers
that he is drawing inferences about her mental state—illustrates what literary scholar George Butte calls
“deep intersubjectivity,” a technique for representing interactions between consciousnesses through which
Austen’s novels derive much of their social and psychological drama.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It states a claim about Austen’s skill at representing psychological complexity that is reinforced by an
example presented in the following sentence.

B. It advances an interpretation of an Austen protagonist who is contrasted with protagonists from other
Austen novels cited in the following sentence.

C. It describes a recurring theme in Austen’s novels that is the focus of a literary scholar’s analysis
summarized in the following sentence.

D. It provides a synopsis of an interaction in an Austen novel that illustrates a literary concept discussed in
the following sentence.

ID: 939f1fe8 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The underlined sentence provides a concrete example to ground readers’ understanding of the
“deep intersubjectivity” described in the next sentence as central to Austen’s work.

Choice A is incorrect. There is no evaluation made of Austen’s skill in this sentence, and no examples are given in the
following sentence. This choice essentially flips the paragraph: it’s this first sentence that provides an example. Choice B is
incorrect. There are no other Austen protagonists mentioned in this passage, so this couldn’t be the answer. Choice C is
incorrect. The underlined sentence doesn’t identify any “recurring theme,” but instead simply describes one interaction from
one book. This interaction exemplifies the literary technique of “deep intersubjectivity” that is introduced in the next
sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c89da8bc
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: c89da8bc
According to historian Vicki L. Ruiz, Mexican American women made crucial contributions to the labor
movement during World War II. At the time, food processing companies entered into contracts to supply
United States armed forces with canned goods. Increased production quotas conferred greater bargaining
power on the companies’ employees, many of whom were Mexican American women: employees insisted on
more favorable benefits, and employers, who were anxious to fulfill the contracts, complied. Thus, labor
activism became a platform for Mexican American women to assert their agency.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?
A. It elaborates on a claim about labor relations in a particular industry made earlier in the text.

B. It offers an example of a trend in the World War II–era economy discussed earlier in the text.

C. It notes a possible exception to the historical narrative of labor activism sketched earlier in the text.

D. It provides further details about the identities of the workers discussed earlier in the text.

ID: c89da8bc Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it best describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a whole. The text
says that the increased production quotas of food processing companies during World War II enabled employees to make
better bargains in exchange for their labor. The underlined portion presents an example of this increased bargaining power:
employees requested more favorable benefits, and employers complied because they were under pressure to fulfill the
demanding terms of their contracts. Thus, the underlined portion of the text elaborates on a claim about labor relations in a
particular industry (food processing) made earlier in the text.

Choice B is incorrect because there is no indication in the text that the economic factors that influenced food processing
also influenced other parts of the economy; thus, the bargaining described in the underlined portion of the text cannot be
called an example of a trend. Choice C is incorrect because the underlined portion supports the historical narrative of labor
activism in food processing that is sketched in the text, instead of noting an exception to that narrative. Choice D is incorrect
because while the underlined portion does discuss the demands that workers made in exchange for their labor, it does not
discuss the identities of the workers.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 708cf785
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 708cf785
Text 1
Dominique Potvin and colleagues captured five Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) to test a new
design for attaching tracking devices to birds. As the researchers fitted each magpie with a tracker attached
by a small harness, they noticed some magpies without trackers pecking at another magpie’s tracker until it
broke off. The researchers suggest that this behavior could be evidence of magpies attempting to help
another magpie without benefiting themselves.

Text 2
It can be tempting to think that animals are deliberately providing help when we see them removing trackers
and other equipment from one another, especially when a species is known to exhibit other cooperative
behaviors. At the same time, it can be difficult to exclude the possibility that individuals are simply interested
in the equipment because of its novelty, curiously pawing or pecking at it until it detaches.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the researchers’ perspective in
Text 1 on the behavior of the magpies without trackers?
A. That behavior might have been due to the novelty of the magpies’ captive setting rather than to the novelty
of the tracker.

B. That behavior likely indicates that the magpies were deliberately attempting to benefit themselves by
obtaining the tracker.

C. That behavior may not be evidence of selflessness in Gymnorhina tibicen because not all the captured
magpies demonstrated it.

D. That behavior might be adequately explained without suggesting that the magpies were attempting to
assist the other magpie.

ID: 708cf785 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it reflects how the author of Text 2 would most likely respond to the researchers’
perspective in Text 1 on the behavior of the magpies without trackers. According to Text 1, Dominique Potvin and colleagues
observed magpies without trackers pecking at a tracker on another magpie until the device fell off. The researchers
suggested that the birds might have been attempting to help the other bird, with no benefit to themselves. Text 2 generally
discusses scenarios in which animals have been observed removing trackers from each other. The text cautions that it
shouldn’t be assumed that these animals are helping one another deliberately, since they might simply be pecking at trackers
out of curiosity, causing them to fall off eventually. Therefore, the author of Text 2 would most likely respond to Potvin and
colleagues’ perspective in Text 1 by saying that the behavior of the magpies without trackers could be adequately explained
without suggesting that they were attempting to assist the other magpie.

Choice A is incorrect because Text 2 never discusses the novelty, or the newness and unusual quality, of the captive settings
in which animals have been observed to remove trackers from other animals, nor does it suggest that such novelty might
account for this behavior. Instead, the text suggests that it’s the novelty of the tracking equipment itself that might cause the
behavior: interested in the trackers because they’re unusual, animals might paw or peck at them until they fall off. Choice B
is incorrect because Text 2 never suggests that when animals remove trackers from other animals, they do so because they
wish to obtain the trackers for themselves. Instead, Text 2 argues that animals paw or peck at trackers because they are
merely curious about them. Choice C is incorrect because Text 2 doesn’t argue that when captured animals are observed
removing trackers from each other, their behavior should be regarded as selfless only if all of them participate in it. Instead,
the text argues that the behavior may not be selfless at all and may instead be attributed to animals’ curiosity about the new
and unusual trackers.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7ec676d1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 7ec676d1
The following text is from Charlotte Brontë’s 1847 novel Jane Eyre. Jane, the narrator, works as a governess
at Thornfield Hall.
I went on with my day’s business tranquilly; but ever and anon vague suggestions kept wandering across
my brain of reasons why I should quit Thornfield; and I kept involuntarily framing advertisements and
pondering conjectures about new situations: these thoughts I did not think to check; they might germinate
and bear fruit if they could.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To convey a contrast between Jane’s outward calmness and internal restlessness

B. To emphasize Jane’s loyalty to the people she works for at Thornfield Hall

C. To demonstrate that Jane finds her situation both challenging and deeply fulfilling

D. To describe Jane’s determination to secure employment outside of Thornfield Hall

ID: 7ec676d1 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text, which is to show that while
Jane calmly goes about her daily tasks, she is experiencing internal agitation about possibly seeking a new job. At the start
of the text, Jane says, “I went on with my day’s business tranquilly,” indicating that she is outwardly calm. This outward
calmness is then contrasted with her intense internal restlessness, as Jane says that thoughts of leaving her job keep
running through her mind, that she is “involuntarily framing advertisements” (meaning that she can’t stop herself from
thinking up potential listings for jobs), and that she often wonders what new “situations” (or jobs) would be like.

Choice B is incorrect because the text gives no indication of Jane’s feelings, either positive or negative, about the people she
works for at Thornfield Hall. And rather than emphasizing that Jane feels particularly loyal to her employers, the text focuses
on her constant consideration of leaving her job. Choice C is incorrect because the text gives no indication that Jane finds
her current situation fulfilling, or satisfying. Given that much of the text is focused on Jane’s thoughts about possibly leaving
her job for a new one, it might be the case that she finds her situation challenging, but there is no evidence in the text that
Jane also finds that situation satisfying—she says nothing positive about her current job at all, in fact. Choice D is incorrect
because the text describes Jane as wondering about getting a new job, not as determined to definitely do so. Jane keeps
thinking about reasons why she “should” quit her current job (indicating that she hasn’t yet decided to) and imagining
possible new situations she could find, but she says at the end of the text that these thoughts “might germinate and bear
fruit if they could,” meaning that the thoughts haven’t yet led to a decision—that Jane isn’t yet determined to get a new job
somewhere else.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID 4c16e3b0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 4c16e3b0
Pteropods are small swimming snails with thin, delicate calcium carbonate shells. These animals are
thought to be especially vulnerable to ocean acidification due to calcium carbonate’s susceptibility to
dissolution at lower pH values. Victoria L. Peck and colleagues recently found that the periostracum (a
protective coating on pteropods’ outer shells) prevents this dissolution when intact. Moreover, the team was
surprised to discover that even when the periostracum is breached, pteropods can still mitigate damage by
rebuilding the inner shell wall.

Which choice best describes the main purpose of the text?

A. To call for additional research on biological mechanisms that improve pteropod survival rates

B. To discuss a conclusion drawn in a study of calcium carbonate’s role in protecting the periostracum of
pteropods

C. To address some of the ways ocean acidification has altered pteropod behavior over time

D. To present findings that suggest that a concern about the effects of ocean acidification on pteropod
shells may be unwarranted

ID: 4c16e3b0 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text, which is to present findings
that suggest a previously held concern about the effects of ocean acidification on pteropod shells may be unwarranted. The
text introduces the concern that pteropods are thought to be particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification, or lower pH levels,
due to the susceptibility of their calcium carbonate shells to dissolution at lower pH levels. However, the text then describes
findings from a recent study that suggest this concern may be unjustified, insofar as the protective periostracum coating on
a pteropod’s shell prevents dissolution, and even when the coating is breached, a pteropod can rebuild the inner shell wall,
reducing the damage.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t call for additional research or suggest that more research is needed on
biological mechanisms that improve pteropod survival rates. Instead, the text discusses a recent study showing that
pteropods may not be as vulnerable to ocean acidification as is feared. Choice B is incorrect because the study discussed in
the text doesn’t address calcium carbonate’s role in protecting the periostracum of pteropods. According to the text, the
study addresses the periostracum’s role in protecting pteropods’ calcium carbonate shells from dissolution due to ocean
acidification. Choice C is incorrect because the text doesn’t address how ocean acidification has altered pteropod behavior
over time. Instead, the text focuses on the potential effects of ocean acidification on pteropods’ shells and the mechanisms
protecting against those effects.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID bfad2097
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: bfad2097
Investigating whether shared false visual memories—specific but inaccurate and widely held recollections of
images such as product logos—are caused by people’s previous ______ incorrect renditions of the images,
researchers Deepasri Prasad and Wilma Bainbridge found that, in fact, such memories are often not
explained by familiarity with erroneous versions of the images.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. compliance with

B. exposure to

C. criteria for

D. forfeiture of

ID: bfad2097 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. "Exposure to" means "having contact with." It makes sense that Prasad and Bainbridge were
investigating whether seeing false versions of images was a cause of false visual memories. Notice how "exposure to
incorrect renditions" matches the idea of "familiarity with erroneous versions," which appears later in the sentence.

Choice A is incorrect. "Compliance with" means "going along with a command or directive." False versions of images can’t
give commands or directives, so this doesn’t apply. Choice C is incorrect. "Criteria" means "standards by which to judge
something." It’s not clear how people would come to have standards for the wrong version of an image in the first place, let
alone how those standards would cause them to falsely remember the correct version. In other words, this choice would
result in a confusing, unclear sentence. Choice D is incorrect. "Forfeiture of" means "a giving up of something." It wouldn’t
make sense to say that false memories of an image might be caused by giving up the wrong version of the image.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID deb55365
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: deb55365
While most animals are incapable of passing somatic mutations—genetic alterations that arise in an
organism’s nonreproductive cells—on to their offspring, elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) presents an
intriguing ______: in a 2022 study, researchers found that elkhorn coral produced offspring that inherited
somatic mutations from a parent.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. hypothesis

B. affinity

C. anomaly

D. corroboration

ID: deb55365 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. An "anomaly" is something that deviates from norms or expectations. In this case, the elkhorn
coral is an anomaly because it can pass on somatic mutations, whereas most other animals can’t.

Choice A is incorrect. A "hypothesis" is "a theory about something," but no theories are provided about elkhorn coral in this
text, just facts. Choice B is incorrect. "Affinity" represents "an inclination or liking toward something." As genetic mutations
tend to occur without any conscious effort, you can’t really have an inclination toward passing on somatic mutations. Choice
D is incorrect. "Corroboration" means "evidence to support or prove something." Because elkhorn coral do the opposite of
what most animals do, they do not provide corroboration of the theory that somatic mutations can’t be passed onto
offspring. Rather, they show the opposite.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4e8b863b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 4e8b863b
Asteroid 6478 Gault has experienced intermittent mass loss since at least 2013, but in contrast to some
other asteroids with repeated mass-loss episodes, 6478 Gault has not lost mass at its perihelion (the closest
point of its orbit to the Sun), and thus the loss is not attributable to solar energy–driven ice vaporization. And
as Jane X. Luu et al. point out, the singular nature of impact ejection makes it untenable as an account of
multiple loss episodes of similar duration over several years. Instead, Luu et al. are likely correct that 6478
Gault is shedding mass due to rotational instability.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It presents a scientific observation, describes a contrast between that observation and other
observations, and then explains why those other observations should not be considered credible.

B. It describes an astronomical finding, discusses competing theories about that finding that the author
regards as flawed, and then describes new evidence that supports an alternative theory.

C. It introduces a natural phenomenon, refutes two potential explanations for that phenomenon, and then
presents a third explanation for that phenomenon that the author regards as plausible.

D. It discusses a physical process, evaluates possible causes of that process, and then states that a
persuasive account of the process has yet to be put forward.

ID: 4e8b863b Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most accurately describes the overall structure of the text. The text begins by
introducing the natural phenomenon of intermittent mass loss with regard to Asteroid 6478 Gault and notes that it curiously
has not lost mass at its perihelion like other asteroids typically do. The text then refutes "solar energy–driven ice
vaporization" and "the singular nature of impact ejection" as two possible explanations for Asteroid 6478 Gault’s intermittent
mass loss. Finally, the text presents Luu et al.’s explanation that "6478 Gault is shedding mass due to rotational instability,"
which the author says is "likely correct." Thus, the overall structure of the text is that it introduces a natural phenomenon,
refutes two potential explanations for that phenomenon, and then presents a third explanation for that phenomenon that the
author regards as plausible.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t distinguish between multiple observations. It focuses on the single
observation that Asteroid 6478 Gault is losing mass and evaluates multiple explanations for the phenomenon. The text also
asserts that Luu et al.’s explanation is credible and "likely correct." Choice B is incorrect because the text describes a natural
phenomenon, not a specific astronomical finding. In addition, although the text does note flawed reasons for Asteroid 6478
Gault’s intermittent mass loss, it doesn’t mention that Asteroid 6478 Gault’s intermittent mass loss is based on new
evidence. Choice D is incorrect. Although the text does evaluate explanations for the cause of Asteroid 6478 Gault’s
intermittent mass loss, the text also asserts that Luu et al.’s explanation that they have put forth is persuasive and "likely
correct."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4c27795c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 4c27795c
“How lifelike are they?” Many computer animators prioritize this question as they strive to create ever more
realistic environments and lighting. Generally, while characters in computer-animated films appear highly
exaggerated, environments and lighting are carefully engineered to mimic reality. But some animators, such
as Pixar’s Sanjay Patel, are focused on a different question. Rather than asking first whether the
environments and lighting they’re creating are convincingly lifelike, Patel and others are asking whether these
elements reflect their films’ unique stories.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined question in the text as a whole?
A. It reflects a primary goal that many computer animators have for certain components of the animations
they produce.

B. It represents a concern of computer animators who are more interested in creating unique backgrounds
and lighting effects than realistic ones.

C. It conveys the uncertainty among many computer animators about how to create realistic animations
using current technology.

D. It illustrates a reaction that audiences typically have to the appearance of characters created by computer
animators.

ID: 4c27795c Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes the function of the underlined question in the text as a
whole. The text begins with the underlined question, “How lifelike are they?” The text then explains that many computer
animators pose this question about the environments and lighting that they create for animated films, striving for realistic
animation of those components even if the characters themselves aren’t portrayed in realistic terms. The focus of the text
then shifts to describe how some animators strive to create environments and lighting that reflect the film’s unique stories
rather than making them appear realistic. Therefore, the function of the underlined question is to reflect a primary goal that
many computer animators have for certain components of the animations they produce.

Choice B is incorrect because, as the text makes clear, the underlined question is one posed by computer animators who
wish to create realistic backgrounds and lighting effects, not by those who, instead, wish to create effects that reflect films’
unique stories and aren’t necessarily realistic; this latter group of animators is discussed later in the text. Choice C is
incorrect. As the text explains, many computer animators strive for realistic environments and lighting, while others do not;
this difference of approach relates to whether these components should be realistic, not to how realism can be achieved
using current technology, and the text never suggests that animators are uncertain how to achieve it. Choice D is incorrect
because the underlined question pertains to the perspective of computer animators, not the audience, and the text never
considers audience’s reactions to characters in animated films.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 8b52201d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 8b52201d
While recent scholarship has undermined claims that the works of twelfth-century Islamic philosopher Ibn
Rushd were ______ other Muslim philosophers of his time, it is indisputable that his location in the Muslim-
ruled area of what is now Spain meant that his works were primarily available thousands of miles west of the
era’s center of Islamic thought.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. controversial among

B. antagonistic toward

C. imitated by

D. inconsequential to

ID: 8b52201d Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the twelfth-century Islamic
philosopher Ibn Rushd. As used in this context, "inconsequential to" means not significant to. According to the text, Ibn
Rushd’s works were primarily available in Spain, where he lived, far from central areas of the Muslim world, a fact that could
support the conclusion that his influence on Muslim contemporaries was limited. The text implies, however, that recent
scholarship has shown that his works still had an impact on other Muslim philosophers of his time. This context supports
the idea that his works weren’t inconsequential to Islamic thought in this period.

Choice A is incorrect because the issue under consideration in the text is whether other Muslim philosophers of Ibn Rushd’s
time had access to his works, not whether his works were "controversial among," or causing dispute among, other
philosophers. Choice B is incorrect. The text implies that other Muslim philosophers of Ibn Rushd’s era were aware of his
works, not that they were "antagonistic toward," or hostile toward, them. There is no suggestion that Ibn Rushd’s writings
elicited hostility from his contemporaries. Choice C is incorrect because in this context, "imitated by" would mean followed
as a model by. Although the text implies that Ibn Rushd’s works were at least somewhat available in regions that were at the
center of Islamic thought during the period, it doesn’t specifically address in what ways his works influenced contemporary
Muslim philosophers. Thus, the text doesn’t support the idea that other philosophers modeled their own works after Ibn
Rushd’s works.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f7376391
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: f7376391

Text 1
Most animals can regenerate some parts of their bodies, such as skin. But when a three-banded panther
worm is cut into three pieces, each piece grows into a new worm. Researchers are investigating this feat
partly to learn more about humans’ comparatively limited abilities to regenerate, and they’re making exciting
progress. An especially promising discovery is that both humans and panther worms have a gene for early
growth response (EGR) linked to regeneration.

Text 2
When Mansi Srivastava and her team reported that panther worms, like humans, possess a gene for EGR, it
caused excitement. However, as the team pointed out, the gene likely functions very differently in humans
than it does in panther worms. Srivastava has likened EGR to a switch that activates other genes involved in
regeneration in panther worms, but how this switch operates in humans remains unclear.

Based on the texts, what would the author of Text 2 most likely say about Text 1’s characterization of the
discovery involving EGR?
A. It is reasonable given that Srivastava and her team have identified how EGR functions in both humans and
panther worms.

B. It is overly optimistic given additional observations from Srivastava and her team.

C. It is unexpected given that Srivastava and her team’s findings were generally met with enthusiasm.

D. It is unfairly dismissive given the progress that Srivastava and her team have reported.

ID: f7376391 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it reflects how the author of Text 2 would most likely respond to Text 1 based on the
information provided. Text 1 discusses the discovery of a regeneration-linked gene, EGR, in both three-banded panther
worms (which are capable of full regeneration) and humans (who have relatively limited regeneration abilities). Text 1
characterizes this discovery as “especially promising” and a sign of “exciting progress” in understanding human
regeneration. The author of Text 2, on the other hand, focuses on the fact that the team that reported the EGR finding pointed
out that while EGR’s function in humans isn’t yet known, it’s likely very different from its function in panther worms.
Therefore, the author of Text 2 would most likely say that Text 1’s enthusiasm about the EGR discovery is overly optimistic
given Srivastava’s team’s observations about EGR in humans.

Choice A is incorrect because the author of Text 2 explains that Srivastava and her team explicitly reported that they haven’t
yet identified how EGR functions in humans; therefore, the author of Text 2 wouldn’t say that Text 1’s excitement is
reasonable for the stated reason. Instead, the author of Text 2 would likely characterize Text 1’s excitement as premature
and overly optimistic. Choice C is incorrect because Text 1 does treat Srivastava’s team’s findings with enthusiasm; it
describes the discovery of EGR in both three-banded panther worms and humans as promising and exciting. It would be
illogical for the author of Text 2 to say that because most others treat the discovery with enthusiasm, Text 1’s enthusiastic
characterization of the discovery is unexpected. Choice D is incorrect because Text 1 isn’t at all dismissive of Srivastava’s
team’s findings; instead, Text 1 is optimistic about the EGR discovery, characterizing it as promising and exciting. There’s
nothing in Text 2 to suggest that the author of Text 2 would say that Text 1’s praise for the discovery is dismissive, or
disdainful.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3d187378
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 3d187378
Proposals to raise the age at which retirees begin receiving government transfers of funds are generally
discussed in terms of the effects on transfer recipients, but Andria Smythe has argued that delaying such
transfers could ______ wealth creation among working adults by lengthening the period in which they are
providing financial support to their nonworking parents.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. stymie

B. compound

C. disparage

D. outstrip

ID: 3d187378 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the consequences of raising the
age at which retirees begin receiving government funds. The text indicates that raising the age for these funds is usually
discussed in terms of effects on fund recipients but that Andria Smythe is instead considering the effects on working family
members who care for retirees. Smythe notes that raising the age for the funds would increase the length of time retirees are
dependent on financial assistance from working family members. This is suggested to have an effect on wealth creation for
those workers, and most logically, that effect would be disadvantageous. Thus, "stymie," which means to prevent or greatly
hinder, is the most logical choice in context.

Choice B is incorrect because in this context, "compound" would most nearly mean multiply or greatly enhance. The text
indicates that raising the age at which retirees are eligible for government funds will increase the amount of time retirees are
dependent on working family members for financial support. This would likely have a negative rather than a positive effect
on wealth creation. Choice C is incorrect because in this context, "disparage" would most nearly mean criticize or defame.
Nothing in the text suggests that raising the age at which retirees are eligible for government funds would defame wealth
creation among working adults. Choice D is incorrect because in this context, "outstrip" would most nearly mean to exceed,
and nothing in the text indicates that the financial support provided to retirees would exceed the amount of wealth these
workers can create. The text does suggest that workers providing funds to retirees works against those workers’ wealth
accumulation, but not that the support to retirees exceeds the workers’ accumulated wealth.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 76d87f54
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 76d87f54
Economist Marco Castillo and colleagues showed that nuisance costs—the time and effort people must
spend to make donations—reduce charitable giving. Charities can mitigate this effect by compensating
donors for nuisance costs, but those costs, though variable, are largely ______ donation size, so charities that
compensate donors will likely favor attracting a few large donors over many small donors.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. supplemental to

B. predictive of

C. independent of

D. subsumed in

ID: 76d87f54 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. We’re told that charities that pay donors back for nuisance costs will attract a few large donors
instead of many small donors. This suggests that nuisance costs are not linked to donation size.

Choice A is incorrect. This doesn’t fit the logic of the text. If nuisance costs are supplemental to (meaning in addition to)
donation size, that wouldn’t result in charities that compensate donors for those costs attracting a few large donors over
many small donors. Choice B is incorrect. This doesn’t fit the logic of the text. If nuisance costs can predict donation size,
that wouldn’t necessarily result in charities that compensate donors for those costs attracting a few large donors over many
small donors. Choice D is incorrect. This doesn’t fit the logic of the text. If nuisance costs are subsumed in (meaning
included in) donation size, that wouldn’t result in charities that compensate donors for those costs attracting a few large
donors over many small donors.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6c807e83
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 6c807e83

Text 1
Astronomer Mark Holland and colleagues examined four white dwarfs—small, dense remnants of past stars
—in order to determine the composition of exoplanets that used to orbit those stars. Studying wavelengths of
light in the white dwarf atmospheres, the team reported that traces of elements such as lithium and sodium
support the presence of exoplanets with continental crusts similar to Earth’s.

Text 2
Past studies of white dwarf atmospheres have concluded that certain exoplanets had continental crusts.
Geologist Keith Putirka and astronomer Siyi Xu argue that those studies unduly emphasize atmospheric
traces of lithium and other individual elements as signifiers of the types of rock found on Earth. The studies
don’t adequately account for different minerals made up of various ratios of those elements, and the
possibility of rock types not found on Earth that contain those minerals.

Based on the texts, how would Putirka and Xu (Text 2) most likely characterize the conclusion presented in
Text 1?
A. As unexpected, because it was widely believed at the time that white dwarf exoplanets lack continental
crusts

B. As premature, because researchers have only just begun trying to determine what kinds of crusts white
dwarf exoplanets had

C. As questionable, because it rests on an incomplete consideration of potential sources of the elements

detected in white dwarf atmospheres

D. As puzzling, because it’s unusual to successfully detect lithium and sodium when analyzing wavelengths
of light in white dwarf atmospheres

ID: 6c807e83 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it reflects how Putirka and Xu (Text 2) would likely characterize the conclusion
presented in Text 1. Text 1 discusses a study by Mark Holland and colleagues in which they detected traces of lithium and
sodium in the atmospheres of four white dwarf stars. The team claims that this supports the idea that exoplanets with
continental crusts like Earth’s once orbited these stars. Text 2 introduces Putirka and Xu, who indicate that sodium and
lithium are present in several different minerals and that some of those minerals might exist in types of rock that are not
found on Earth. Therefore, Putirka and Xu would likely describe the conclusion in Text 1 as questionable because it does not
consider that lithium and sodium are also found in rocks that are not like Earth’s continental crust.

Choice A is incorrect because the texts do not indicate how widely held any of the viewpoints described are. Choice B is
incorrect because neither text discusses how new this area of study is. Choice D is incorrect because neither text discusses
how likely lithium and sodium are to be detected by analyzing wavelengths of light.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID eceefa95
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: eceefa95
The province of Xoconochco was situated on the Pacific coast, hundreds of kilometers southeast of
Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. Because Xoconochco’s location within the empire was so
______, cacao and other trade goods produced there could reach the capital only after a long overland
journey.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. unobtrusive

B. concealed

C. approximate

D. peripheral

ID: eceefa95 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the location of the province of
Xoconochco within the Aztec Empire. As used in this context, “peripheral” means situated toward the outer bounds rather
than the center. The text indicates that Xoconochco was located on a coast, hundreds of kilometers away from the capital of
the Aztec Empire. The text also states that trade between the province and the capital required “a long overland journey.”
This context suggests that Xoconochco was situated toward an edge of the empire’s territory rather than near its center.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to refer to Xoconochco’s location within the Aztec Empire as
“unobtrusive,” or not blatant or undesirably prominent; it’s not clear how a province’s physical location would or wouldn’t be
blatant. Instead of focusing on how noticeable Xoconochco’s location was, the text emphasizes the province’s distance from
the capital of the empire, pointing out that because of this distance trade between the two required “a long overland journey.”
Choice B is incorrect because the text indicates that the province of Xoconochco was located on a coast far from the capital
of the Aztec Empire, not that it was “concealed,” or kept out of sight or hidden from view. Nothing in the text suggests that
Xoconochco was actually hidden such that people couldn’t see it, and being hidden wouldn’t necessarily result in trade
between the province and the capital requiring “a long overland journey.” Choice C is incorrect because to say that
Xoconochco’s location within the Aztec Empire was “approximate” would mean that the location either wasn’t precisely
correct or was close to some other location. Neither of these meanings would make sense in context because the text
indicates that Xoconochco’s location is known and that it was far from the empire’s capital, so there’s no reason to
characterize the location as either not precisely correct or close to another location.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID dd415de8
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: dd415de8
Seminole/Muscogee director Sterlin Harjo ______ television’s tendency to situate Native characters in the
distant past: this rejection is evident in his series Reservation Dogs, which revolves around teenagers who
dress in contemporary styles and whose dialogue is laced with current slang.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. repudiates

B. proclaims

C. foretells

D. recants

ID: dd415de8 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Sterlin Harjo’s approach to
representing Native characters on television. As used in this context, “repudiates” means rejects or refuses to have anything
to do with. The text indicates that television shows tend to depict Native characters as living long ago, but that Harjo’s series
Reservation Dogs focuses on Native teenagers in the present day, representing a “rejection” of the typical approach to
depicting Native characters. This context thus indicates that Harjo repudiates television’s general tendency regarding Native
characters.

Choice B is incorrect because the text describes Harjo’s “rejection” of the typical approach to representing Native characters
on television, so it wouldn’t make sense to say that Harjo “proclaims,” or declares or affirms, television’s general tendency
regarding Native characters. Harjo is described as refusing to follow the pattern of depicting Native characters in the distant
past, not as proclaiming that pattern. Choice C is incorrect because the text describes television’s tendency to represent
Native characters in the distant past as something that is already occurring, not as something that Harjo “foretells,” or
predicts will happen in the future. The text is focused on Harjo’s “rejection” of this pattern, not on any predictions he may
have about it. Choice D is incorrect because saying that Harjo “recants” something would mean that he withdraws a
previously held belief, and it wouldn’t make sense to say that Harjo recants television’s tendency to represent Native
characters as living in the past. No beliefs previously held by Harjo are mentioned. Additionally, a tendency isn’t a belief and
thus isn’t something that can be recanted.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c6da512f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: c6da512f
While scholars believe many Mesoamerican cities influenced each other, direct evidence of such influence is
difficult to ascertain. However, recent excavations in a sector of Tikal (Guatemala) unearthed a citadel that
shows ______ Teotihuacán (Mexico) architecture—including a near replica of a famed Teotihuacán temple—
providing tangible evidence of outside influence in portions of Tikal.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. refinements of

B. precursors of

C. commonalities with

D. animosities toward

ID: c6da512f Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of architectural influences among
Mesoamerican cities. In this context, “commonalities with” means similarities to or shared attributes with. The text indicates
that a recently discovered citadel in Tikal includes a close imitation of a famous temple in Teotihuacán (another
Mesoamerican city) and other evidence of Teotihuacán influence, which suggests that the citadel possesses features that
resemble architectural features found in Teotihuacán. This context thus indicates that the Tikal citadel shows commonalities
with Teotihuacán architecture.

Choice A is incorrect because there’s nothing in the text that suggests that the Tikal citadel shows “refinements of,” or
improvements on, Teotihuacán architecture. Although the text suggests that the architecture of Teotihuacán influenced the
architecture of the Tikal citadel, and although it’s possible that later architectural designs could make improvements on
earlier designs, the text doesn’t discuss whether, in imitating Teotihuacán architecture, the Tikal citadel’s builders improved
on it. Choice B is incorrect because describing the citadel in Tikal as showing “precursors of” Teotihuacán architecture—or
features that preceded and foreshadowed those of Teotihuacán architecture—would imply the opposite of what the text
suggests about the relationship between the architecture found in Tikal and Teotihuacán. The text claims that the discovery
of similarities between the Tikal citadel and the architecture of Teotihuacán, including a replica of a temple in Teotihuacán,
provides evidence of outside influences on Tikal architecture. If the Tikal citadel was influenced by Teotihuacán architecture,
then the Teotihuacán architecture must predate the citadel, not the other way around. In this context, therefore, it wouldn’t
make sense to say that the Tikal citadel shows precursors of Teotihuacán architecture. Choice D is incorrect because the
text discusses how the citadel in Tikal indicates the influence of Teotihuacán architecture, which implies that the makers of
the Tikal citadel likely admired aspects of Teotihuacán architecture enough to imitate it. Thus, there’s no reason to think that
the Tikal citadel provides evidence of the Tikal people’s “animosities toward,” or feelings of strong dislike or hostility toward,
Teotihuacán architecture.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f6e632fb
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: f6e632fb
Researcher Haesung Jung led a 2020 study showing that individual acts of kindness can ______ prosocial
behavior across a larger group. Jung and her team found that bystanders who witness a helpful act become
more likely to offer help to someone else, and in doing so, can inspire still others to act.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. require

B. remember

C. foster

D. discourage

ID: f6e632fb Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Jung and her team’s study of acts
of kindness. In this context, “foster” means encourage or promote the development of. The text indicates that Jung and her
team found that seeing a helpful (or prosocial) act makes a bystander more likely to help someone else, which can in turn
inspire additional people to help others. That is, the team showed that single acts of kindness can foster additional prosocial
acts across a group.

Choice A is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests that Jung and her team found that single acts of kindness
“require,” or depend on or make obligatory, broader prosocial (or helpful) behavior across a group. There’s no suggestion in
the text that individual acts of kindness can only occur if other prosocial acts have already occurred, and the text indicates
only that an act of kindness can inspire additional helpful acts, not that it necessarily will do so. Choice B is incorrect
because the text focuses on a possible direct effect of individual acts of kindness, or single helpful actions, and it wouldn’t
make sense to suggest that actions can “remember,” or hold a memory of, something. Choice D is incorrect because the text
doesn’t indicate that Jung and her team found that single acts of kindness can “discourage,” or hinder, prosocial (or helpful)
behavior across a group. On the contrary, the text states that Jung and her team found that seeing a helpful act makes a
bystander more likely to help someone else, which can in turn inspire even more people to help others.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e3ef19f1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: e3ef19f1
In 2023 literary scholar Jeremy Douglass cautioned technology investors and enthusiasts who predict
conventional books’ ultimate displacement by newer forms of media. Douglass observed that the concept of
an “interactive” text is much older than technologists assume, extending back to the first time readers
scratched notes into a text’s margins. In addition, newer media, such as video games, haven’t replaced older
forms of entertainment, such as comic books, but rather exist alongside them. Douglass believes that rather
than supplanting books, technology is simply making new forms of expression possible.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?
A. It challenges the stance of the investors and enthusiasts who are mentioned earlier in the text.

B. It explains the basis for the claim made by the technologists mentioned in the text.

C. It suggests that academics are better suited than investors to see the potential uses of contemporary
interactive texts.

D. It provides a historical anecdote about the technological challenges involved in reading the earliest
interactive texts.

ID: e3ef19f1 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a
whole. The first sentence of the text introduces literary scholar Jeremy Douglass’s warning to technology investors and
enthusiasts against predicting the displacement of conventional books by newer media forms. The next sentence, which is
underlined in part, presents Douglass’s observation that interactive texts are hardly new; they have been available for longer
than technologists assume, beginning with the first time readers wrote notes in texts’ margins. Thus, the function of the
underlined portion is to challenge the stance of the technology investors and enthusiasts mentioned earlier in the text. As
the remainder of the text points out, newer media doesn’t necessarily replace older media, but rather, as Douglass believes,
leads to new forms of expression.

Choice B is incorrect because the underlined portion challenges the position taken by investors and enthusiasts; it doesn’t
provide context for their claims. Choice C is incorrect because the underlined portion doesn’t mention academics or
compare them to investors regarding their ability to see potential in using contemporary interactive texts; instead, the
underlined portion challenges the position of investors and enthusiasts who predict that conventional books will be replaced
by newer forms of media. Choice D is incorrect because the underlined portion doesn’t address technological challenges;
instead, it disputes the stance taken by investors and enthusiasts, suggesting that conventional books haven’t been
displaced by traditional interactions with texts, such as writing in the margins, and won’t be supplanted by newer forms of
media either.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 2e5a7736
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 2e5a7736
As an undergraduate researcher in anthropology, Jennifer C. Chen contributed to a groundbreaking study
challenging the accepted view that among prehistoric peoples, female participation in hunting was ______.
The research team’s review of data from late Pleistocene and early Holocene burials in the Americas
revealed that, in fact, as many as half of the hunters in those populations were female.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. inevitable

B. satisfactory

C. negligible

D. commonplace

ID: 2e5a7736 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the study of female participation in
hunting among prehistoric peoples. In this context, “negligible” means not significant enough to be worth considering. The
text says that the study challenged the accepted view of female participation in hunting among prehistoric peoples. The text
goes on to say that the researchers found that “in fact, as many as half” the hunters in the groups studied were female. The
phrase “in fact” establishes a contrast indicating that the finding that as many as half the hunters were female differs from
the accepted view. This context suggests, then, that the accepted view is that female participation in hunting was negligible.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that the study challenged the accepted view by showing that as many as
half of hunters among prehistoric peoples were female, which suggests that the accepted view is that female participation
was low, not that female participation was “inevitable,” or unavoidable. Nothing in the text suggests that the accepted view is
that prehistoric peoples could not avoid female participation in hunting. Choice B is incorrect because nothing in the text
suggests that the accepted view of female participation in hunting among prehistoric peoples is that such participation was
“satisfactory,” or sufficient to meet a requirement or demand. There is no information in the text about any demands or
requirements regarding female participation in hunting, let alone any information about how much female participation in
hunting would be enough to satisfy those demands or requirements. Instead, the text indicates that the study challenged the
accepted view by showing that as many as half the hunters in the groups studied were female, suggesting that the accepted
view is that female participation in hunting was low. Choice D is incorrect because the text indicates that the study
challenged the accepted view by showing that as many as half of hunters among the prehistoric peoples studied were
female, which suggests that the accepted view is that female participation was low, not that female participation was
“commonplace,” or ordinary or unremarkable. Although the study under discussion suggests that female participation may
have been commonplace, that study is presented as challenging the accepted view, not as reinforcing the accepted view.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID 0fd6f290
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 0fd6f290
New and interesting research conducted by Suleiman A. Al-Sweedan and Moath Alhaj is inspired by their
observation that though there have been many studies of the effect of high altitude on blood chemistry, there
is a ______ studies of the effect on blood chemistry of living in locations below sea level, such as the
California towns of Salton City and Seeley.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. quarrel about

B. paucity of

C. profusion of

D. verisimilitude in

ID: 0fd6f290 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically and precisely completes the text’s discussion of studies of altitude’s
effect on blood chemistry. In this context, “paucity of” means lack of. In describing the inspiration behind Al-Sweedan and
Alhaj’s research, the text uses the word “though” to suggest a contrasting relationship between two types of studies: those
examining the effect on blood chemistry of living at a high altitude and those examining the effect on blood chemistry of
living in locations below sea level. This contrasting relationship and the text’s use of the word “many” provide context
suggesting that there are few, if any, examples of the second type of study, whereas there are numerous examples of the first
type.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context for there to be a “quarrel about,” or open disagreement
about, studies of the effect on blood chemistry of living in locations below sea level. The text’s use of the words “though” and
“many” suggests a contrasting relationship in terms of amount between two types of studies: those examining the effect on
blood chemistry of living at a high altitude and those examining the effect on blood chemistry of living in locations below sea
level. There’s nothing in the text to suggest that the contrast between the two types of studies involves the extent to which
researchers broadly agree or disagree about the contents of either type. Choice C is incorrect because it wouldn’t make
sense in context for there to be a “profusion of,” or great abundance of, studies of the effect on blood chemistry of living in
locations below sea level. The text’s use of the words “though” and “many” suggests a contrasting relationship in terms of
amount between two types of studies: those examining the effect on blood chemistry of living at a high altitude and those
examining the effect on blood chemistry of living in locations below sea level. Rather than logically completing this contrast,
“profusion of” would indicate that the two types of studies are similar in terms of amount, with many examples existing of
both types. Choice D is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context for there to be a “verisimilitude in,” or
appearance of truth in, studies of the effect on blood chemistry of living in locations below sea level. The text’s use of the
words “though” and “many” suggests a contrasting relationship in terms of amount between two types of studies: those
examining the effect on blood chemistry of living at a high altitude and those examining the effect on blood chemistry of
living in locations below sea level. There’s nothing in the text to suggest that the contrast between the two types of studies
involves the extent to which either type of study presents an appearance of truth.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 8dd4b0d5
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 8dd4b0d5
Text 1
Virginia Woolf’s 1928 novel Orlando is an oddity within her body of work. Her other major novels consist
mainly of scenes of everyday life and describe their characters’ interior states in great detail, whereas
Orlando propels itself through a series of fantastical events and considers its characters’ psychology more
superficially. Woolf herself sometimes regarded the novel as a minor work, even admitting once that she
“began it as a joke.”

Text 2
Like Woolf’s other great novels, Orlando portrays how people’s memories inform their experience of the
present. Like those works, it examines how people navigate social interactions shaped by gender and social
class. Though it is lighter in tone—more entertaining, even—this literary “joke” nonetheless engages seriously
with the themes that motivated the four or five other novels by Woolf that have achieved the status of literary
classics.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the assessment of Orlando
presented in Text 1?
A. By conceding that Woolf’s talents were best suited to serious novels but asserting that the humor in
Orlando is often effective

B. By agreeing that Orlando is less impressive than certain other novels by Woolf but arguing that it should
still be regarded as a classic

C. By acknowledging that Orlando clearly differs from Woolf’s other major novels but insisting on its
centrality to her body of work nonetheless

D. By concurring that the reputation of Orlando as a minor work has led readers to overlook this novel but
maintaining that the reputation is unearned

ID: 8dd4b0d5 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it reflects how the author of Text 2 would most likely respond to the assessment of
Orlando in Text 1. Both authors agree that Orlando is unusual for Woolf: Text 1 states that the novel examines its characters’
psychologies more superficially than Woolf’s other novels do, and Text 2 describes it as being lighter in tone. However, while
Text 1 calls Orlando an “oddity” and mentions that Woolf “began it as a joke,” Text 2 asserts that Orlando engages the same
themes as Woolf’s other great novels. Hence, the author of Text 2 would most likely accept that Orlando differs from Woolf’s
other novels but would also insist on its importance in the context of Woolf’s work as a writer.

Choice A is incorrect. Text 2 does suggest that the humor in Orlando is effective. However, there’s nothing in Text 2 to
suggest that the author would agree that Woolf’s talents were best suited to serious novels. Rather, the author of Text 2
compares Orlando favorably to other novels by Woolf that are implied to be darker in tone. Choice B is incorrect because the
author of Text 2 does not indicate that Orlando is less impressive than Woolf’s other novels, but instead points out that it
engages the same themes as other novels by Woolf that are considered classics. Choice D is incorrect because there’s
nothing in Text 1 or Text 2 to suggest that readers have generally ignored Orlando because of its reputation.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e5f76480
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: e5f76480
Text 1
Like the work of Ralph Ellison before her, Toni Morrison’s novels feature scenes in which characters deliver
sermons of such length and verbal dexterity that for a time, the text exchanges the formal parameters of
fiction for those of oral literature. Given the many other echoes of Ellison in Morrison’s novels, both in
structure and prose style, these scenes suggest Ellison’s direct influence on Morrison.
Text 2
In their destabilizing effect on literary form, the sermons in Morrison’s works recall those in Ellison’s. Yet
literature by Black Americans abounds in moments where interpolated speech erodes the division between
oral and written forms that literature in English has traditionally observed. Morrison’s use of the sermon is
attributable not only to the influence of Ellison but also to a community-wide strategy of resistance to
externally imposed literary conventions.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely characterize the underlined claim in Text 1?
A. As failing to consider Ellison’s and Morrison’s equivalent uses of the sermon within the wider cultural
context in which they wrote

B. As misunderstanding the function of sermons in novels by Black American writers other than Ellison and
Morrison

C. As disregarding points of structural and stylistic divergence between the works of Ellison and those of
Morrison

D. As being indebted to the tradition of resisting literary conventions that privilege written forms, such as
novels, over sermons and other oral forms

ID: e5f76480 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The author of Text 2 argues that Morrison’s use of the sermon is not only influenced by Ellison,
but also by a “community-wide strategy of resistance” to literary conventions practiced by Black American authors. Ellison,
Text 2 alleges, is only one of many influences on Morrison.

Choice B is incorrect. Neither text specifically mentions sermons in works by authors other than Morrison or Ellison, only a
tendency towards eroding “the division between oral and written forms” among Black American writers. Choice C is
incorrect. Both texts describe similarities between the works of Ellison and Morrison, and neither points out instances of
divergence. Text 2 simply suggests that Morrison was influenced by more than just Ellison. Choice D is incorrect. While Text
2 does discuss Morrison’s resistance to certain literary conventions, it’s unclear what it would mean for the underlined claim
to be “indebted” to that tradition. This choice recycles language from the text, but not in a way that makes any coherent
point.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 79543afc
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 79543afc
It is by no means ______ to recognize the influence of Dutch painter Hieronymus Bosch on Ali Banisadr’s
paintings; indeed, Banisadr himself cites Bosch as an inspiration. However, some scholars have suggested
that the ancient Mesopotamian poem Epic of Gilgamesh may have had a far greater impact on Banisadr’s
work.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. substantial

B. satisfying

C. unimportant

D. appropriate

ID: 79543afc Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the sentence about the influences on Banisadr’s work. In
context, “It is by no means” followed by “unimportant” conveys how it is relevant to recognize Bosch’s influence on Banisadr.
The text points out that the artist himself cites Bosch as an inspiration, and then goes on to claim that The Epic of
Gilgamesh has had a more significant influence than Bosch.

Choice A is incorrect because “substantial,” which means weighty or meaningful, incorrectly suggests that it wouldn’t be
meaningful to acknowledge Bosch’s influence on Banisadr. The phrase “indeed, Banisadr himself cites Bosch as an
inspiration” doesn’t support this suggestion. Choice B is incorrect because “satisfying,” which means pleasing, incorrectly
suggests that it wouldn’t be pleasing to acknowledge Bosch’s influence on Banisadr. The phrase “indeed, Banisadr himself
cites Bosch as an inspiration” doesn’t support this suggestion. Choice D is incorrect because “appropriate,” which means
suitable, incorrectly suggests that it wouldn’t be proper to acknowledge Bosch’s influence on Banisadr. The phrase “indeed,
Banisadr himself cites Bosch as an inspiration” doesn’t support this suggestion.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 31a3c863
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 31a3c863
In 2016, Gabriela González and team announced that a chirping sound captured by Laser Interferometer
Gravitational-Wave Observatory antennas was direct evidence of gravitational waves, which skeptics had
argued would be too faint for detection. Detailed statistical analysis helped preclude claims of the event’s
______, confirming the signal at a confidence level of over 99%.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. inconspicuousness

B. discretion

C. ambiguity

D. probability

ID: 31a3c863 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Gabriela González and team’s
detection of gravitational waves. In this context, "ambiguity" means uncertainty or doubtfulness. The text explains that
although skeptics had thought that direct evidence of gravitational waves would be too faint to be detected, researchers led
by González claimed that a chirping sound captured by Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory antennas
nevertheless provided such evidence. The text goes on to say that detailed statistical analysis confirmed the observation of
gravitational waves with a high degree of confidence—that is, with near certainty—a finding that helped to preclude, or rule
out, any claims that the signal’s attribution to gravitational waves might be ambiguous or doubtful.

Choice A is incorrect. In this context, "inconspicuousness" would mean the quality of being unnoticeable or difficult to detect.
Although the text indicates that skeptics had doubted whether gravitational waves could be observed directly because of
their presumed faintness (which suggests that gravitational waves were expected to be difficult to detect), the blank portion
of the text isn’t referring to the possibility that gravitational waves are unnoticeable or undetectable. Instead, the focus of the
last sentence is González’s team’s observation of a chirping sound that they attributed to gravitational waves, and it wouldn’t
make sense to say that through statistical analysis, they ruled out the possibility that the sound they observed was
undetectable. Rather, the skeptical view presented in the text suggests that there could be some ambiguity about the source
of the chirping, but statistical analysis virtually eliminated this uncertainty. Choice B is incorrect because in this context,
"discretion" would mean good judgment, and it wouldn’t make sense to say that an event, such as the detection of
gravitational waves, would show judgment, much less that the event’s capacity to exercise good judgment would be
precluded by statistical analysis confirming its attribution. Choice D is incorrect because in this context, "probability" would
mean likelihood, and the text states that statistical analysis, which confirmed the signal with a high degree of confidence,
suggests the likelihood that the chirping sound was produced by gravitational waves, not that the analysis helped to preclude
this likelihood.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 82aaffb8
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 82aaffb8
Jetties—long, narrow structures that extend from a landmass into the water—are often constructed to protect
coastlines from erosion. Jetties can sometimes have the opposite ______ obstructing the natural flow of sand
along the shore can lead to increased erosion in some areas.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. effect, though;

B. effect, though

C. effect; though

D. effect, though,

ID: 82aaffb8 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice correctly
uses a comma to separate the supplementary adverb "though" from the preceding main clause ("Jetties can sometimes
have the opposite effect") and uses a semicolon to join the next main clause ("obstructing…areas") to the rest of the
sentence. Further, placing the semicolon after "though" logically indicates that the information earlier in this sentence (that
jetties can sometimes cause erosion) is contrary to what might be assumed from the information in the previous sentence
(that jetties are often constructed for the purpose of protecting coastlines from erosion).

Choice B is incorrect because it fails to mark the boundary between the two main clauses with appropriate punctuation. With
"though…areas" functioning as a subordinate clause following the comma, this choice illogically indicates that the following
information (that obstructing the natural flow of sand along the shore can sometimes lead to erosion) is contrary to the
information earlier in the sentence (that jetties can sometimes cause erosion). Instead, the information following "though"
supports the previous claim about the erosive effects of jetties. Choice C is incorrect because it’s not conventional to use a
semicolon in this way to separate a main clause from a dependent clause. Further, it illogically indicates that the following
information (that obstructing the natural flow of sand along the shore can sometimes lead to erosion) is contrary to the
information earlier in the sentence (that jetties can sometimes cause erosion). Instead, the information following "though"
supports the previous claim about the erosive effects of jetties. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a comma splice.
Commas can’t be used in this way to set off a supplementary word or phrase between two main clauses.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID af66cc2b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: af66cc2b
Jamaican British artist Willard Wigan is known for his remarkable ______ so small that they are best viewed
through a microscope, Wigan’s sculptures are made from tiny natural materials, such as spiderweb strands.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. microsculptures creations

B. microsculptures, creations

C. microsculptures. Creations

D. microsculptures and creations

ID: af66cc2b Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used to correctly mark the boundary between one sentence ("Jamaican…microsculptures") and another ("Creations…
strands"). The noun phrase beginning with "creations" modifies the subject of the next sentence, "Wigan’s sculptures."

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences ("Jamaican…microsculptures" and "Creations…
strands") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A
comma can’t be used in this way to mark the boundary between sentences. Choice D is incorrect. Without a comma
preceding it, the conjunction "and" can’t be used in this way to join sentences.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 543fb2f5
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 543fb2f5
Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass first appeared in 1855 as a slim collection of twelve poems, but Whitman
would revise and expand it substantially over the next four decades. These extensive ______ the addition of
hundreds of new poems, the removal of some existing ones, and the insertion of prefatory material, reflected
the poet’s evolving literary perspective and experience of the US Civil War.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. changes, including

B. changes would include

C. changes included

D. changes, include

ID: 543fb2f5 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms within a sentence. The nonfinite present
participle "including" is correctly used to form a supplementary element that interrupts the main clause "These extensive
changes…reflected the poet’s evolving literary perspective and experience of the US Civil War." This supplementary element,
offset by commas after "changes" and "material," provides examples of the changes Whitman made to Leaves of Grass.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite modal verb "would include" can’t be used in
this way to form a supplementary element within the main clause. Choice C is incorrect because it results in an
ungrammatical sentence. The finite past tense verb "included" can’t be used in this way to form a supplementary element
within the main clause. Choice D is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite present tense verb
"include" can’t be used in this way to form a supplementary element within the main clause.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6f873e68
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 6f873e68
In crafting her fantasy fiction, Nigerian-born British author Helen Oyeyemi has drawn inspiration from the
classic nineteenth-century fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm. Her 2014 novel Boy, Snow, Bird, for instance, is
a complex retelling of the story of Snow White, while her 2019 novel ______ offers a delicious twist on the
classic tale of Hansel and Gretel.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. ­Gingerbread—

B. ­Gingerbread,

C. Gingerbread

D. ­Gingerbread:

ID: 6f873e68 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation between a subject and a verb. When, as in this case,
a subject (“her 2019 novel Gingerbread”) is immediately followed by a verb (“offers”), no punctuation is needed.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the subject and the verb. Choice B is incorrect because no
punctuation is needed between the subject and the verb. Choice D is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between
the subject and the verb.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID df8ef92f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: df8ef92f
On March 23, 2021, a gust of wind wreaked havoc on global trade. Ever Given, an international shipping
container vessel, became lodged in Egypt’s Suez Canal, a major shipping route between Europe and Asia. The
vessel took six days to ______ it’s as heavy as two thousand blue whales when fully loaded.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. dislodge in part due to its sheer size,

B. dislodge, in part due to its sheer size:

C. dislodge, in part due to its sheer size,

D. dislodge, in part, due to its sheer size

ID: df8ef92f Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation between main clauses and a supplementary
element. This choice correctly uses a comma to mark the boundary between the main clause ("The vessel took six days to
dislodge") and the supplementary element ("in part due to its sheer size") that provides additional information on why the
vessel was difficult to dislodge. Additionally, this choice correctly uses a colon to introduce another main clause that
describes the vessel’s size ("it’s as heavy as two thousand blue whales when fully loaded").

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to mark the boundary
between two main clauses ("The vessel…size" and "it’s…loaded"). Additionally, it fails to mark the boundary between the main
clause ("The vessel took six days to dislodge") and the supplementary element ("in part due to its sheer size"). Choice C is
incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to mark the boundary between two main
clauses ("The vessel…size" and "it’s…loaded"). Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main
clauses ("The vessel…size" and "it’s…loaded") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID accc2b85
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: accc2b85
Consider the mechanics of the pinhole camera: light passes through a small hole, resulting in a focused
projected image. A ray diagram reveals how this ______ the hole’s small size restricts light to a single ray, all
light passing through the hole can only arrive at a single destination, eliminating diffraction and ensuring a
clear image.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. works because

B. works. Because

C. works, it’s because

D. works: it’s because

ID: accc2b85 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used to correctly mark the boundary between one sentence ("A ray...works") and another ("Because...image").

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two sentences ("A ray…works" and "Because…image") are
fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t
be used in this way to mark the boundary between sentences. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a comma splice.
Since the contraction "it’s" creates a main clause, the comma after "single ray" can’t be used in this way to mark the boundary
between two main clauses ("it’s...ray" and "all light…image").

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 9555ec64
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 9555ec64
The following text is adapted from Indian Boyhood, a 1902 memoir by Ohiyesa (Charles A. Eastman), a
Santee Dakota writer. In the text, Ohiyesa recalls how the women in his tribe harvested maple syrup during
his childhood.
Now the women began to test the trees—moving leisurely among them, axe in hand, and striking a single
quick blow, to see if the sap would appear. The trees, like people, have their individual characters; some
were ready to yield up their life-blood, while others were more reluctant. Now one of the birchen basins was
set under each tree, and a hardwood chip driven deep into the cut which the axe had made. From the
corners of this chip—at first drop by drop, then more freely—the sap trickled into the little dishes.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?
A. It portrays the range of personality traits displayed by the women as they work.

B. It foregrounds the beneficial relationship between humans and maple trees.

C. It demonstrates how human behavior can be influenced by the natural environment.

D. It elaborates on an aspect of the maple trees that the women evaluate.

ID: 9555ec64 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text’s overall portrayal
of how the women in Ohiyesa’s tribe harvested maple syrup. The text states that the women used an axe to strike the maple
trees in order to find out which ones would produce sap. The underlined sentence compares the trees to people, with the sap
described as the trees’ “life-blood.” Some of the trees are ready to give out their sap, while others are unwilling to do so.
Using personification, the sentence provides greater detail about the aspect of the maple trees—their potential to give sap—
that the women are evaluating.

Choice A is incorrect because the personalities of the women are not discussed in the text. Although the underlined
sentence does mention “individual characters,” this reference is not to the women in the text but rather to the maple trees,
which the sentence compares to people with individual character traits. Choice B is incorrect because the underlined
sentence focuses on the trees’ willingness or refusal to yield sap, not on the beneficial relationship between the women and
the trees. Additionally, although the text does suggest that the women and their tribe benefit from the maple trees since the
trees allow the women to harvest syrup, there is nothing in the text to suggest that the trees benefit from this relationship in
turn. Choice C is incorrect because the underlined sentence is comparing maple trees to humans, not addressing the
influence of the natural environment on how the actual humans in the text, the women, behave.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID f78b6c18
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: f78b6c18
The following text is adapted from Jane Austen’s 1814 novel Mansfield Park. The speaker, Tom, is
considering staging a play at home with a group of his friends and family.
We mean nothing but a little amusement among ourselves, just to vary the scene, and exercise our powers
in something new. We want no audience, no publicity. We may be trusted, I think, in choosing some play
most perfectly unexceptionable; and I can conceive no greater harm or danger to any of us in conversing in
the elegant written language of some respectable author than in chattering in words of our own.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To offer Tom’s assurance that the play will be inoffensive and involve only a small number of people

B. To clarify that the play will not be performed in the manner Tom had originally intended

C. To elaborate on the idea that the people around Tom lack the skills to successfully stage a play

D. To assert that Tom believes the group performing the play will be able to successfully promote it

ID: f78b6c18 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately portrays the main purpose of the text. At the beginning of the text,
Tom asserts that he and the other people staging the play are doing so only for “a little amusement among ourselves” and
aren’t interested in attracting an audience or any attention with the production. Then, Tom promises that the play they chose
is modest and appropriate, and he further reasons that using the well-written prose of “some respectable author” is better
than using their own words. Overall, the main purpose of the text is to convey Tom’s promise that the play will be inoffensive
and involve only a few people.

Choice B is incorrect because the text doesn’t indicate that Tom had earlier intentions for the play’s performance or that
anything has changed since the group first decided to stage a play. Instead, the text focuses on how harmless the entire
endeavor will be. Choice C is incorrect. Although Tom mentions that using the words of a “respectable author” will be better
than using their own words, he never addresses the idea that the people around him generally aren’t skilled enough to stage
a play. Choice D is incorrect because in the text Tom specifically says that they “want no audience, no publicity,” which
indicates that they don’t plan on promoting the play at all.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 77b9ccd9
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 77b9ccd9
The following text is adapted from Zora Neale Hurston’s 1921 short story “John Redding Goes to Sea.” John
is a child who lives in a town in the woods.
Perhaps ten-year-old John was puzzling to the folk there in the Florida woods for he was an imaginative
child and fond of day-dreams. The St. John River flowed a scarce three hundred feet from his back door.
On its banks at this point grow numerous palms, luxuriant magnolias and bay trees. On the bosom of the
stream float millions of delicately colored hyacinths. [John Redding] loved to wander down to the water’s
edge, and, casting in dry twigs, watch them sail away down stream to Jacksonville, the sea, the wide world
and [he] wanted to follow them.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?
A. It provides an extended description of a location that John likes to visit.

B. It reveals that some residents of John’s town are confused by his behavior.

C. It illustrates the uniqueness of John’s imagination compared to the imaginations of other children.

D. It suggests that John longs to experience a larger life outside the Florida woods.

ID: 77b9ccd9 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it accurately describes how the underlined sentence functions in the text as a whole.
The text establishes that John has a strong imagination and then goes on to describe the St. John River near John’s home in
the Florida woods. The underlined sentence depicts John sending twigs sailing down the river while he imagines them
reaching “Jacksonville, the sea, the wide world,” where he wishes he could follow. This suggests that John longs to expand
his life experiences beyond the Florida woods.

Choice A is incorrect because the second and third sentences of the text provide an extended description of the riverbank
where John likes to go, whereas the underlined sentence describes what John does at that location. Choice B is incorrect
because the first sentence of the text suggests that John’s behavior “was puzzling” to others around him, whereas the
underlined sentence concerns the content of John’s imaginings. Choice C is incorrect because the underlined sentence
elaborates on John’s imagination but doesn’t mention any other children to whom John could be compared.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 9f04b826
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 9f04b826
A study by a team including finance professor Madhu Veeraraghavan suggests that exposure to sunshine
during the workday can lead to overly optimistic behavior. Using data spanning from 1994 to 2010 for a set
of US companies, the team compared over 29,000 annual earnings forecasts to the actual earnings later
reported by those companies. The team found that the greater the exposure to sunshine at work in the two
weeks before a manager submitted an earnings forecast, the more the manager’s forecast exceeded what
the company actually earned that year.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A. To summarize the results of the team’s analysis

B. To present a specific example that illustrates the study’s findings

C. To explain part of the methodology used in the team’s study

D. To call out a challenge the team faced in conducting its analysis

ID: 9f04b826 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it best describes how the underlined sentence functions in the text as a whole. The first
sentence presents the implications of Veeraraghavan’s team’s study: sunshine exposure during work hours can cause overly
optimistic behavior. The underlined sentence then describes the data the team consulted and how they were used
(comparing predictions about earnings to what the companies actually earned), and the final sentence presents what the
team found in their examination of the data. Thus, the underlined sentence mainly functions to explain part of the
methodology used in the team’s study.

Choice A is incorrect because the underlined sentence explains in part how the team conducted their analysis of the effect
of sunshine but doesn’t address what the team found; a broad summary is instead given in the other two sentences. Choice
B is incorrect because the underlined sentence doesn’t present any specific examples from the team’s comparisons of
29,000 earnings predictions to actual earnings; it simply explains in part how the team conducted their analysis. Choice D is
incorrect because the underlined sentence simply explains in part how the team conducted their analysis; the text never
mentions any challenges that the team encountered in their study.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d53bcf3b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: d53bcf3b
The author’s claim about the relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens is ______, as it fails to
account for several recent archaeological discoveries. To be convincing, his argument would need to address
recent finds of additional hominid fossils, such as the latest Denisovan specimens and Homo longi.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. disorienting

B. tenuous

C. nuanced

D. unoriginal

ID: d53bcf3b Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the author’s claim about the
relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. As used in this context, “tenuous” means lacking substance. The end
of the first sentence states that the author’s claim didn’t consider certain key pieces of evidence—“recent archaeological
discoveries”—and is therefore weak.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to refer to the author’s claim as “disorienting,” or confusing.
The text suggests that the author’s claim is insubstantial, not that it’s difficult to grasp. Choice C is incorrect because
referring to the claim as “nuanced,” or subtle, wouldn’t make sense in context. According to the text, the claim is incomplete
because it didn’t consider certain key information about recent archaeological finds; it doesn’t suggest that what’s in the
claim lacks precision. Choice D is incorrect because saying that the claim is “unoriginal,” or imitative, wouldn’t make sense in
context. The text faults the claim because it doesn’t consider certain key information about recent archaeological finds; it
doesn’t suggest that the author’s claim lacks originality.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7ce3feba
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 7ce3feba
To demonstrate that the integrity of underground metal pipes can be assessed without unearthing the pipes,
engineer Aroba Saleem and colleagues ______ the tendency of some metals’ internal magnetic fields to alter
under stress: the team showed that such alterations can be measured from a distance and can reveal
concentrations of stress in the pipes.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. hypothesized

B. discounted

C. redefined

D. exploited

ID: 7ce3feba Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of using magnetism to detect stress in
buried metal pipes. In this context, "exploited" means made productive use of. The text indicates that the magnetic fields of
some metals change under stress and that Saleem and colleagues showed that it is possible to measure those changes
from a distance, thereby demonstrating that the integrity of underground metal pipes can be evaluated without having to
unearth them. This context thus indicates that Saleem and colleagues made productive use of, or exploited, this tendency of
the metals’ magnetic fields.

Choice A is incorrect because in this context, "hypothesized" would mean made a tentative assumption to be evaluated in a
study or experiment. Although Saleem and colleagues may have had one or more hypotheses for these experiments, the text
presents the information about the tendency of some metals’ magnetic fields to change under stress as a known fact that
the researchers made productive use of, not as a hypothesis to be evaluated. The text after the colon indicates that the
researchers were not evaluating whether such changes occur but whether those changes can be measured at a distance.
Choice B is incorrect because in this context, "discounted" would mean downplayed or ignored, but the text does not suggest
that Saleem and colleagues minimized or ignored the tendency of the magnetic fields of some metals to change under
stress. Rather, the text indicates that this tendency is the basis for Saleem and colleagues’ method of assessing the pipes’
integrity. Choice C is incorrect because nothing in the text indicates that Saleem and colleagues "redefined," or reevaluated or
reformulated, the tendency of some metals’ magnetic fields to change under stress. Instead, the text indicates that the
researchers made use of that tendency to demonstrate that it is possible to evaluate the integrity of underground pipes
without unearthing them.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f7455dfd
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: f7455dfd
Some foraging models predict that the distance bees travel when foraging will decline as floral density
increases, but biologists Shalene Jha and Claire Kremen showed that bees’ behavior is inconsistent with this
prediction if flowers in dense patches are ______: bees will forage beyond patches of low species richness to
acquire multiple resource types.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. depleted

B. homogeneous

C. immature

D. dispersed

ID: f7455dfd Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Jha and Kremen’s finding about
bees’ foraging behavior. In this context, “homogeneous” means uniform or of the same kind. The text indicates that some
models predict that the distance that bees travel when they’re foraging declines as the density of flowers increases. The text
goes on to say, however, that Jha and Kremen identified a circumstance in which bees don’t behave this way. Specifically, if
bees encounter “patches of low species richness”—that is, patches in which the flowers are largely from the same species—
they’ll travel beyond those patches to get varied food resources. This context thus suggests that bees don’t behave as some
models predict if the dense patches of flowers the bees encounter are homogeneous.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that Jha and Kremen found that bees will behave differently than some
models predict if the bees encounter flower patches that are not rich in species, not if the flowers are “depleted,” or emptied
or reduced in quality or quantity. Although it could be true that bees are likely to leave depleted patches in search of more
resources, the text doesn’t indicate that Jha and Kremen investigated that possibility. Choice C is incorrect because there’s
no information in the text suggesting that bees will not behave as some models predict if flowers in patches are “immature,”
or not fully developed. Instead, the text indicates that Jha and Kremen found that bees will behave contrary to some models’
predictions if the flower patches are not rich in species. Choice D is incorrect because the text indicates that bees’ behavior
will be inconsistent with the predictions of some models if the flower patches that the bees encounter are of low species
richness, not if the flowers are in patches that are “dispersed,” or widely scattered. Although the text does describe bees as
leaving patches that are not rich in species to forage elsewhere, there’s no suggestion that Jha and Kremen found that the
distance between dense flower patches affects whether the bees behave as some models predict.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d91e3799
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: d91e3799
K.D. Leka and colleagues found that the Sun’s corona provides an advance indication of solar flares—intense
eruptions of electromagnetic radiation that emanate from active regions in the Sun’s photosphere and can
interfere with telecommunications on Earth. Preceding a flare, the corona temporarily exhibits increased
brightness above the region where the flare is ______.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. antecedent

B. impending

C. innocuous

D. perpetual

ID: d91e3799 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of advance indications of solar flares.
In this context the word "impending" means imminent or approaching. The text mentions a study by Leka and colleagues
that found that the Sun’s corona provides an advance indication of solar flares. The text then points out why such an
advance indication would be useful—solar flares can interfere with communications on Earth—and concludes by describing
the characteristic of the corona that gives warning of a solar flare. The text indicates that this characteristic—increased
brightness in a particular region of the corona—comes before the appearance of the flare. Therefore, in context, the best
answer would indicate that the flare is approaching, or impending.

Choice A is incorrect. The best answer would be one that indicates that the increased brightness of the Sun’s corona
precedes the appearance of the flare. But if the flare were "antecedent," or previous, then the flare would instead precede the
appearance of the increased brightness of the corona, a statement that is logically inconsistent. Choice C is incorrect. The
word "innocuous," or harmless, does not logically complete the text; since solar flares can interfere with communications on
Earth, they cannot reasonably be described as innocuous. Choice D is incorrect. If the solar flares have an advance
indication of their appearance, then there must therefore be a time before the appearance of the flares when they do not
exist. But the word "perpetual," or never-ending, would in context indicate that the flare exists at the same time as the
advance indication provided by the Sun’s corona, which would not make logical sense.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c3ef9de3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: c3ef9de3
Text 1
In 1916, H. Dugdale Sykes disputed claims that The Two Noble Kinsmen was coauthored by William
Shakespeare and John Fletcher. Sykes felt Fletcher’s contributions to the play were obvious—Fletcher had a
distinct style in his other plays, so much so that lines with that style were considered sufficient evidence of
Fletcher’s authorship. But for the lines not deemed to be by Fletcher, Sykes felt that their depiction of women
indicated that their author was not Shakespeare but Philip Massinger.
Text 2
Scholars have accepted The Two Noble Kinsmen as coauthored by Shakespeare since the 1970s: it appears
in all major one-volume editions of Shakespeare’s complete works. Though scholars disagree about who
wrote what exactly, it is generally held that on the basis of style, Shakespeare wrote all of the first act and
most of the last, while John Fletcher authored most of the three middle acts.

Based on the texts, both Sykes in Text 1 and the scholars in Text 2 would most likely agree with which
statement?

A. John Fletcher’s writing has a unique, readily identifiable style.

B. The women characters in John Fletcher’s plays are similar to the women characters in Philip Massinger’s
plays.

C. The Two Noble Kinsmen belongs in one-volume compilations of Shakespeare’s complete plays.

D. Philip Massinger’s style in the first and last acts of The Two Noble Kinsmen is an homage to
Shakespeare’s style.

ID: c3ef9de3 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. Text 1 states that Sykes felt Fletcher’s contributions to the play were obvious because he had a
distinct style in his other plays. Text 2 states that scholars generally agree “on the basis of style” that Fletcher wrote most of
the three middle acts. Both texts imply that Fletcher’s writing has a unique, readily identifiable style that can be used to
distinguish his work from others.

Choice B is incorrect. While Text 1 refers to the women in Massinger plays, neither text compares the women of Fletcher’s
plays to the women of Massinger’s plays. Text 2 doesn’t mention Massinger at all. Choice C is incorrect. Text 1 states that
Sykes disputed that Shakespeare coauthored the play, and implied that it was coauthored by Fletcher and Massinger
instead. Sykes, therefore, would disagree that The Two Noble Kinsmen belongs in a Shakespeare compilation. Choice D is
incorrect. Text 1 doesn’t suggest that Massinger was inspired by Shakespeare, and Text 2 doesn’t mention Massinger at all.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 2ee50bdd
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 2ee50bdd
Whether the reign of a French monarch such as Hugh Capet or Henry I was historically consequential or
relatively uneventful, its trajectory was shaped by questions of legitimacy and therefore cannot be
understood without a corollary understanding of the factors that allowed the monarch to ______ his right to
hold the throne.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. disengage

B. annotate

C. buttress

D. reciprocate

ID: 2ee50bdd Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the legitimacy of the reigns of
French monarchs such as Hugh Capet and Henry I. As used in this context, “buttress” means to strengthen or defend. The
text indicates that regardless of whether a French monarch’s reign was significant or uneventful, each monarch faced
questions about his right to the throne. The text goes on to say that in order to understand the path of a French monarch’s
reign, it’s important to understand what contributed to the monarch’s ability to “hold the throne.” This context suggests that
French monarchs such as Hugh Capet and Henry I had to buttress, or defend, their right to be monarch.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to discuss factors that enabled a monarch to “disengage,” or
withdraw his right to the French throne. The text focuses on an examination of people who reigned as French monarchs, not
on people who didn’t choose to rule. Choice B is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to discuss factors that
enabled a monarch to “annotate,” or add notes to or explain, his right to the French throne. Nothing in the text suggests that
the monarchs were writing notes about their right to the throne; instead, faced with questions about the legitimacy of their
reign, the monarchs defended their right. Choice D is incorrect. Saying that a monarch who is faced with questions about the
legitimacy of his reign was able to “reciprocate” his right to the French throne would mean that he either returned his right to
the throne or that he responded in kind to the challenge. Neither of these meanings would make sense in context because
the text focuses on people who did reign as French monarchs and defended their right to do so.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 651e7f7c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 651e7f7c
The güiro, a musical instrument traditionally made from a dried and hollowed gourd, is thought to have
originated with the Taíno people of Puerto Rico. Players use a wooden stick to scrape along ridges cut into
the side of the gourd, creating sounds that are highly ______: the sounds produced by güiros can differ based
on the distance between the ridges, the types of strokes the player uses, and the thickness of the gourd.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. overlooked

B. powerful

C. routine

D. variable

ID: 651e7f7c Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the sounds made by güiros. In this
context, “variable” means able to change. The text begins by explaining that güiros are instruments made out of hollowed
gourds with ridges cut into their sides and that players scrape the ridges with wooden sticks to produce sounds. The text
goes on to say that güiros’ sounds can change depending on gourd thickness, the distance between ridges, and the types of
strokes the player uses, thus supporting the idea that the sounds created by these instruments are variable.

Choice A is incorrect because “overlooked” means not being seen or noticed, and there is nothing in the text to suggest that
the sounds produced by güiros are overlooked or not noticed. Choice B is incorrect because in this context, “powerful” would
mean having a great ability to produce an effect. While it’s possible that the sounds produced by güiros have a strong effect
on listeners, the text doesn’t discuss this aspect of their sounds. Choice C is incorrect because “routine” means usual and
unvarying, and there is nothing in the text to suggest that the sounds produced by güiros are unvarying. In fact, the text
describes how the sounds produced by güiros can differ based on several factors.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID afcbe3da
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: afcbe3da
One popular theory of the origin of the Moon, the “big whack,” posits that a protoplanet called Theia collided
with Earth, flinging debris into orbit that eventually coalesced into the Moon. Until recently, Theia was ______,
but researcher Qian Yuan and colleagues now claim to have identified pieces of the protoplanet in the
lowermost section of Earth’s mantle.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. desultory

B. spurious

C. veritable

D. notional

ID: afcbe3da Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Theia and the origin of the Moon. In
this context, "notional" means theoretical or only an idea. The text indicates that although something was once true of Theia,
the protoplanet one theory holds collided with Earth and created debris that became the Moon, researchers now claim to
have identified pieces of it deep in Earth’s mantle. In other words, having direct evidence of Theia is a new development. This
context suggests that before evidence was found, Theia was only theoretical—that is, that it was notional.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t suggest that Theia, a protoplanet, was "desultory," which in this context would
mean moving away from the matter at hand; indeed, the text focuses on the "big whack" theory of the origin of the Moon and
indicates that Theia is a central part of that theory. Choice B is incorrect because the text makes the point that something
was true of Theia until recently and suggests that this has changed now that researchers believe they have found pieces of
the protoplanet deep in Earth’s mantle. It wouldn’t make sense to say that Theia was actually "spurious," or false, until
researchers found direct evidence of the protoplanet. (Although Theia’s existence might not have been certain, it would not
have been false simply because there was no evidence of it.) Choice C is incorrect because the text makes the point that
something was true of Theia until recently and suggests that this has changed now that researchers believe they have found
pieces of the protoplanet deep in Earth’s mantle. It wouldn’t make sense to say that Theia was "veritable," or real, before
researchers found direct evidence of its existence: the evidence would instead confirm that Theia was real.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 12bece85
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 12bece85
Rejecting the premise that the literary magazine Ebony and Topaz (1927) should present a unified vision of
Black American identity, editor Charles S. Johnson fostered his contributors’ diverse perspectives by
promoting their authorial autonomy. Johnson’s self-effacement diverged from the editorial stances of W.E.B.
Du Bois and Alain Locke, whose decisions for their publications were more ______.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. proficient

B. dogmatic

C. ambiguous

D. unpretentious

ID: 12bece85 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. A person who is "dogmatic" believes strongly that their principles and opinions are true.
Because Du Bois and Locke are implied to have one "unified vision" of Black American identity that they prioritize over the
"diverse perspectives" of different writers, they can be described as dogmatic.

Choice A is incorrect. "Proficient" means "skilled." Du Bois and Locke are contrasted with Johnson, but nothing in the text
suggests that Johnson was not skilled at making editorial decisions. Based on the text, the three editors just have different
styles; they’re not necessarily more or less skilled. Choice C is incorrect. "Ambiguous" means "unclear" or "open to multiple
interpretations." However, it’s actually Johnson who encouraged multiple interpretations ("diverse perspectives"). Since Du
Bois and Locke are said to "diverge" from Johnson, we can assume that the views they published were not ambiguous, but
instead clear and firm (a "unified vision"). Choice D is incorrect. "Unpretentious" means "not trying to impress others with
greater skill or importance than is actually possessed." Du Bois and Locke are contrasted with Johnson, but nothing in the
text suggests that Johnson is pretentious (trying to impress others).

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 74bccb47
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 74bccb47
Text 1
The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction event is usually attributed solely to an asteroid impact
near Chicxulub, Mexico. Some scientists argue that volcanic activity was the true cause, as the K-Pg event
occurred relatively early in a long period of eruption of the Deccan Traps range that initially produced huge
amounts of climate-altering gases. These dissenters note that other mass extinctions have coincided with
large volcanic eruptions, while only the K-Pg event lines up with an asteroid strike.

Text 2
In a 2020 study, Pincelli Hull and her colleagues analyzed ocean core samples and modeled climate changes
around the K-Pg event. The team concluded that Deccan Traps gases did affect global conditions prior to the
event, but that the climate returned to normal well before the extinctions began—extinctions that instead
closely align with the Chicxulub impact.

Based on the texts, how would Hull’s team (Text 2) most likely respond to the argument in the underlined
portion of Text 1?

A. By agreeing that the Chicxulub impact changed the climate and that the Deccan Traps eruption caused
the K-Pg event

B. By declaring that the changes in climate caused by the Deccan Traps eruption weren’t the main cause of
the K-Pg event

C. By questioning why those scientists assume that the Chicxulub impact caused the Deccan Traps eruption

D. By asserting that the Deccan Traps eruption had a more significant effect on global conditions than those
scientists claim

ID: 74bccb47 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it describes how Hull’s team would most likely respond to the argument in the
underlined portion of Text 1, which asserts that volcanic activity in the Deccan Traps range led to changes in the climate and
caused the K-Pg mass extinction event. According to Text 2, although Hull’s team found that activity in the Deccan Traps did
indeed alter the climate before the K-Pg event, the team determined that the climate had returned to normal before mass
extinctions began. This finding and the observation that the K-Pg extinctions closely align with the Chicxulub asteroid impact
suggest that Hull’s team would likely dispute the claim in the underlined portion of Text 1 and say that the climate changes
caused by the Deccan Traps activity were not the main cause of the extinctions.

Choice A is incorrect because Text 2 describes how Hull’s team found that the climate had recovered from the changes
brought about by the Deccan Traps activity before the K-Pg event occurred, which suggests that Hull’s team would disagree
that the Deccan Traps activity caused the K-Pg event. Additionally, the claim in the underlined portion of Text 1 says nothing
about how the Chicxulub impact changed the climate, so while Hull’s team might believe that the impact did in fact change
the climate, they could not be said to agree with the claim in Text 1 on this point. Choice C is incorrect because there is no
indication in either text that any scientists assume that the Chicxulub impact caused the Deccan Traps activity, so there is no
reason to conclude that Hull’s team would question why the scientists referred to in Text 1 make such an
assumption. Choice D is incorrect because Text 2 describes how Hull’s team found that the climate had recovered from the
changes brought about by the Deccan Traps activity before the K-Pg event occurred, which suggests that Hull’s team would
say that the Deccan Traps activity had a less enduring effect on global conditions than the scientists referenced in Text 1
believe, not that the effect on global conditions was more significant than those scientists claim.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID cd920288
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: cd920288
The following text is from Edith Wharton’s 1905 novel The House of Mirth. Lily Bart and a companion are
walking through a park.
Lily had no real intimacy with nature, but she had a passion for the appropriate and could be keenly
sensitive to a scene which was the fitting background of her own sensations. The landscape outspread
below her seemed an enlargement of her present mood, and she found something of herself in its
calmness, its breadth, its long free reaches. On the nearer slopes the sugar-maples wavered like pyres of
light; lower down was a massing of grey orchards, and here and there the lingering green of an oak-grove.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It creates a detailed image of the physical setting of the scene.

B. It establishes that a character is experiencing an internal conflict.

C. It makes an assertion that the next sentence then expands on.

D. It illustrates an idea that is introduced in the previous sentence.

ID: cd920288 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it best describes how the underlined sentence functions in the text as a whole. The first
sentence of the text establishes that Lily can be “keenly sensitive to” scenes that serve as a “fitting background” for her
feelings—that is, she’s very aware of when a setting seems to reflect her mood. The next sentence, which is underlined, then
demonstrates this awareness: Lily views the landscape she’s in as a large-scale reflection of her current mood, identifying
with elements such as its calmness. Thus, the function of the underlined sentence is to illustrate an idea introduced in the
previous sentence.

Choice A is incorrect because the underlined sentence describes the scene only in very general terms, referring to its
calmness, breadth, and long stretches of land. It’s the next sentence that adds specific details about colors, light, and various
trees nearby. Choice B is incorrect because nothing in the underlined sentence suggests that Lily is experiencing an internal
conflict. In fact, the sentence indicates that Lily thinks the landscape reflects her own feeling of calmness. Choice C is
incorrect because the only assertion in the underlined sentence is that Lily feels that broad aspects of the landscape, such
as its calmness, reflect her current mood, and that assertion isn’t expanded on in the next sentence. Instead, the next
sentence describes specific details of the scene without connecting them to Lily’s feelings.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID eb30c3c0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: eb30c3c0
In 1891, design artist William Morris cofounded the Kelmscott Press, which printed editions of books using
preindustrial methods. Historians argue that Morris’s repudiation of industrialization is ______ the Kelmscott
editions’ use of handmade materials and intricate ornamentation reminiscent of medieval manuscripts:
these meticulously handcrafted elements exemplify the artistry involved.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. insensible to

B. manifest in

C. scrutinized by

D. complicated by

ID: eb30c3c0 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the Kelmscott Press’s books. In this
context, "manifest in" means evident or apparent from. The text states that the Kelmscott Press, which was cofounded by
William Morris, produced its books using preindustrial methods. The text notes the similarity between those methods, which
include the use of handmade materials and intricate ornamentation, and methods used in the creation of medieval
manuscripts. This context suggests that Morris’s repudiation of industrialization is apparent from, or manifest in, the
methods and materials his company employed.

Choice A is incorrect because there is nothing in the text to suggest that Morris’s repudiation of industrialization is
"insensible to," or unaware of or lacking perception of, the use of handmade materials and intricate ornamentation in the
production of the Kelmscott editions. Instead, the text suggests that the methods and materials used to produce the
Kelmscott editions are evidence of Morris’s repudiation of industrialization. Choice C is incorrect because it would not make
sense to say that Morris’s repudiation of industrialization was "scrutinized by," or examined closely by, the Kelmscott editions’
use of handmade materials and intricate ornamentation. Although creating the Kelmscott editions may have involved
examining the books closely, the text does not mention this aspect of Morris’s work, and in any case, the action of using
certain materials to create those editions cannot scrutinize Morris’s attitude toward industrialization. Choice D is incorrect
because the text gives no indication that Morris’s repudiation of industrialization is "complicated by," or made more complex
or difficult by, the Kelmscott Press’s use of preindustrial methods and handcrafted elements to produce books. Instead, the
text presents those methods as exemplifying Morris’s repudiation of industrialization.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID aae79e3a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: aae79e3a

Text 1
Ecologists have long wondered how thousands of microscopic phytoplankton species can live together near
ocean surfaces competing for the same resources. According to conventional wisdom, one species should
emerge after outcompeting the rest. So why do so many species remain? Ecologists’ many efforts to explain
this phenomenon still haven’t uncovered a satisfactory explanation.

Text 2
Ecologist Michael Behrenfeld and colleagues have connected phytoplankton’s diversity to their microscopic
size. Because these organisms are so tiny, they are spaced relatively far apart from each other in ocean
water and, moreover, experience that water as a relatively dense substance. This in turn makes it hard for
them to move around and interact with one another. Therefore, says Behrenfeld’s team, direct competition
among phytoplankton probably happens much less than previously thought.

Based on the texts, how would Behrenfeld and colleagues (Text 2) most likely respond to the “conventional
wisdom” discussed in Text 1?
A. By arguing that it is based on a misconception about phytoplankton species competing with one another

B. By asserting that it fails to recognize that routine replenishment of ocean nutrients prevents competition
between phytoplankton species

C. By suggesting that their own findings help clarify how phytoplankton species are able to compete with
larger organisms

D. By recommending that more ecologists focus their research on how competition among phytoplankton
species is increased with water density

ID: aae79e3a Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because based on Text 2, it represents how Behrenfeld and colleagues would most likely
respond to the “conventional wisdom” discussed in Text 1. The conventional wisdom cited holds the opinion that when there
is species diversity within a phytoplankton population, “one species should emerge after outcompeting the rest”—that is,
after being so successful in competing for resources that the other species vanish from the population. However, Text 2
explains that according to Behrenfeld and colleagues, phytoplankton are so small and spaced so far apart in the water that
there is “much less” direct competition for resources within phytoplankton populations than scientists had previously
thought.

Choice B is incorrect because Text 2 never discusses whether routine replenishment of ocean nutrients affects competition
between phytoplankton species. Choice C is incorrect because the interspecies competition discussed in both texts is
specifically between phytoplankton species, and neither text considers whether phytoplankton compete for resources with
larger nonphytoplankton species. Choice D is incorrect because according to Text 2, Behrenfeld and colleagues argue that
water density decreases, not increases, competition between phytoplankton species.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e6ee3ccd
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: e6ee3ccd
In response to concerns that some recent financial crises were exacerbated by consumers misunderstanding
risks associated with credit cards, loans, and other financial products, policymakers in many countries have
instituted risk-disclosure requirements on sellers of those products. Enrique Seira et al. investigated a variety
of risk-disclosure messages sent to thousands of credit card customers and found that the messages had
only small and short-lived effects on behavior. Seira et al. asserted that such effects may nevertheless be
worth pursuing, given the negligible cost of messaging.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It notes a factor that led Seira et al. to not dismiss risk-disclosure messaging altogether despite their
evidence of its limited utility.

B. It acknowledges a type of risk-disclosure messaging that Seira et al. may not have fully accounted for in
their study.

C. It describes a consideration that explains why Seira et al. recommended risk-disclosure messaging even
though its effects may be small relative to its costs.

D. It points out a circumstance that Seira et al. conceded may make risk-disclosure messaging more
effective than their study suggests.

ID: e6ee3ccd Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a
whole. The text establishes that many countries have adopted risk-disclosure requirements for financial products due to
concerns that consumers don’t understand the risks associated with the products. According to the text, Seira et al. found
that the effects of such messaging on consumer behavior were small and temporary. The text then adds that the
researchers assert that because the cost of the messaging is negligible, the approach may be worth doing even if the effects
are limited. Thus, the underlined portion notes a factor—very low cost—that led the researchers to not completely dismiss
risk-disclosure messaging despite their evidence of its limited utility.

Choice B is incorrect because the underlined portion doesn’t refer to a particular type of risk-disclosure messaging, whether
Seira et al. considered it or not; the underlined portion simply indicates that the cost of the messaging (broadly) is very low,
which makes the approach worth pursuing even if its effects are limited. Choice C is incorrect. Although the underlined
portion does describe a consideration that led the researchers to recommend risk-disclosure messaging despite the
messaging’s small effects on consumer behavior, it directly states that the cost of such messaging is negligible, or very low
—meaning that both the effects and the costs are small, not that the effects are small only relative to the costs. Choice D is
incorrect because there’s no indication that Seira et al. suggest that risk-disclosure messaging could be more effective if it
had lower costs; rather, the underlined portion indicates that Seira et al. believe the already negligible cost of messaging
makes the approach worth pursuing even if its effects are limited.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a1b07d88
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: a1b07d88
The mimosa tree evolved in East Asia, where the beetle Bruchidius terrenus preys on its seeds. In 1785,
mimosa trees were introduced to North America, far from any B. terrenus. But evolutionary links between
predators and their prey can persist across centuries and continents. Around 2001, B. terrenus was
introduced in southeastern North America near where botanist Shu-Mei Chang and colleagues had been
monitoring mimosa trees. Within a year, 93 percent of the trees had been attacked by the beetles.

Which choice best describes the function of the third sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A. It states the hypothesis that Chang and colleagues had set out to investigate using mimosa trees and B.
terrenus.

B. It presents a generalization that is exemplified by the discussion of the mimosa trees and B. terrenus.

C. It provides context that clarifies why the species mentioned spread to new locations.

D. It offers an alternative explanation for the findings of Chang and colleagues.

ID: a1b07d88 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most accurately describes the function of the third sentence within the overall
structure of the text. The third sentence makes a generalization, asserting that evolutionary links between predators and prey
can persist across great expanses of time and distance. This generalization is exemplified by the text’s discussion of the
relationship between mimosa trees and B. terrenus beetles. When mimosa trees were introduced to North America in 1785,
no B. terrenus beetles were present, so the relationship between the trees and the beetles that exists in their native East Asia
was disrupted. When the beetles were introduced to North America more than 200 years later, however, they quickly attacked
mimosa trees, illustrating the generalization that links between predators and prey "can persist across centuries and
continents."

Choice A is incorrect because the third sentence doesn’t indicate that Chang and colleagues were investigating any
hypothesis. According to the text, Chang and colleagues were simply monitoring mimosa trees when the beetles happened
to be introduced to the area. Choice C is incorrect because the third sentence doesn’t discuss any particular species, let
alone the species mentioned elsewhere in the text, nor does the sentence explain why species spread to new locations.
Choice D is incorrect because the third sentence offers a generalization about the relationship between predators and prey,
not an explanation for the findings by Chang and colleagues that’s an "alternative" to an explanation presented elsewhere in
the text.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bf2915a9
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: bf2915a9
Mathematician Claude Shannon is widely regarded as a foundational figure in information theory. His most
important paper, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” published in 1948 when he was employed at
Bell Labs, utilized a concept called a “binary digit” (shortened to “bit”) to measure the amount of information
in any signal and determine the fastest rate at which information could be transmitted while still being
reliably decipherable. Robert Gallagher, one of Shannon’s colleagues, said that the bit was “[Shannon’s]
discovery, and from it the whole communications revolution has sprung.”

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It presents a theoretical concept, illustrates how the name of the concept has changed, and shows how
the name has entered common usage.

B. It introduces a respected researcher, describes an aspect of his work, and suggests why the work is
historically significant.

C. It names the company where an important mathematician worked, details the mathematician’s career at
the company, and provides an example of the recognition he received there.

D. It mentions a paper, offers a summary of the paper’s findings, and presents a researcher’s commentary on
the paper.

ID: bf2915a9 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The text starts with a general statement that introduces Shannon, then describes a specific
contribution from one of his papers, then provides a quote that illustrates just how important this contribution was.

Choice A is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. The text only mentions very briefly, in parentheses, that “binary digit”
was shortened to “bit.” It doesn’t go into detail about this name change, and it doesn’t discuss any “common usage” of the
name at all. Choice C is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. Shannon’s employment at Bell Labs is only mentioned once,
very briefly: the text never goes into detail about his career there, and it never mentions any recognition he received there.
Choice D is incorrect. This is too narrow. Overall, the text is about Shannon’s importance in his field, not just this one paper of
his.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID df7bc1cf
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-text Hard

Connections

ID: df7bc1cf
Text 1
What factors influence the abundance of species in a given ecological community? Some theorists have
argued that historical diversity is a major driver of how diverse an ecological community eventually becomes:
differences in community diversity across otherwise similar habitats, in this view, are strongly affected by the
number of species living in those habitats at earlier times.
Text 2
In 2010, a group of researchers including biologist Carla Cáceres created artificial pools in a New York forest.
They stocked some pools with a diverse mix of zooplankton species and others with a single zooplankton
species and allowed the pool communities to develop naturally thereafter. Over the course of four years,
Cáceres and colleagues periodically measured the species diversity of the pools, finding—contrary to their
expectations—that by the end of the study there was little to no difference in the pools’ species diversity.

Based on the texts, how would Cáceres and colleagues (Text 2) most likely describe the view of the theorists
presented in Text 1?
A. It is largely correct, but it requires a minor refinement in light of the research team’s results.

B. It is not compelling as a theory regardless of any experimental data collected by the research team.

C. It may seem plausible, but it is not supported by the research team’s findings.

D. It probably holds true only in conditions like those in the research team’s study.

ID: df7bc1cf Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. This is how Cáceres and co. would most likely describe the view presented in Text 1. The view
in Text 1 is that historical diversity affects how diverse an ecological community eventually becomes. But Cáceres and co.
did not get this result: they found no difference in eventual diversity between a zooplankton pool that started out diverse and
a zooplankton pool that started out with only a single species.

Choice A is incorrect. Cáceres and co. would probably not describe the view presented in Text 1 this way. The view in Text 1
is that historical diversity affects how diverse an ecological community eventually becomes. Cáceres and co’s findings
directly undermine this view: they found no difference in eventual diversity between a zooplankton pool that started out
diverse and a zooplankton pool that started out with only a single species. Choice B is incorrect. Cáceres and co. would
probably not describe the view presented in Text 1 this way. Their experiment was designed to test this hypothesis, and their
findings were "contrary to their expectations." In other words, before the study, they predicted the theory was correct. Choice
D is incorrect. Cáceres and co. would not describe the view presented in Text 1 this way. Their research finding directly
undermines the view presented in Text 1: so it definitely doesn’t hold true in conditions like those in the study.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 218b932d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 218b932d
Text 1
The fossil record suggests that mammoths went extinct around 11 thousand years (kyr) ago. In a 2021 study
of environmental DNA (eDNA)—genetic material shed into the environment by organisms—in the Arctic,
Yucheng Wang and colleagues found mammoth eDNA in sedimentary layers formed millennia later, around 4
kyr ago. To account for this discrepancy, Joshua H. Miller and Carl Simpson proposed that arctic
temperatures could preserve a mammoth carcass on the surface, allowing it to leach DNA into the
environment, for several thousand years.
Text 2
Wang and colleagues concede that eDNA contains DNA from both living organisms and carcasses, but for
DNA to leach from remains over several millennia requires that the remains be perpetually on the surface.
Scavengers and weathering in the Arctic, however, are likely to break down surface remains well before a
thousand years have passed.

Which choice best describes how Text 1 and Text 2 relate to each other?

A. Text 1 discusses two approaches to studying mammoth extinction without advocating for either, whereas
Text 2 advocates for one approach over the other.

B. Text 1 presents findings by Wang and colleagues and gives another research team’s attempt to explain
those findings, whereas Text 2 provides additional detail that calls that explanation into question.

C. Text 1 describes Wang and colleagues’ study and a critique of their methodology, whereas Text 2 offers
additional details showing that methodology to be sound.

D. Text 1 argues that new research has undermined the standard view of when mammoths went extinct,
whereas Text 2 suggests a way to reconcile the standard view with that new research.

ID: 218b932d Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. Text 1 introduces Wang and colleagues’ study and its surprising results, and then mentions
Miller and Simpson’s hypothesis as a possible way to explain them. Text 2, however, challenges Miller and Simpson’s
hypothesis by pointing out the difficulties of preserving mammoth carcasses on the surface for thousands of years:
“scavengers and weathering” are the additional details that complicate the Miller/Simpson hypothesis.

Choice A is incorrect. Neither text compares two different approaches for studying mammoth extinction. Text 1 describes
one study and one hypothesis pertaining to it. Text 2 critiques that hypothesis. Choice C is incorrect. Text 1 does not
describe a critique of Wang and colleagues’ methodology, but rather an interpretation of their results by Miller and Simpson.
Text 2 does not offer additional details showing that methodology to be sound, but rather casts doubt on the Miller/Simpson
explanation. Choice D is incorrect. Both components mentioned here (the new “undermining” research and the theory for
reconciling this discovery) are contained in Text 1. Text 2 then shows how the attempt to reconcile the standard view and
new research is flawed, and still fails to explain the discrepancy.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d7048b13
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: d7048b13
The field of study called affective neuroscience seeks instinctive, physiological causes for feelings such as
pleasure or displeasure. Because these sensations are linked to a chemical component (for example, the
release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain when one receives or expects a reward), they can be
said to have a partly physiological basis. These processes have been described in mammals, but Jingnan
Huang and his colleagues have recently observed that some behaviors of honeybees (such as foraging) are
also motivated by a dopamine-based signaling process.

What choice best describes the main purpose of the text?

A. It describes an experimental method of measuring the strength of physiological responses in humans.

B. It illustrates processes by which certain insects can express how they are feeling.

C. It summarizes a finding suggesting that some mechanisms in the brains of certain insects resemble
mechanisms in mammalian brains.

D. It presents research showing that certain insects and mammals behave similarly when there is a
possibility of a reward for their actions.

ID: d7048b13 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text, which is to summarize a
finding suggesting that some mechanisms in the brains of certain insects resemble mechanisms in mammalian brains. The
text begins by explaining that feelings such as pleasure and displeasure are linked to chemical processes in the brain, such
as the release of dopamine when one receives a reward. The text then indicates that such processes have been seen in
mammals but that researchers have recently observed similar processes involving dopamine in honeybees. Taken together,
this information serves to sum up the discovery that some mechanisms in the brains of certain insects may resemble
mechanisms linked to feelings such as pleasure and displeasure in mammals.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t describe any experiments or experimental methods. Instead, the text
describes a phenomenon that has been observed in mammals and then presents the recent observations of Huang and
colleagues that this phenomenon is also seen in honeybees. Choice B is incorrect because there’s nothing in the text to
suggest that certain insects can express how they’re feeling through particular processes. The text does indicate that certain
honeybee behaviors such as foraging are linked to dopamine, but it doesn’t suggest that these behaviors enable honeybees
to communicate feelings or sensations. Choice D is incorrect because the text presents research showing that certain
honeybee behaviors such as foraging are linked to dopamine and therefore may be motivated by similar mechanisms to
those in mammalian brains, not that honeybees and mammals behave similarly when there is the possibility of reward for
their actions.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f7ed26a4
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: f7ed26a4
In 2020, rap artist and professor A.D. Carson published the first peer-reviewed rap album about his
experiences with Black masculinity called “i used to love to dream.” Typically in peer review, experts evaluate
scholarly articles prior to publication. For Carson’s album, dubbed a “mixtap/e/ssay,” peer review involved
both scholars and rap artists. In combining elements of a mixtape album with scholarly essays that connect
Carson’s lyrics to historical and contemporary contexts for listeners both inside and outside academia,
Carson’s album helped redefine how scholarship is created and shared.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To compare the relative public impact of scholarly articles and albums

B. To capture one scholar’s opinion of a new rap album

C. To explain why a certain rap album is particularly innovative

D. To describe how each step of the peer review process unfolds

ID: f7ed26a4 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it best describes the main purpose of the text, which is to explain why a certain rap
album is particularly innovative. The text mentions rap artist and professor A.D. Carson, who published "the first peer-
reviewed rap album." The text also describes the unusual process of having the work evaluated by both scholars and rap
artists before its release, and details how the album combines elements of a mixtape album with elements of scholarly
essays. All of these characteristics of the album and the way in which it was developed help to demonstrate the album’s
novelty.

Choice A is incorrect because though the text mentions an album that combines elements of scholarly essays and mixtapes,
it does not compare the relative public impact of scholarly articles and albums. Choice B is incorrect because the text does
not present the opinion of a scholar regarding the rap album. Choice D is incorrect because though the text mentions that
the album was peer reviewed, it does not detail the steps of the review.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 0714c5f1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 0714c5f1
Text 1
Despite its beautiful prose, The Guns of August, Barbara Tuchman’s 1962 analysis of the start of World War I,
has certain weaknesses as a work of history. It fails to address events in Eastern Europe just before the
outbreak of hostilities, thereby giving the impression that Germany was the war’s principal instigator. Had
Tuchman consulted secondary works available to her by scholars such as Luigi Albertini, she would not have
neglected the influence of events in Eastern Europe on Germany’s actions.

Text 2
Barbara Tuchman’s The Guns of August is an engrossing if dated introduction to World War I. Tuchman’s
analysis of primary documents is laudable, but her main thesis that European powers committed themselves
to a catastrophic outcome by refusing to deviate from military plans developed prior to the conflict is
implausibly reductive.

Which choice best describes a difference in how the authors of Text 1 and Text 2 view Barbara Tuchman’s
The Guns of August?

A. The author of Text 1 argues that Tuchman should have relied more on the work of other historians, while
the author of Text 2 implies that Tuchman’s most interesting claims result from her original research.

B. The author of Text 1 believes that the scope of Tuchman’s research led her to an incorrect interpretation,
while the author of Text 2 believes that Tuchman’s central argument is overly simplistic.

C. The author of Text 1 asserts that the writing style of The Guns of August makes it worthwhile to read
despite any perceived deficiency in Tuchman’s research, while the author of Text 2 focuses exclusively on
the weakness of Tuchman’s interpretation of events.

D. The author of Text 1 claims that Tuchman would agree that World War I was largely due to events in
Eastern Europe, while the author of Text 2 maintains that Tuchman would say that Eastern European
leaders were not committed to military plans in the same way that other leaders were.

ID: 0714c5f1 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. Both texts are critical of The Guns of August, but for different reasons: the author of Text 1
argues that Tuchman missed an important factor leading up to the war because she didn’t consult secondary sources, and
the author of Text 2 argues that Tuchman’s main thesis is "reductive," which is a close synonym for "overly simplistic."
Choice A is incorrect. This doesn’t accurately describe the difference. This choice’s summary of Text 1 is accurate, but Text 2
never says that Tuchman’s most interesting claims result from her original research. Choice C is incorrect. This doesn’t
accurately describe the difference. Text 1 never says that The Guns of August is worthwhile to read despite its research
weaknesses. Text 2 does call out a weakness of Tuchman’s interpretation of events, but it also praises her analysis of
primary sources. Choice D is incorrect. This doesn’t accurately describe the difference. Text 1 actually says that Tuchman
"fails to address" the influence of events in Eastern Europe, while Text 2 says that Tuchman’s thesis was that European
powers (not Eastern European leaders) were committed to military plans.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 0c0e9872
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 0c0e9872
The following text is adapted from Oscar Wilde’s 1895 play The Importance of Being Earnest.
CECILY: Have we got to part?
ALGERNON: I am afraid so. It’s a very painful parting.
CECILY: It is always painful to part from people whom one has known for a very brief space of time. The
absence of old friends one can endure with equanimity. But even a momentary separation from anyone to
whom one has just been introduced is almost unbearable.

As used in the text, what does the word “endure” most nearly mean?
A. Regret

B. Persist

C. Tolerate

D. Encourage

ID: 0c0e9872 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because as used in the text, “endure” most nearly means tolerate. In the text, Cecily and
Algernon discuss parting, or saying goodbye. Cecily remarks on the deep pain of saying goodbye to people whom one has
only known briefly and then comments on the equanimity, or calm steadiness, one experiences when separated from old
friends. The text sets up an ironic contrast: one can easily tolerate, or put up with, the absence of close friends, but even a
very short separation from a new acquaintance is unbearable.

Choice A is incorrect. Nothing in the text suggests that Cecily associates regret, or a feeling of sorrow, with the absence of
old friends. Rather, the text sets up an ironic contrast between the feeling of calm steadiness one feels when separated from
old friends and the unbearable pain of being separated from new acquaintances. Choice B is incorrect. Although in some
contexts “endure” can mean persist, or proceed stubbornly, it doesn’t have that meaning in this context because what is
being endured is the absence of old friends. Whereas one can persist despite the absence of someone else, one can’t persist
the absence itself. Choice D is incorrect because the text doesn’t convey that Cecily encourages, or urges, old friends to be
absent. Although it may be that Cecily prefers new acquaintances to friends she has known for a long time, the text focuses
on her feelings as a result of others’ absences, not on her treatment of others.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 43aa094b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 43aa094b
Scholarly accounts of the Chicano movement—a movement that advocated for the social, political, and
cultural empowerment of Mexican Americans and reached its zenith in the 1960s and 1970s—tend to focus
on the most militant, outspoken figures in the movement, making it seem uniformly radical. Geographer Juan
Herrera has shown, however, that if we shift our focus toward the way the movement manifested in
comparatively low-profile neighborhood institutions and projects, we see participants espousing an array of
political orientations and approaches to community activism.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It presents a trend in scholarship on the Chicano movement that the text claims has been reevaluated by
researchers in light of Herrera’s work on the movement’s participants.

B. It identifies an aspect of the Chicano movement that the text implies was overemphasized by scholars
due to their own political orientations.

C. It describes a common approach to studying the Chicano movement that, according to the text, obscures
the ideological diversity of the movement’s participants.

D. It summarizes the conventional method for analyzing the Chicano movement, which the text suggests
creates a misleading impression of the effectiveness of neighborhood institutions and projects.

ID: 43aa094b Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a
whole. The text begins by mentioning scholarly accounts of the Chicano movement, which the underlined portion describes
as tending "to focus on the most militant, outspoken figures in the movement," making the movement as a whole seem
uniformly radical. The text then indicates that the work of geographer Juan Herrera shows that focusing less on such
militant figures and instead paying more attention to manifestations of the Chicano movement in less widely known
neighborhood institutions and projects would reveal that the movement’s participants embraced a range of political
orientations and approaches. Thus, the underlined portion describes a common approach to studying the Chicano
movement that, according to the text, obscures the ideological diversity of the movement’s participants.

Choice A is incorrect. Though the underlined portion does present a trend in scholarship on the Chicano movement, the text
does not indicate that other scholars have reevaluated their methods in light of Herrera’s work. It only indicates that Herrera’s
work suggests that the work of those other scholars does not provide a complete picture of the Chicano movement. Choice
B is incorrect. Though the underlined portion does identify an aspect of the Chicano movement that the text indicates has
been overemphasized, the text does not discuss the political orientations of the scholars whose work is mentioned in the
text. Choice D is incorrect. Though the underlined portion does summarize the conventional method for analyzing the
Chicano movement, the rest of the text does not address the effectiveness of "comparatively low-profile neighborhood
institutions and projects." Instead, the text suggests that those projects were led by people with a variety of approaches to
community activism.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f8eacedb
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: f8eacedb
Text 1
Africa’s Sahara region—once a lush ecosystem—began to dry out about 8,000 years ago. A change in Earth’s
orbit that affected climate has been posited as a cause of desertification, but archaeologist David Wright
also attributes the shift to Neolithic peoples. He cites their adoption of pastoralism as a factor in the region
drying out: the pastoralists’ livestock depleted vegetation, prompting the events that created the Sahara
Desert.
Text 2
Research by Chris Brierley et al. challenges the idea that Neolithic peoples contributed to the Sahara’s
desertification. Using a climate-vegetation model, the team concluded that the end of the region’s humid
period occurred 500 years earlier than previously assumed. The timing suggests that Neolithic peoples didn’t
exacerbate aridity in the region but, in fact, may have helped delay environmental changes with practices
(e.g., selective grazing) that preserved vegetation.

Based on the texts, how would Chris Brierley (Text 2) most likely respond to the discussion in Text 1?

A. By pointing out that given the revised timeline for the end of the Sahara’s humid period, the Neolithic
peoples’ mode of subsistence likely didn’t cause the region’s desertification

B. By claiming that pastoralism was only one of many behaviors the Neolithic peoples took part in that may
have contributed to the Sahara’s changing climate

C. By insisting that pastoralism can have both beneficial and deleterious effects on a region’s vegetation and
climate

D. By asserting that more research needs to be conducted into factors that likely contributed to the
desertification of the Sahara region

ID: f8eacedb Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. Brierley et al.’s research directly challenges Wright’s claim that pastoralism turned the Sahara
into a desert, suggesting that, in a Sahara that turned arid 500 years earlier than previously thought, pastoral practices may
have actually “preserved vegetation” rather than depleting it.

Choice B is incorrect. Brierley et al.’s research actually disputes the idea that any Neolithic peoples’ behaviors, including
pastoralism, could have contributed to the Sahara’s changing climate. In fact, their research implies that the Neolithic
peoples’ practices did not “exacerbate aridity” (i.e., make things worse), but may have slowed environmental changes.
Choice C is incorrect. Brierley et al.’s research does not acknowledge that pastoralism can have deleterious (i.e., negative)
effects on a region’s vegetation and climate. It only describes one possible beneficial effect: preserving vegetation through
practices like selective grazing. Choice D is incorrect. Brierley et al.’s research does not call for more research into factors
that likely contributed to the desertification of the Sahara region.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 19e19d21
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 19e19d21
The following text is adapted from James Baldwin’s 1956 novel Giovanni’s Room. The narrator is riding in a
taxi down a street lined with food vendors and shoppers in Paris, France.

The multitude of Paris seems to be dressed in blue every day but Sunday, when, for the most part, they
put on an unbelievably festive black. Here they were now, in blue, disputing, every inch, our passage, with
their wagons, handtrucks, their bursting baskets carried at an angle steeply self-confident on the back.
©1956 by James Baldwin

As used in the text, what does the word “disputing” most nearly mean?

A. Arguing about

B. Disapproving of

C. Asserting possession of

D. Providing resistance to

ID: 19e19d21 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because as used in the text, "disputing" most nearly means providing resistance to. The narrator
is in a taxi as it drives down a street lined with so many food vendors and shoppers that the narrator describes them as "the
multitude of Paris," meaning an immense group of people. The street is essentially a large open-air market, and there are so
many people pushing small wagons of goods and carrying shopping baskets that "every inch" of the taxi’s progress is
impeded. In other words, the people are providing resistance to the taxi’s attempt to drive down the street.

Choice A is incorrect. Although in some contexts, "disputing" can mean arguing, the narrator doesn’t portray the shoppers
and vendors as arguing with the driver of the taxi or, indeed, arguing at all. Choice B is incorrect. Although in some contexts,
"disputing" can mean expressing disapproval, the narrator doesn’t suggest that the shoppers and vendors necessarily
disapprove of the taxi’s attempt to drive down the street. Instead, their combined presence along the street has the effect of
impeding the taxi’s progress. Choice C is incorrect because, as the narrator explains, both the multitude of people and the
taxi are using a public space (a street) at the same time. The narrator doesn’t go so far as to suggest that the people feel
that they, and not the taxi, possess exclusive access to the street.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e56aedd2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: e56aedd2

Text 1
Conventional wisdom long held that human social systems evolved in stages, beginning with hunter-
gatherers forming small bands of members with roughly equal status. The shift to agriculture about 12,000
years ago sparked population growth that led to the emergence of groups with hierarchical structures:
associations of clans first, then chiefdoms, and finally, bureaucratic states.

Text 2
In a 2021 book, anthropologist David Graeber and archaeologist David Wengrow maintain that humans have
always been socially flexible, alternately forming systems based on hierarchy and collective ones with
decentralized leadership. The authors point to evidence that as far back as 50,000 years ago some hunter-
gatherers adjusted their social structures seasonally, at times dispersing in small groups but also
assembling into communities that included esteemed individuals.

Based on the texts, how would Graeber and Wengrow (Text 2) most likely respond to the “conventional
wisdom” presented in Text 1?
A. By conceding the importance of hierarchical systems but asserting the greater significance of
decentralized collective societies

B. By disputing the idea that developments in social structures have followed a linear progression through
distinct stages

C. By acknowledging that hierarchical roles likely weren’t a part of social systems before the rise of
agriculture

D. By challenging the assumption that groupings of hunter-gatherers were among the earliest forms of
social structure

ID: e56aedd2 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it describes the most likely way that Graeber and Wengrow (Text 2) would respond to
the “conventional wisdom” presented in Text 1. According to Text 1, the conventional wisdom about human social systems is
that they developed through stages, beginning with hunter-gatherer bands, then moving to clan associations, then
chiefdoms, and finally arriving at states with bureaucratic structures. Text 2 indicates that Graeber and Wengrow believe that
human social systems have been flexible, shifting between different types of structures, including both hierarchical and
collective systems, and that these shifts may have even occurred seasonally. This suggests that Graeber and Wengrow
would dispute the idea that developments in social structures have followed a linear progression through distinct stages.

Choice A is incorrect because nothing in Text 2 suggests that Graeber and Wengrow believe that decentralized collective
societies are more significant than hierarchical systems. Text 2 is focused on Graeber and Wengrow’s view that humans
have flexibly shifted among various social structures, not on the importance of particular structures relative to
others. Choice C is incorrect because Text 2 doesn’t include any information suggesting that Graeber and Wengrow believe
that hierarchies didn’t emerge until after the rise of agriculture. In fact, Text 2 indicates that Graeber and Wengrow cite
evidence suggesting that some hunter-gatherer groups formed social structures with hierarchical elements (“communities
that included esteemed individuals”) 50,000 years ago, long before the rise of agriculture, which Text 1 says occurred around
12,000 years ago. Choice D is incorrect because there’s no information in Text 2 suggesting that Graeber and Wengrow
would challenge the assumption that groupings of hunter-gatherers were among the earliest forms of social structure.
Although Text 1 does indicate that hunter-gatherer groups are assumed to be the earliest human social system, Text 2 says
only that Graeber and Wengrow believe that some hunter-gatherer groups made use of different social structures at different
times. Text 2 doesn’t imply that Graeber and Wengrow doubt that hunter-gatherer groups preceded most other social
structures.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 826c2a7e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 826c2a7e
Close analysis of the painting Girl with a Flute, long attributed to the seventeenth-century Dutch painter
Johannes Vermeer, has revealed subtle deviations from the artist’s signature techniques. These variations
suggest that the work may be that of a student under Vermeer’s tutelage—potentially ______ our
understanding of Vermeer as a solitary artist.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. negating

B. prefiguring

C. entrenching

D. substantiating

ID: 826c2a7e Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. "Negating" means "reversing" or "making invalid." Proving that Vermeer worked with students
would reverse the view of him as a solitary artist.

Choice B is incorrect. "Prefiguring" means "being an early indicator of." There already existed views of Vermeer as a solitary
painter, so a new painting would not be an early indicator of those views. Rather, a painting proving that Vermeer had a
student would contradict those earlier views. Choice C is incorrect. "Entrenching" means "solidifying." A painting proving that
Vermeer had a student would not solidify views of him as solitary, but would rather contradict those views. Choice D is
incorrect. "Substantiating" means "supporting with proof." A painting proving that Vermeer had a student would not support
views of him as solitary, but would rather contradict those views.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7f66ae7e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 7f66ae7e
Within baleen whale species, some individuals develop an accessory spleen—a seemingly functionless
formation of splenetic tissue outside the normal spleen. Given the formation’s greater prevalence among
whales known to make deeper dives, some researchers hypothesize that its role isn’t ______; rather, the
accessory spleen may actively support diving mechanisms.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. replicable

B. predetermined

C. operative

D. latent

ID: 7f66ae7e Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of baleen whale accessory spleens. In
this context, “latent” means dormant or functionless. The text sets up a contrast between the idea that baleen whale
accessory spleens appear not to have a function and the research indicating that the accessory spleen may actually have a
role in supporting the whales’ diving mechanisms. This context therefore conveys the idea that the assumption that baleen
whale accessory spleens are latent may be incorrect.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that the role of the accessory spleen is “replicable,” or capable
of being reproduced. The text indicates that the role of the accessory spleen seems to have no function, but some
researchers think it does have a role; the text doesn’t address whether the role of the accessory spleen could or couldn’t be
reproduced. Choice B is incorrect because suggesting that the role of the accessory spleen is “predetermined,” or decided in
advance, wouldn’t make sense in context. Although the researchers may agree that the role of the accessory spleen or any
other organ hasn’t been determined in advance, the text focuses on the idea that the accessory spleen was thought to have
been functionless but may in fact serve an active role for baleen whales. Choice C is incorrect because it’s the opposite of
what the context of the text is conveying. The second sentence of the text indicates that baleen whale accessory spleens
may not be useless, not that they aren’t “operative,” or functional.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 702a74f4
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 702a74f4
According to a US tax policy expert, state taxes are ______ other factors when considering an interstate move.
Even significant differences in state taxation have almost no effect on most people’s decisions, while
differences in employment opportunities, housing availability, and climate are strong influences.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. consistent with

B. representative of

C. overshadowed by

D. irrelevant to

ID: 702a74f4 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the factors that influence peoples’
decisions to move to a different state. As used in this context, “overshadowed by” means to be surpassed by or caused to
seem less important than other factors affecting a move. The text indicates that, according to a US tax policy expert, when
people think about an interstate move, state taxes have little effect on their decisions, while employment opportunities,
housing availability, and climate have a very strong effect. This context suggests that people consider these other factors to
be more important than state taxes.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that state taxes aren’t as important a consideration as other factors when
people are thinking of moving to another state. The context doesn’t suggest that state taxes are “consistent with,” or in
agreement with these other factors. Choice B is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to say that state taxes
are “representative of,” or typical of, other factors. Taxes aren’t an example of employment opportunities, housing availability,
and climate, which are the other factors listed in the text. Choice D is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense in context to
say that state taxes are “irrelevant to,” or unconnected or unimportant to other factors. State taxes are irrelevant to peoples’
decisions, not to other factors. In other words, although the text suggests that state taxes may be irrelevant to people
considering a move to another state, the other factors mentioned in the text, such as employment opportunities, are unable
to have an opinion about state taxes. Furthermore, the text indicates that significant differences in state taxes have almost
no effect on peoples’ choices to move, but they aren’t completely unimportant.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6c40cde3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 6c40cde3
The results of randomized clinical trials testing the efficacy of common medical interventions sometimes fail
to ______ conclusions that practitioners reach based on their real-world observations of patients. While there
are several possible reasons for this, one is that practitioners may overlook confounding variables that
account for the results they attribute to the interventions in question.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. circumvent

B. corroborate

C. disseminate

D. implement

ID: 6c40cde3 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of a relationship between the results
of randomized clinical tests of how effective common medical interventions are and the conclusions practitioners reach
about such interventions in real-world settings. In this context, "corroborate" means confirm or support with evidence. The
text indicates that one possible explanation for the relationship being discussed is that practitioners may overlook
confounding variables—that is, additional factors other than the medical interventions being investigated that affect the
observed outcomes. This means that practitioners may assume that an outcome is the direct result of a medical intervention
when it is actually the result of a combination of factors. Clinical trials take steps to rule out factors other than the one being
studied, so if those extra factors are actually having an effect on real-world outcomes, the trials are likely to produce
conclusions different from those practitioners reach in their real-world observations. In other words, clinical trials may fail to
corroborate practitioners’ conclusions.

Choice A is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that the results of clinical trials could "circumvent," or find a way
around or bypass, conclusions practitioners reach in real-world scenarios with patients; it’s possible that researchers
conducting the trials might avoid engaging with practitioners’ conclusions, but findings from a study can’t choose to get
around something. Choice C is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that the results of clinical trials could
"disseminate," or spread widely, conclusions practitioners reach in real-world scenarios with patients; the researchers
conducting the trials might choose to draw attention to practitioners’ conclusions, but findings from a study can’t spread
anything. Choice D is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that the results of clinical trials could "implement," or
put into effect, conclusions practitioners reach in real-world scenarios with patients; the researchers conducting the trials
might consider practitioners’ conclusions, but findings from a study can’t put anything into effect.
Question Difficulty: Hard
Question ID e8e987a7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: e8e987a7
Some economic historians ______ that late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century households in the United
States experienced an economy of scale when it came to food purchases—they assumed that large
households spent less on food per person than did small households. Economist Trevon Logan showed,
however, that a close look at the available data disproves this supposition.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. surmised

B. contrived

C. questioned

D. regretted

ID: e8e987a7 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-
century household food purchases. In this context, “surmised” means formed an idea or assumption with little evidence. The
text explains that certain economic historians “assumed” that large and small households spent different amounts on food
per person, but that another economist found this supposition to be false based on evidence from available data. This
context suggests that the economic historians made an incorrect assumption without enough consideration of evidence.

Choice B is incorrect. In this context, “contrived” would mean brought about or created through trickery. Nothing in the text
suggests that the economic historians were deliberately trying to trick people with a claim about food purchasing behaviors
in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century households; the text simply suggests that they made an assumption about
those behaviors that another historian believes isn’t supported by the available data. Choice C is incorrect because the text
indicates that it’s Logan and not the economic historians who “questioned,” or doubted, the assumption that large and small
households in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries spent different amounts on food per person; the economic
historians are the ones who made that assumption to begin with. Choice D is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests
that some economic historians “regretted,” or felt sad or remorseful about, the food purchasing behaviors of late nineteenth-
and early twentieth-century households. The text focuses on the idea that the economic historians made an assumption
about those behaviors that may not be supported by available data, not on the historians’ emotional response to what
households did in the past.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c10a87a3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: c10a87a3
Diadromous fish migrate between freshwater and marine biomes during their life cycle. The migration’s
obligate nature is why diadromous fish can be ______ those that are merely euryhaline (able to tolerate high
salinity): the euryhaline blackchin tilapia can survive high salinity, but its life cycle does not involve relocation
to a different biome, as does that of the diadromous wild salmon.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. demarcated from

B. reconstituted as

C. conflated with

D. derived from

ID: c10a87a3 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of diadromous fish. In this context,
"demarcated from" means separate or set apart from. The text indicates that diadromous fish differ from euryhaline fish in
that diadromous fish "migrate between freshwater and marine biomes during their life," whereas euryhaline fish do not
relocate to a different biome because they can tolerate higher salinity environments. Therefore, this context suggests that
because of differences between their migration patterns, diadromous fish are distinct and can be demarcated from
euryhaline fish.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the text states that diadromous fish migrate and relocate, the text does not suggest that
diadromous fish would be "reconstituted as," or formed again as, anything new. Only their environments change and not the
fish themselves. Choice C is incorrect because the text does not suggest that diadromous fish can be "conflated with," or
combined with, euryhaline fish. Instead, the text distinguishes the two types of fish by pointing out their differences with
regard to migration and tolerance for salinity. Choice D is incorrect because the text indicates that based on migration habits
and tolerance for salinity, diadromous fish are different from euryhaline fish; so it would not make logical sense to say that
diadromous fish would be "derived from," or be an extension of or result from, euryhaline fish.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 52aa1317
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 52aa1317
Raymond Antrobus, an accomplished poet and writer of prose, recently released his debut spoken word
poetry album, The First Time I Wore Hearing Aids, in collaboration with producer Ian Brennan. The album
contains both autobiographical and reflective pieces combining Antrobus’s spoken words with Brennan’s
fragmented audio elements and pieces of music to convey how people who are deaf may experience sound,
both its presence and absence. Some critics suggest that the album questions the function of sound in the
world, highlighting that the experience of sound is multifaceted.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It introduces a collaborative spoken word poetry project, details the approach taken to produce the work,
and then provides an example of critique the album received upon release.

B. It mentions a collection of spoken word poems, distinguishes one poem as being an exemplar on the
album, and then offers a summary of the subject matter of the whole collection.

C. It summarizes the efforts to produce a collection of spoken word poems, presents biographies of two
people who worked on the album, and speculates about the meaning behind the poetry.

D. It connects two artists to the same spoken word poetry project, explains the extent of their collaboration
on each poem, and then provides an overview of the technique used to produce the work.

ID: 52aa1317 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The text first introduces the album as being a collaboration between Antrobus and Brennan,
then describes the approach taken to produce it, then mentions how critics have said that it calls into question the function
of sound.

Choice B is incorrect. While the text does mention a collection of spoken word poems, it doesn’t single out one poem as
being particularly noteworthy. Additionally, the text doesn’t simply summarize the subject matter—it goes into detail about
the content and production of the album. Choice C is incorrect. The text doesn’t provide biographical information about the
two artists, and the text doesn’t speculate about the meaning behind the poetry—instead, it relays what some critics have
said about the album. Choice D is incorrect. The text doesn’t provide just an overview of the production techniques used but
instead goes into more detail about the content and audio elements of the album, as well as critical response to the album.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 06346bcd
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 06346bcd
Some studies have suggested that posture can influence cognition, but we should not overstate this
phenomenon. A case in point: In a 2014 study, Megan O’Brien and Alaa Ahmed had subjects stand or sit
while making risky simulated economic decisions. Standing is more physically unstable and cognitively
demanding than sitting; accordingly, O’Brien and Ahmed hypothesized that standing subjects would display
more risk aversion during the decision-making tasks than sitting subjects did, since they would want to avoid
further feelings of discomfort and complicated risk evaluations. But O’Brien and Ahmed actually found no
difference in the groups’ performance.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It argues that research findings about the effects of posture on cognition are often misunderstood, as in
the case of O’Brien and Ahmed’s study.

B. It presents the study by O’Brien and Ahmed to critique the methods and results reported in previous
studies of the effects of posture on cognition.

C. It explains a significant problem in the emerging understanding of posture’s effects on cognition and how
O’Brien and Ahmed tried to solve that problem.

D. It discusses the study by O’Brien and Ahmed to illustrate why caution is needed when making claims
about the effects of posture on cognition.

ID: 06346bcd Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text. The text notes that although
some studies have suggested that posture may have an effect on cognition, this phenomenon should not be overstated. In
other words, the text begins by urging caution and restraint when discussing the effects of posture on cognition, implying
that even though some studies have shown posture to affect cognition, we should not assume that posture always affects
cognition or does so in a strong way. The text goes on to discuss O’Brien and Ahmed’s study as a "case in point" (that is, as
an example of the point made previously). According to the text, O’Brien and Ahmed hypothesized that since standing is
more cognitively demanding than sitting, standing subjects in their experiment would respond differently to decision-making
tasks than sitting subjects would, which would show an effect of posture on cognition. What the researchers actually found,
however, was that the standing and sitting subjects performed the same—posture did not affect cognition. By presenting a
circumstance in which posture does not appear to affect cognition, the discussion of O’Brien and Ahmed’s study shows why
it is important not to overstate the phenomenon. The purpose of the text, therefore, is to discuss O’Brien and Ahmed’s study
to illustrate why caution is needed when making claims about posture’s effects on cognition.
Choice A is incorrect because the text discusses O’Brien and Ahmed’s study as an example of why caution is needed when
discussing posture’s effects on cognition, not as an example of how research findings related to posture and cognition are
often misunderstood. Although the text does warn against misunderstanding the scope of the relationship between posture
and cognition that has been reported in some previous studies, O’Brien and Ahmed’s study is not one of those studies, and
there is no suggestion that anyone has misunderstood O’Brien and Ahmed’s findings. Choice B is incorrect because the text
makes no mention of the methods used in previous studies of the effects of posture on cognition. Although the text does
urge caution when discussing posture’s effects on cognition, it does not critique the results of studies that suggested that
posture can affect cognition. Instead, the text suggests that such results should not be exaggerated or taken too broadly.
Choice C is incorrect because although the text implies that overstating posture’s effects on cognition would be a problem,
nothing in the text suggests that O’Brien and Ahmed share that view or that they attempted to solve that problem. O’Brien
and Ahmed are presented as hypothesizing that posture would affect cognition in their study, not as trying to resolve the
problem the text describes.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a5307779
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: a5307779
Several studies have found negligible electoral consequences for governments that impose fiscal austerity
measures, yet some European governments recently suffered electorally due to their austerity programs.
Evelyne Huebscher and colleagues attribute this incongruity to governments’ tendency—not followed in the
recent European cases—to implement austerity programs strategically to avoid electoral costs (e.g., setting
spending cuts to take effect only after the next election), which has obscured the inherent political risks of
austerity measures in the election data scholars have examined.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?
A. It explains a discrepancy between what has been observed in study settings and what has been observed
in real-world settings that the text goes on to assert is attributable to the studies not using real-world
data.

B. It identifies a conflict between research findings and recent events that the text goes on to suggest is a
consequence of a complicating factor in the data used to generate those findings.

C. It presents a long-standing divergence in research findings that the text goes on to say is due to different
groups of researchers using data that derive from different electoral circumstances.

D. It describes a recent exception to a general pattern in research findings that the text goes on to explain is
a result of researchers underestimating the significance of inconsistencies in the data they’ve analyzed.

ID: a5307779 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it best describes how the underlined sentence functions in the text as a whole. The
underlined sentence explains that contrary to what several studies would suggest, recent European governments suffered
electorally after the launch of fiscal austerity programs. The text goes on to indicate that the researchers generated their
findings from data that didn’t reveal the true political risk of austerity measures because the data were based on cases in
which governments had set austerity programs to take effect after the next election, a practice the European governments
that recently suffered electorally didn’t adhere to, thus introducing a complicating factor resulting in a conflict between the
research findings and recent events.

Choice A is incorrect because the underlined sentence doesn’t indicate that the discrepancy described in the text is between
observations made in study settings and observations made in real-world settings. Rather, the underlined sentence indicates
that the outcome of recent events is contrary to what would be expected based on the findings of several studies.
Additionally, there is nothing in the text to suggest that the studies mentioned did not use real-world data; instead, the text
indicates that the data used was generated under potentially different circumstances than the recent events. Choice C is
incorrect because the underlined sentence doesn’t present a long-standing divergence in research findings but rather a
discrepancy between past research findings and recent events that the text goes on to attribute to researchers’ use of data
that didn’t reveal the true political risk of austerity measures. Choice D is incorrect because while the underlined sentence
notes that there have been some recent exceptions to a general pattern observed in several research studies, it does not go
on to attribute this exception to the researchers underestimating inconsistencies in the data. Rather, the text goes on to
attribute this to a circumstance (fiscal austerity measures being implemented before an election rather than after) which
adds a complicating factor into the data not accounted for in past studies.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4b2c5fbe
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 4b2c5fbe
The creation of Lotte Reiniger’s 1926 animated film The Adventures of Prince Achmed was ______ process.
Over the course of three years, Reiniger and her collaborators painstakingly made more than 250,000
individual images of hand-cut paper silhouettes and repeatedly had to invent entirely new methods and tools
to create the special effects Reiniger envisioned.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. a haphazard

B. a contentious

C. an ineffectual

D. an arduous

ID: 4b2c5fbe Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the creation of The Adventures of
Prince Achmed. In this context, "arduous" means that the process is marked by great labor or effort. According to the text,
the creation of the 1926 animated film The Adventures of Prince Achmed took three years and was a painstaking process.
Since the process was so long and required great efforts by Lotte Reiniger and her team, the creation of the film was
therefore an arduous process.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t indicate that the creation of Reiniger’s film was "a haphazard," or disorganized,
process. In fact, the text suggests that the creation process was quite meticulous and the team worked hard together to
produce the envisioned effects. Choice B is incorrect. While the text does suggest that the creation of Reiniger’s film was a
long and difficult process, it doesn’t suggest that the process was "a contentious" one, or one causing controversy or
argument. The text suggests that the team worked together to produce the envisioned effects. Choice C is incorrect because
rather than describing the process of creating the film as "ineffectual," or not having the effect it was intended to have, the
text describes the process as ultimately successful despite the difficulty it involved.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4183cbda
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 4183cbda

Text 1
In 2007, a team led by Alice Storey analyzed a chicken bone found in El Arenal, Chile, dating it to 1321–1407
CE—over a century before Europeans invaded the region, bringing their own chickens. Storey also found that
the El Arenal chicken shared a unique genetic mutation with the ancient chicken breeds of the Polynesian
Islands in the Pacific. Thus, Polynesian peoples, not later Europeans, probably first introduced chickens to
South America.

Text 2
An Australian research team weakened the case for a Polynesian origin for the El Arenal chicken by
confirming that the mutation identified by Storey has occurred in breeds from around the world. More
recently, though, a team led by Agusto Luzuriaga-Neira found that South American chicken breeds and
Polynesian breeds share other genetic markers that European breeds lack. Thus, the preponderance of
evidence now favors a Polynesian origin.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the underlined claim in Text 1?
A. By broadly agreeing with the claim but objecting that the timeline it presupposes conflicts with the
findings of the genetic analysis conducted by Storey’s team

B. By faulting the claim for implying that domestic animals couldn’t have been transferred from South
America to the Polynesian Islands as well

C. By critiquing the claim for being based on an assumption that before the European invasion of South
America, the chickens of Europe were genetically uniform

D. By noting that while the claim is persuasive, the findings of Luzuriaga-Neira’s team provide stronger
evidence for it than the findings of the genetic analysis conducted by Storey do

ID: 4183cbda Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it accurately describes how the author of Text 2 would most likely respond to the
underlined claim in Text 1. Text 1 indicates that Storey found a genetic mutation in South American chickens from before the
European invasion and in Polynesian chickens, which implies that chickens were first brought to South America by
Polynesian people. Text 2 explains that the genetic mutation Storey found is in chickens from all over the world, thus
undercutting the mutation as evidence of a Polynesian origin. However, Text 2 goes on to say “[m]ore recently” Luzuriaga-
Neira and colleagues found multiple genetic markers shared by South American and Polynesian chickens but “that European
breeds lack,” which strongly suggests a Polynesian origin for the South American chickens. This indicates that the author of
Text 2 believes Luzuriaga-Neira’s evidence for a Polynesian origin is compelling while Storey’s evidence has been
undermined. Thus, the author of Text 2 would most likely agree with the underlined statement and believes Luzuriaga-Neira
and colleagues’ evidence for the statement is stronger than Storey’s evidence is.

Choice A is incorrect because both texts indicate that chickens were introduced to South America before the arrival of
Europeans. Text 1 states that the El Arenal chicken bone dates from “1321–1407 CE—over a century before Europeans
invaded the region” and concludes that these chickens were likely brought to South America by Polynesians. While Text 2 is
not as explicit about the time period as Text 1 is, nothing in Text 2 undermines the timing of events ascribed to Storey’s
account in Text 1. Choice B is incorrect because both texts agree that chickens were first brought to South America by
Polynesian peoples (the underlined claim), and nothing in Text 2 suggests that this claim is in any way deficient because the
possibility that animals could have been transferred from South America to Polynesia was not explicitly addressed. Choice C
is incorrect because the criticism that Text 2 raises about the ideas in Text 1 is specifically about whether the single genetic
mutation cited by Storey in fact supports the idea of a Polynesian origin for South American chickens. There is nothing in
Text 2 to suggest that the underlined sentence (Storey’s conclusion) is deficient because it is based on an assumption about
the genetic uniformity of European chickens.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 267f8986
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: 267f8986
For her 2021 art installation Anthem, Wu Tsang joined forces with singer and composer Beverly Glenn-
Copeland to produce a piece that critics found truly ______: they praised Tsang for creatively transforming a
museum rotunda into a dynamic exhibit by projecting filmed images of Glenn-Copeland onto a massive 84-
foot curtain and filling the space with the sounds of his and other voices singing.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. restrained

B. inventive

C. inexplicable

D. mystifying

ID: 267f8986 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the art installation Anthem. In this
context, “inventive” means characterized by invention and creativity. The text explains that critics’ responses to the
installation involved praise for Tsang’s creative transformation of a space into a dynamic exhibit with huge images and lots
of sound. This context conveys that the critics found the piece particularly creative.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that critics praised the installation for being dynamic and including huge
images and lots of sound, and it wouldn’t make sense to describe such an exhibit as “restrained,” or limited and not
extravagant or showy. Choice C is incorrect because it wouldn’t make sense to say that critics found the installation
“inexplicable,” or incapable of being explained or interpreted, since the critics were able to explain their praise for the
installation’s transformation of a space with huge images and lots of sound. Choice D is incorrect because the text focuses
on the idea that critics praised Tsang for creatively transforming a space into a dynamic exhibit, not that they found the
installation “mystifying,” or bewildering and hard to understand. Nothing in the text suggests that the critics couldn’t
understand the piece.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 0a9b75f3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 0a9b75f3
The following text is adapted from Herman Melville’s 1857 novel The Confidence-Man. Humphry Davy was a
prominent British chemist and inventor.

Years ago, a grave American savant, being in London, observed at an evening party there, a certain
coxcombical fellow, as he thought, an absurd ribbon in his lapel, and full of smart [banter], whisking
about to the admiration of as many as were disposed to admire. Great was the savant’s disdain; but,
chancing ere long to find himself in a corner with the jackanapes, got into conversation with him, when
he was somewhat ill-prepared for the good sense of the jackanapes, but was altogether thrown aback,
upon subsequently being [informed that he was] no less a personage than Sir Humphry Davy.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It portrays the thoughts of a character who is embarrassed about his own behavior.

B. It presents an account of a misunderstanding.

C. It offers a short history of how a person came to be famous.

D. It explains why one character dislikes another.

ID: 0a9b75f3 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The text tells a story of a first impression that turned out to be wrong: a serious American
savant was dismissive of a goofy-looking, wisecracking guest at a British party, and then was shocked to learn that the guest
was actually a prominent British chemist and inventor.

Choice A is incorrect. This is too strong and too narrow. Only at the very end is the savant "thrown aback" by the fact that the
man was Sir Humphry Davy—he’s not "embarrassed about his own behavior." Choice C is incorrect. This isn’t the main
purpose. The text never provides the history of how Sir Humphry Davy came to be famous. Nor does it provide any history for
the American savant. Choice D is incorrect. This is too narrow. It doesn’t include the second half of the text, where the savant
gets into a conversation with the man and then finds out that the man is Sir Humphry Davy.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a05fe244
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: a05fe244
The 1967 release of Harold Cruse’s book The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual isolated him from almost all
other scholars and activists of the American Civil Rights Movement—though many of those thinkers
disagreed with each other, he nonetheless found ways to disagree with them all. He thought that activists
who believed that Black people such as himself should culturally assimilate were naïve. But he also sharply
criticized Black nationalists such as Marcus Garvey who wanted to establish independent, self-contained
Black economies and societies, even though Cruse himself identified as a Black nationalist.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?
A. It describes a direction that Cruse felt the Civil Rights Movement ought to take.

B. It indicates that Cruse’s reputation as a persistent antagonist of other scholars is undeserved.

C. It describes a controversy that Cruse’s work caused within the Black nationalist movement.

D. It helps explain Cruse’s position with respect to the community of civil rights thinkers.

ID: a05fe244 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text as a whole claims that Cruse disagreed with virtually all other Civil Rights scholars and
activists. The underlined sentence describes one way that Cruse both did and didn’t fit in with those thinkers: he criticized
Black nationalists, even though he identified as one.

Choice A is incorrect. The underlined sentence doesn’t do this. It describes Cruse’s criticisms—it never mentions what Cruse
did want the movement to do instead. Choice B is incorrect. This conflicts with the text, which argues that Cruse did disagree
with almost all other scholars of the Civil Rights Movement. Choice C is incorrect. This is a step too far. The text never says
that Cruse’s work caused controversy within the Black nationalist movement.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 306ada66
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 306ada66
A group of ecologists led by Axel Mithöfer at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology in Germany
examined the defensive responses of two varieties of the sweet potato ______ TN57, which is known for its
insect resistance, and TN66, which is much more susceptible to pests.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. plant.

B. plant;

C. plant

D. plant:

ID: 306ada66 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a main clause and a supplementary
phrase. In this choice, a colon is correctly used to mark the boundary between the main clause (“A group…plant”) and the
supplementary element (“TN57…pests”) and to introduce the following elaboration on the specific varieties of sweet potato
plants that were examined.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with “TN57.” Choice B is
incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join the main clause (“A group…plant”) and the supplementary
element (“TN57…pests”). A semicolon is conventionally used to join two main clauses, whereas a colon is conventionally
used to introduce an element that explains or amplifies the information in the preceding clause. Choice C is incorrect
because it fails to mark the boundary between the main clause (“A group...plant”) and the supplementary element
(“TN57...pests”) with appropriate punctuation.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 84225518
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 84225518
With some 16,000 in attendance, the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and ______ or FESTAC
‘77, as the event was more commonly known—became the largest pan-African event on record. FESTAC drew
people from around the world to Lagos, Nigeria, for a monthlong celebration of Black and African art,
scholarship, and activism.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Culture:

B. Culture—

C. Culture,

D. Culture

ID: 84225518 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The text uses a dash to introduce a nonessential element that explains the acronym FESTAC.
The dash matches the dash that comes after “known,” ending the descriptive aside.

Choice A is incorrect. A colon can only come after an independent clause, which isn’t the case here. Choice C is incorrect.
While punctuation is required to set off “or FESTAC…known” from the rest of the sentence, nonessential elements must be
separated from the sentence with matching punctuation. Since a dash appears on the other side of the element, we can’t use
a comma here. Choice D is incorrect. The descriptive aside “or FESTAC…known” is a nonessential element that must be
separated with punctuation from the rest of the sentence. This choice fails to add the necessary punctuation before the
nonessential element.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d5e08dce
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: d5e08dce
Latin America is known to have dozens, if not hundreds, of popular dance forms. Only five of these dances
are included in international ballroom dance ______ rumba, samba, cha-cha-cha, paso doble, and jive—the last
of which is grouped with the other Latin dances despite not having Latin roots.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. competitions, however:

B. competitions, however,

C. competitions, however;

D. competitions; however,

ID: d5e08dce Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of supplementary elements within a sentence.
This choice correctly uses a comma to separate the supplementary adverb "however" from the preceding main clause
("only...competitions"), and it uses a colon to introduce the list of dances that follows ("rumba…jive"). Further, placing the
colon after "however" rather than before indicates that the information in the preceding main clause (only...competitions) is
contrary to what might be assumed from the information in the previous sentence (Latin America has many more dance
forms).

Choice B is incorrect. The comma after "however" can’t be used in this way to introduce a series ("rumba...jive"). Choice C is
incorrect because it isn’t conventional to use a semicolon in this way to introduce a series of items, such as the list of
dances. Choice D is incorrect because placing the semicolon after "competitions" illogically indicates that the following list
of five Latin American dances ("rumba...jive") is contrary to the information in the previous clause (only five Latin American
dances are included in international ballroom dance competitions).

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e50ab447
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: e50ab447
Increased gender diversity is revitalizing the field of economics, according to Harvard’s Claudia Goldin. The
trailblazing accomplishments of Goldin, winner of the 2023 Nobel Prize in Economics for her work on women
in the labor force, ______ to the value of scholars of diverse backgrounds in spurring research into previously
unexplored, but vitally important, topics.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. attests

B. has attested

C. is attesting

D. attest

ID: e50ab447 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The plural verb "attest" agrees in
number with the plural subject "trailblazing accomplishments."

Choice A is incorrect because the singular verb "attests" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject "trailblazing
accomplishments." Choice B is incorrect because the singular verb "has attested" doesn’t agree in number with the plural
subject "trailblazing accomplishments." Choice C is incorrect because the singular verb "is attesting" doesn’t agree in number
with the plural subject "trailblazing accomplishments."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 79cfe2cc
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 79cfe2cc
During the English neoclassical period (1660–1789), many writers imitated the epic poetry and satires of
ancient Greece and Rome. They were not the first in England to adopt the literary modes of classical ______
some of the most prominent figures of the earlier Renaissance period were also influenced by ancient Greek
and Roman literature.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. antiquity, however

B. antiquity, however,

C. antiquity, however;

D. antiquity; however,

ID: 79cfe2cc Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of a supplementary phrase following a clause.
This choice uses a comma to separate the supplementary adverb phrase "however" from the independent clause it modifies
("They...antiquity") and uses a semicolon to join the first independent clause ("They...antiquity") and the second independent
clause ("some...literature"). Further, placing the semicolon after "however" indicates that the information in the clause that
this is part of (that neoclassical writers were not the first to adopt classical literary modes) is contrary to what might be
assumed from the information in the previous sentence (that the neoclassical writers were unique in imitating classical epic
poetry and satires).

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to mark the boundary after "however" between the two independent clauses with
appropriate punctuation. Choice B is incorrect because the comma after "however" can’t be used in this way to mark the
boundary between the two independent clauses. Choice D is incorrect because placing the semicolon after "antiquity"
illogically indicates that the information in the clause that this is part of (that prominent Renaissance figures were also
influenced by classical literature) is contrary to the information in the previous clause (that neoclassical writers were not the
first to adopt classical literary modes).

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3b9318f2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 3b9318f2
In assessing the films of Japanese director Akira Kurosawa, ______ have missed his equally deep
engagement with Japanese artistic traditions such as Noh theater.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. many critics have focused on Kurosawa’s use of Western literary sources but

B. Kurosawa’s use of Western literary sources has been the focus of many critics, who

C. there are many critics who have focused on Kurosawa’s use of Western literary sources, but they

D. the focus of many critics has been on Kurosawa’s use of Western literary sources; they

ID: 3b9318f2 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice makes the noun phrase
“many critics” the subject of the sentence and places it immediately after the modifying phrase “in assessing…Kurosawa.” In
doing so, this choice clearly establishes that it is the critics—and not another noun in the sentence—who assess Kurosawa’s
films.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “Kurosawa’s…sources”
immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that his use of Western literary sources is what assesses
Kurosawa’s films. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the function word “there”
immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that “there” is what assesses Kurosawa’s films. Choice D is
incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “the focus…critics” immediately after
the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the critics’ focus is what assesses Kurosawa’s films.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a86d0230
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: a86d0230
Recent pollen analyses of the Aran Islands have led some researchers to propose that the now treeless
islands were once wooded. This hypothesis ______ that certain trees, such as P. sylvestris, survived without
interruption or human intervention throughout the Holocene cannot stand, researchers Michael O’Connell
and Karen Molloy counter, unless other explanations can first be ruled out.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. suggesting

B. suggested

C. suggests

D. has suggested

ID: a86d0230 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms within a sentence. The nonfinite present
participle "suggesting" is correctly used to form a restrictive participial phrase ("suggesting...Holocene") within the main
clause ("This hypothesis...cannot stand..."). This participial phrase functions as part of the sentence’s subject
("This...Holocene"), providing essential identifying information about what the hypothesis states—namely, that certain trees
survived without interruption or human intervention throughout the Holocene.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite verb "suggested" can’t be used in this way
within the subject of the sentence. Choice C is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite verb
"suggests" can’t be used in this way within the subject of the sentence. Choice D is incorrect because it results in an
ungrammatical sentence. The finite verb "has suggested" can’t be used in this way within the subject of the sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID da3a871d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: da3a871d
Hegra is an archaeological site in present-day Saudi Arabia and was the second largest city of the Nabataean
Kingdom (fourth century BCE to first century CE). Archaeologist Laila Nehmé recently traveled to Hegra to
study its ancient ______ into the rocky outcrops of a vast desert, these burial chambers seem to blend
seamlessly with nature.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. tombs. Built

B. tombs, built

C. tombs and built

D. tombs built

ID: da3a871d Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period
after “tombs” is used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence (“Archaeologist...tombs”) and another
(“Built...nature”).

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to mark the boundary between
sentences. Choice C is incorrect. Without a comma preceding it, the conjunction “and” can’t be used in this way to join the
two sentences. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences (“Archaeologist...tombs” and
“Built...nature”) are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 5df45c4a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 5df45c4a
The poem Beowulf begins with the word “hwæt,” which is an Old English ______ as “hark!” or “listen!” in some
versions, the word was playfully rendered as “bro!” by Maria Dahvana Headley in her 2020 translation of the
poem.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. exclamation, translated

B. exclamation and translated

C. exclamation translated

D. exclamation. Translated

ID: 5df45c4a Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence ("The poem…exclamation") and another sentence that begins
with a supplementary element ("Translated…poem"). The supplementary element "translated as ‘hark!’ or ‘listen!’ in some
versions" modifies the subject of the second sentence, "the word" (referring to hwæt).

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice after "exclamation." A comma can’t be used in this way to mark
the boundary between sentences. Choice B is incorrect. Without a comma preceding it, the conjunction "and" can’t be used in
this way to join sentences. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a comma splice after "versions." A comma can’t be
used in this way to mark the boundary between sentences.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 1b496066
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 1b496066
In 1937, Chinese American screen actor Anna May Wong, who had portrayed numerous villains and
secondary characters but never a heroine, finally got a starring role in Paramount Pictures’ Daughter of
Shanghai, a film that ______ “expanded the range of possibilities for Asian images on screen.”

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. critic, Stina Chyn, claims

B. critic, Stina Chyn, claims,

C. critic Stina Chyn claims

D. critic Stina Chyn, claims,

ID: 1b496066 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The conventions being tested are punctuation use between titles and proper nouns and
between verbs and integrated quotations. No punctuation is needed to set off the proper noun “Stina Chyn” from the title that
describes Chyn, “critic.” Because “Stina Chyn” is essential information identifying the “critic,” no punctuation is necessary.
Further, no punctuation is needed between the verb “claims” and the following quotation because the quotation is integrated
into the structure of the sentence.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed before or after the proper noun “Stina Chyn.” Setting the critic’s
name off with commas suggests that it could be removed without affecting the coherence of the sentence, which isn’t the
case. Choice B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed before or after the proper noun “Stina Chyn.” Setting the critic’s
name off with commas suggests that it could be removed without affecting the coherence of the sentence, which isn’t the
case. Additionally, no punctuation is needed between “claims” and the integrated quotation. Choice D is incorrect because
no punctuation is needed between the verb “claims” and its subject, “critic Stina Chyn.” Additionally, no punctuation is
needed between the verb “claims” and the integrated quotation.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f2e0c354
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: f2e0c354
Researchers studying magnetosensation have determined why some soil-dwelling roundworms in the
Southern Hemisphere move in the opposite direction of Earth’s magnetic field when searching for ______ in
the Northern Hemisphere, the magnetic field points down, into the ground, but in the Southern Hemisphere, it
points up, toward the surface and away from worms’ food sources.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. food:

B. food,

C. food while

D. food

ID: f2e0c354 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is colon use within a sentence. A colon used in this way introduces
information that illustrates or explains information that has come before it. In this case, the colon introduces the following
explanation of why some roundworms in the Southern Hemisphere move in the opposite direction of Earth’s magnetic field.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join two long independent
clauses (“Researchers…food” and “in…sources”) such as these. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence.
The two clauses (“Researchers…food” and “in…sources”) are fused without punctuation. Furthermore, the conjunction “while”
fails to indicate that what follows is an explanation of why some roundworms in the Southern Hemisphere move in the
opposite direction of Earth’s magnetic field. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two clauses
(“Researchers…food” and “in…sources”) are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4cff8c23
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 4cff8c23
Paintings by the renowned twentieth-century US ______ were featured in Artist to Artist, an exhibition at the
Smithsonian Art Museum that paired the works of artists whose career trajectories intersected in meaningful
ways.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. artists: Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock,

B. artists Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock

C. artists Thomas Hart Benton, and Jackson Pollock,

D. artists, Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock

ID: 4cff8c23 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation around noun phrases. No punctuation is
needed because the coordinated noun phrase "Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock" is a restrictive appositive,
meaning that it provides essential identifying information about the noun phrase before it, "the renowned twentieth-century
US artists."

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the noun phrase "the renowned twentieth-century US
artists" and the restrictive appositive "Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock." Additionally, no punctuation is needed
between the sentence’s subject ("paintings by the renowned twentieth-century US artists Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson
Pollock") and the main verb ("were featured"). Choice C is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the
coordinated elements "Thomas Hart Benton" and "Jackson Pollock." Additionally, no punctuation is needed between the
sentence’s subject ("paintings by the renowned twentieth-century US artists Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock") and
the main verb ("were featured"). Choice D is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the noun phrase "the
renowned twentieth-century US artists" and the restrictive appositive "Thomas Hart Benton and Jackson Pollock."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a31e6c78
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: a31e6c78
In Marisol’s 1968 sculpture Mi Mama y Yo, gone are the types of pop culture references that made the
Parisian-born Venezuelan American artist a star at the height of the pop art movement. In ______ place is a
far more personal subject: a sculptural depiction of the artist as a young girl with her mother.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. its

B. they’re

C. their

D. it’s

ID: a31e6c78 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of possessive determiners. The plural possessive
determiner "their" agrees in number with the plural noun "types" and thus indicates that the more personal subject matter of
Marisol’s 1968 sculpture takes the place of those types of pop culture references that made Marisol a star.

Choice A is incorrect because the singular possessive determiner "its" doesn’t agree in number with the plural noun "types."
Choice B is incorrect because "they’re" is the contraction for "they are," not a possessive determiner. Choice D is incorrect
because "it’s" is the contraction for "it is" or "it has," not a possessive determiner.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f77b1151
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: f77b1151
Compared to that of alumina glass, ______ silica glass atoms are so far apart that they are unable to re-form
bonds after being separated.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. silica glass is at a significant disadvantage due to its more dispersed atomic arrangement:

B. silica glass has a more dispersed atomic arrangement, resulting in a significant disadvantage:

C. a significant disadvantage of silica glass is that its atomic arrangement is more dispersed:

D. silica glass’s atomic arrangement is more dispersed, resulting in a significant disadvantage:

ID: f77b1151 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice makes “silica glass’s
atomic arrangement” the subject of the sentence and places it immediately after the modifying phrase “compared to that of
alumina glass.” In doing so, this choice clearly establishes that silica glass’s atomic arrangement—and not another noun in
the sentence—is being compared to the atomic arrangement (“that”) of alumina glass.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “silica glass” immediately
after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that silica glass itself (rather than its atomic arrangement) is being compared
to alumina glass’s atomic arrangement. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the
noun phrase “silica glass” immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that silica glass itself (rather than its
atomic arrangement) is being compared to alumina glass’s atomic arrangement. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a
dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “a significant disadvantage” immediately after the modifying phrase
illogically suggests that “a significant disadvantage” is being compared to alumina glass’s atomic arrangement.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 40f8c12e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 40f8c12e
Researchers studying the “terra-cotta army,” the thousands of life-size statues of warriors found interred near
the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang of China, were shocked to realize that the shape of each statue’s ears,
like the shape of each person’s ears, ______ unique.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. are

B. is

C. were

D. have been

ID: 40f8c12e Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The singular verb "is" agrees in number
with the singular subject "the shape."

Choice A is incorrect because the plural verb "are" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "the shape." Choice C is
incorrect because the plural verb "were" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "the shape." Choice D is incorrect
because the plural verb "have been" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "the shape."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3c924a72
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 3c924a72
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, automobiles were commonly referred to as horseless
carriages after the older technology they still resembled. Known as the Brass Era, this period in automotive
design is remembered for its grandeur and artistry, its vehicles ______ by collectors for their ornate detailing
and gleaming brass fittings.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. are highly prized

B. had been highly prized

C. highly prized

D. were highly prized

ID: 3c924a72 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms in a sentence. The nonfinite past participle
phrase "highly prized" is correctly used to form a supplementary element that modifies the main clause "this…artistry,"
describing memorable features of Brass Era automotive design.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Using the finite present tense verb phrase "are highly prized"
creates a second main clause in the sentence, and two main clauses can’t be joined in this way with only a comma after
"artistry." Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Using the finite past perfect tense verb phrase "had
been highly prized" creates a second main clause in the sentence, and two main clauses can’t be joined in this way with only
a comma after "artistry." Choice D is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Using the finite past tense verb phrase
"were highly prized" creates a second main clause in the sentence, and two main clauses can’t be joined in this way with only
a comma after "artistry."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bb64d88a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: bb64d88a
In 1986, conceptual artist Sophie Calle asked twenty-three people, all of whom had been born without sight,
to describe “their image of beauty” in rich detail. Calle paired excerpts of these conversations with
photographs—both of interviewees and the items they ______ to powerful effect in her exhibition The Blind.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. described, from hair to grass to sculptures

B. described, from hair to grass to sculptures—

C. described—from hair to grass to sculptures,

D. described: from hair to grass to sculptures

ID: bb64d88a Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of supplementary elements within a sentence.
The comma after "described" separates the first supplementary element ("both of interviewees and the items they
described") from the second supplementary element ("from hair to grass to sculptures"). Furthermore, the dash after
"sculptures" pairs with the dash after "photographs" to separate these two supplementary elements from the rest of the
sentence. The pair of dashes, which operate at a higher organizing level than the comma, indicates that the elements
between the dashes function together—in this case, the second supplement ("from…sculptures") describes the range of
items mentioned in the first supplement—and could be removed without affecting the grammatical coherence of the
sentence.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to appropriately punctuate the supplementary elements in the sentence. A dash is
needed after "sculptures" to separate the supplementary elements ("both…sculptures") from the rest of the sentence. Choice
C is incorrect because it fails to appropriately punctuate the supplementary elements in the sentence. The two
supplementary elements "both…described" and "from…sculptures" function together to describe the photographs, and
placing a dash between them would make this relationship less clear, suggesting that the supplement "both...described" is a
standalone element that could be removed without affecting the grammatical coherence of the sentence, which isn’t the
case. Choice D is incorrect because it fails to appropriately punctuate the supplementary elements in the sentence. A colon
isn’t conventionally used in this way to separate a supplementary element ("from hair to grass to sculptures") from the noun
phrase it is modifying ("items they described"). Additionally, a dash is needed after "sculptures" to separate the
supplementary elements ("both…sculptures") from the rest of the sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 80b2b9da
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 80b2b9da
With a blend of traditional design elements, such as arched Gothic ceilings, and modern ones, such as floor-
to-ceiling ______ design splits the difference between old and new, a mixture that is increasingly seen in home
interiors in the US.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. windows; transitional

B. windows—transitional

C. windows. Transitional

D. windows, transitional

ID: 80b2b9da Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice correctly
uses a comma to mark the boundary between the introductory subordinate clause ("With…windows") and the main clause
("transitional design splits the difference between old and new").

Choice A is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to separate the subordinate clause ("With…windows")
from the main clause ("transitional…new"). Choice B is incorrect because a dash can’t be used in this way to separate the
subordinate clause ("With…windows") from the main clause ("transitional…new"). Choice C is incorrect because it results in a
rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with "with."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 18ec7707
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 18ec7707
Along with carbon dioxide concentration and temperature, light intensity affects the chemical reaction rate of
______ as light intensity increases, so does the rate at which the reactants (water and carbon dioxide) are
converted into their products (glucose and oxygen).

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. photosynthesis and

B. photosynthesis,

C. photosynthesis:

D. photosynthesis

ID: 18ec7707 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation in a sentence. In this choice, a colon is
correctly used to mark the boundary between one main clause ("Along with...photosynthesis") and another main clause ("as
light...oxygen") and to introduce the following explanation of how light intensity affects photosynthesis.

Choice A is incorrect because when coordinating two longer main clauses such as these, it’s conventional to use a comma
before the coordinating conjunction ("and"). Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a
coordinating conjunction following it, a comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses ("Along
with...photosynthesis" and "as light...oxygen"). Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main
clauses ("Along with...photosynthesis" and "as light...oxygen") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 638832ee
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 638832ee
In 1994, almost 200 years after the death of Wang Zhenyi, the International Astronomical ______ the
contributions of the barrier-breaking 18th-century astronomer and author of “Dispute of the Procession of the
Equinoxes,” naming a crater on Venus after her.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. Union would finally acknowledge

B. Union to finally acknowledge

C. Union, having finally acknowledged

D. Union, finally acknowledging

ID: 638832ee Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. It’s the only choice that offers a form of the verb “acknowledge” that can go with the subject
“International Astronomical Union” to make a complete sentence. This might seem like an odd use of “would,” but when
speaking from a point of view in the past, we can actually use “would” to express something that happened later. That’s the
case here: 200 years after Wang Zhenyi’s death, the IAU would finally acknowledge her contributions.

Choice B is incorrect. This choice creates a sentence fragment. There’s no main verb elsewhere in the sentence, so we need
a form of the verb “acknowledge” that can go with the subject “the International Astronomical Union” and serve as that main
verb. “To acknowledge” can’t do that. Choice C is incorrect. This choice creates a sentence fragment. There’s no main verb
elsewhere in the sentence, so we need a form of the verb “acknowledge” that can go with the subject “the International
Astronomical Union” and serve as that main verb. “Having acknowledged” can’t do that. Choice D is incorrect. This choice
creates a sentence fragment. There’s no main verb elsewhere in the sentence, so we need a form of the verb “acknowledge”
that can go with the subject “the International Astronomical Union” and serve as that main verb. The “-ing” form can’t do that.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 430b2a03
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 430b2a03
For thousands of years, humans have used domesticated goats (Capra hircus) to clear land of unwanted
vegetation. When it comes to their diets, goats are notoriously ______ they will devour all kinds of shrubs and
weeds, leaving virtually no part of any plant unconsumed.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. indiscriminate and

B. indiscriminate,

C. indiscriminate

D. indiscriminate:

ID: 430b2a03 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between two main clauses. In this choice, a
colon is correctly used to mark the boundary between one main clause ("goats are notoriously indiscriminate") and another
main clause ("they will devour all kinds of shrubs and weeds") and to introduce the following explanation of goats’
nondiscriminatory behavior when it comes to what they eat.

Choice A is incorrect because when coordinating two longer main clauses such as these, it’s conventional to use a comma
before the coordinating conjunction. Furthermore, the conjunction "and" fails to indicate that what follows is an explanation
of goats’ nondiscriminatory behavior when it comes to their diets. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice.
A comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses ("goats…indiscriminate" and "they…weeds"). Choice C is
incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main clauses ("goats…indiscriminate" and "they…weeds") are fused
without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c5db164e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: c5db164e
Recently unearthed Neronian tools in France dating to 54,000 years ago and attributed to Homo sapiens may
provide evidence that interactions between Neanderthals and modern humans occurred 10,000 years earlier
than was previously ______ finding that, if true, would overturn current theories about H. sapiens migration
during the Upper Paleolithic.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. supposed; a

B. supposed. A

C. supposed a

D. supposed, a

ID: c5db164e Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice correctly
uses a comma to mark the boundary between the main clause ("Recently...supposed") and the supplementary element ("a
finding...Paleolithic") that provides additional information about the implications of the Neronian tool discovery.

Choice A is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join the main clause ("Recently...supposed") and the
supplementary element ("a finding...Paleolithic"). Choice B is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable
sentence fragment beginning with "a finding." Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The main clause
("Recently...supposed") and the supplementary element ("a finding...Paleolithic") are fused without punctuation and/or a
conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID af67b6ca
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: af67b6ca
Butterfly is a 1988 painting by the Japanese artist Ay-O. Like many of Ay-O’s paintings, Butterfly, which
portrays a swimmer performing the butterfly stroke, attempts to make use of the entire visual light ______
sporting rainbow-striped goggles, the rainbow-hued swimmer splashes through a wavy rainbow of water.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. spectrum

B. spectrum:

C. spectrum while

D. spectrum, while

ID: af67b6ca Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of a colon within a sentence. In this choice, the colon
correctly introduces the following description of how the painting makes use of the entire visual light spectrum by depicting
a rainbow-hued swimmer.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The main clauses ("Like…spectrum" and "sporting…water") are
fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The main
clauses ("Like…spectrum" and "while…water") are fused without punctuation. Furthermore, the conjunction "while" fails to
indicate that what follows is a description of how the painting makes use of the entire visual light spectrum. Choice D is
incorrect because it results in a logically confusing sentence. The conjunction "while," which suggests that what follows is
occurring at the same time as or despite what came before, fails to indicate that what follows is a description of how the
painting makes use of the entire visual light spectrum.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 537fd30f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 537fd30f
The city of Amsterdam partnered with consultants to develop Public Eye—an ethical AI-powered crowd-
monitoring ______ video streamed from cameras in heavily touristed areas, the AI algorithm determines
crowd sizes without, in the interest of protecting individuals’ privacy, retaining the footage.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. system—analyzing

B. system, analyzing

C. system. Analyzing

D. system analyzing

ID: 537fd30f Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence ("The city…system") and another ("Analyzing…footage"). The
participial phrase beginning with "analyzing" modifies the subject of the second sentence, "the AI algorithm."

Choice A is incorrect. Placing a dash before "analyzing" creates a confusing and ambiguous modifying element
("analyzing...areas") and a comma splice between "areas" and "the AI algorithm." (A comma can’t be used in this way to mark
the boundary between sentences.) Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this
way to mark the boundary between sentences. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences
("The city…system" and "analyzing…footage") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c02b765d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: c02b765d
That the geographic center of North America lay in the state of North Dakota was conceded by all ______
establishing its precise coordinates proved more divisive.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. involved:

B. involved,

C. involved

D. involved;

ID: c02b765d Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice uses a
semicolon in a conventional way to join the first main clause ("That the...involved") and the second main clause
("establishing...divisive"). Further, the semicolon is the most appropriate choice when joining two separate, parallel
statements, such as here, where the information following the semicolon contrasts with the information before.

Choice A is incorrect because placing a colon after "involved" illogically indicates that the information in the second main
clause (the precise location was the subject of disagreement) explains or amplifies the information in the previous main
clause (the general location was agreed upon by all). Instead, the information in the second clause contrasts with the
previous information. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, a
comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The
two main clauses are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 57a2e87f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 57a2e87f
Over twenty years ago, in a landmark experiment in the psychology of choice, professor Sheena Iyengar set
up a jam-tasting booth at a grocery store. The number of jams available for tasting ______ some shoppers
had twenty-four different options, others only six. Interestingly, the shoppers with fewer jams to choose from
purchased more jam.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. varied:

B. varied,

C. varied, while

D. varied while

ID: 57a2e87f Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of a colon within a sentence. In this choice, the colon is
used in a conventional way to introduce the following description of how the number of jams available varied.

Choice B is incorrect because it creates a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses (“the
number…varied” and “some…six”). Choice C is incorrect because it results in an illogical and confusing sentence. Using the
conjunction “while” to join the main clause (“the number…varied”) with the following clause’s description of the number of
jams available suggests that the variation in the number of jams is in contrast to some shoppers having twenty-four options.
Choice D is incorrect because it results in an illogical and confusing sentence. Using “while” in this way suggests that the
number of jams available varied during the time in which some shoppers had twenty-four options and others had six. The
sentence makes clear, however, that what follows “varied” is a description of the variation, not a separate, simultaneous
occurrence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e97999ac
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: e97999ac
In a 2016 study, Eastern Washington University psychologist Amani El-Alayli found that, among the study
participants who experienced frisson (a physiological response akin to goosebumps or getting the chills)
while listening to music, there was one personality trait that they scored particularly ______ openness to
experience.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. high. On

B. high on;

C. high on

D. high on:

ID: e97999ac Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a main clause and a supplementary
phrase. In this choice, a colon is correctly used to mark the boundary between the main clause ("there...on") and the
supplementary phrase ("openness to experience") and to introduce the information that identifies which personality trait
participants scored especially high on.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with "on" and separates a
necessary preposition from the clause beginning with "there." Choice B is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this
way to join the main clause ("there...on") and the supplementary phrase ("openness to experience"). A semicolon is
conventionally used to join two main clauses, whereas a colon is conventionally used to introduce an element that explains
or amplifies the information in the preceding clause, making the colon the better choice in this context. Choice C is incorrect
because it fails to mark the boundary between the main clause ("there...on") and the supplementary phrase ("openness to
experience").

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 9aa19bef
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 9aa19bef
In 2016, engineer Vanessa Galvez oversaw the installation of 164 bioswales, vegetated channels designed to
absorb and divert stormwater, along the streets of Queens, New York. By reducing the runoff flowing into city
sewers, ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. the mitigation of both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways has been achieved
by bioswales.

B. the bioswales have mitigated both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways.

C. the bioswales’ mitigation of both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways has been
achieved.

D. both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways have been mitigated by bioswales.

ID: 9aa19bef Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice makes the noun phrase
“the bioswales” the subject of the sentence and places it immediately after the modifying phrase “By reducing…sewers.” In
doing so, this choice clearly establishes that the bioswales—and not another noun in the sentence—are reducing runoff
flowing into city sewers.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “the mitigation…
waterways” immediately after the modifying phrase results in unclear modification. The resulting sentence makes it hard to
determine what is responsible for “reducing the runoff”: the bioswales or some other noun in the sentence. Choice C is
incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “the bioswales’ mitigation…waterways”
immediately after the modifying phrase results in unclear modification. The resulting sentence makes it hard to determine
what is responsible for “reducing the runoff”: the bioswales or some other noun in the sentence. Choice D is incorrect
because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “street flooding and the resulting pollution”
immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the “flooding and pollution” are reducing runoff flowing into
city sewers.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a243dfaa
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: a243dfaa
When they were first discovered in Australia in 1798, duck-billed, beaver-tailed platypuses so defied
categorization that one scientist assigned them the name Ornithorhynchus paradoxus: “paradoxical bird-
snout.” The animal, which lays eggs but also nurses ______ young with milk, has since been classified as
belonging to the monotremes group.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. they’re

B. their

C. its

D. it’s

ID: a243dfaa Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The singular possessive pronoun "its" agrees with the singular antecedent "the animal" and
indicates that the "young" belong to it.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice creates a pronoun-antecedent agreement error. "They’re" is a contraction of "they are," a
plural pronoun and verb, but the antecedent "the animal" is singular. Also, we don’t need the extra verb "are" — we already
have a main verb in this clause, so adding "are" would be confusing and ungrammatical. Choice B is incorrect. This choice
creates a pronoun-antecedent agreement error. "Their" is a plural pronoun, but the subject of the sentence is "the animal," a
singular noun. Choice D is incorrect. This choice creates a confusing and ungrammatical sentence. "It’s" is a contraction for
"it is." We already have the verb "nurses" in this clause, so we shouldn’t add the verb "is."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID ff4676f7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: ff4676f7
Ten of William Shakespeare’s plays are classified as histories. Although each one of these plays, which
include Henry V and Richard III, ______ on a single historical figure (specifically, an English king), some, such
as Henry VI Part One and Henry VI Part Two, feature different episodes from the same monarch’s life.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. focuses

B. focus

C. are focused

D. were focused

ID: ff4676f7 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The singular verb "focuses" agrees in
number with the singular subject "each one of these plays," which refers to each play individually.

Choice B is incorrect because the plural verb "focus" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "each one of these
plays." Choice C is incorrect because the plural verb "are focused" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "each
one of these plays." Choice D is incorrect because the plural verb "were focused" doesn’t agree in number with the singular
subject "each one of these plays."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bec6af6d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: bec6af6d
Author Madeline L’Engle, ______ to create a suspenseful tone that draws the reader in, begins her novel A
Wrinkle in Time with descriptions of “wraithlike shadows” and “the frenzied lashing of the wind.”

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. looked

B. looks

C. is looking

D. looking

ID: bec6af6d Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms within a sentence. The nonfinite present
participle verb “looking” is correctly used to form a subordinate clause that describes the intent behind how L’Engle begins
her novel.

Choice A is incorrect because the finite past tense verb “looked” can’t be used in this way to form a subordinate clause.
Choice B is incorrect because the finite present tense verb “looks” can’t be used in this way to form a subordinate clause.
Choice C is incorrect because the finite present progressive tense verb “is looking” can’t be used in this way to form a
subordinate clause.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bff1d6df
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: bff1d6df
Planetary scientist Briony Horgan and her colleagues have determined that as much as 25 percent of the
sand on Mars is composed of impact spherules. These spherical bits of glass form when asteroids collide
with the planet, ejecting bits of molten rock into the atmosphere that, after cooling and solidifying into glass,
______ back onto Mars’s surface.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. to rain

B. raining

C. having rained

D. rain

ID: bff1d6df Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. "That…[rain] back onto Mars’s surface" is a relative clause that describes the "bits of molten
rock." Forming the clause requires a conjugated, finite verb, and this is the only choice that provides that.

Choice A is incorrect. "To rain" is an infinitive and can’t serve as the main verb of a clause. A conjugated verb is needed here
to form the main verb of the relative clause "that…[rain] back onto Mars’s surface," which describes the "bits of molten rock."
Choice B is incorrect. "Raining" is a present participle and, on its own, can’t serve as the main verb of a clause. A conjugated
verb is needed here to form the main verb of the relative clause "that…[rain] back onto Mars’s surface," which describes the
"bits of molten rock." Choice C is incorrect. "Having rained" is a perfect participle and can’t serve as the main verb of a
clause. A conjugated verb is needed here to form the main verb of the relative clause "that…[rain] back onto Mars’s surface,"
which describes the "bits of molten rock."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6a2df221
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 6a2df221
To serve local families during the Great Depression, innovative New York City librarian Pura Belpré offered
storytelling in both English and Spanish, an uncommon ______ celebrated el Día de los Tres Reyes Magos, an
important community holiday; and put on puppet shows dramatizing Puerto Rican folktales.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. practice, at the time

B. practice at the time;

C. practice, at the time,

D. practice at the time,

ID: 6a2df221 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of elements in a complex series. It’s
conventional to use a semicolon to separate items in a complex series with internal punctuation, and in this choice, the
semicolon after "time" is conventionally used to separate the first item ("offered…time") and the second ("celebrated…
holiday") in the series of activities that librarian Pura Belpré offered. Moreover, the semicolon after "time" matches the
semicolon used later to separate the second item ("celebrated...holiday") and the third ("and...folktales") in the series.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to use appropriate punctuation to separate the first item and the second item in the
complex series. Furthermore, a comma isn’t needed between the noun "practice" and the prepositional phrase "at the time"
because the prepositional phrase is essential to the full meaning of the phrase "an uncommon practice at the time." Choice C
is incorrect because a comma after "time" doesn’t match the semicolon used later to separate the second
("celebrated...holiday") and third ("and...folktales") items in the series. Furthermore, a comma isn’t needed between the noun
"practice" and the prepositional phrase "at the time" because the prepositional phrase is essential to the full meaning of the
phrase "an uncommon practice at the time." Choice D is incorrect because a comma after "time" doesn’t match the
semicolon used later to separate the second ("celebrated...holiday") and third ("and...folktales") items in the series.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID be7e3f1e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: be7e3f1e
Sociologist Todd Gitlin co-opted the term “recombinant,” normally used in reference to genetic engineering, to
describe serialized television shows of the 1980s. Gitlin’s use of the term referenced TV studios’ practice of
repackaging successful narrative formulas as new ______ even shows that varied only slightly from other
shows still attracted sizeable audiences.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. content, in that era

B. content; in that era,

C. content in that era,

D. content, in that era,

ID: be7e3f1e Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice uses a
semicolon in a conventional way to join the first main clause ("Gitlin’s…content") and the second main clause beginning with
a supplementary phrase ("in…audiences"). Further, placing a comma after "era" separates the supplementary phrase "in that
era" from the rest of the main clause that follows ("even…audiences").

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, a comma can’t be used in this
way to join two main clauses. Further, this choice fails to mark the boundary between the supplementary phrase "in that era"
and the rest of the main clause that follows ("even…audiences"). Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on
sentence. The two main clauses ("Gitlin’s…content" and "in…audiences") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.
Choice D is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, a comma can’t be used in this
way to join two main clauses.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 26287f55
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 26287f55
A study published by Rice University geoscientist Ming Tang in 2019 offers a new explanation for the origin
of Earth’s ______ structures called arcs, towering ridges that form when a dense oceanic plate subducts
under a less dense continental plate, melts in the mantle below, and then rises and bursts through the
continental crust above.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. continents geological

B. continents: geological

C. continents; geological

D. continents. Geological

ID: 26287f55 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a main clause and a supplementary
phrase. In this choice, a colon is correctly used to mark the boundary between the main clause (“A study…continents”) and
the supplementary phrase (“geological…above”) and to introduce the following explanation of the origin of Earth’s continents.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to mark the boundary between the main clause (“A study…continents”) and the
supplementary phrase (“geological…above”) with appropriate punctuation. Choice C is incorrect because a semicolon can’t
be used in this way to join the main clause (“A study…continents”) and the supplementary phrase (“geological…above”). A
semicolon is conventionally used to join two main clauses, whereas a colon is conventionally used to introduce an element
that explains or amplifies the information in the preceding clause, making it the better choice in this context. Choice D is
incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with “geological.”

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 1c2fc2d3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 1c2fc2d3
Digital artist Jung (Lulu) Chen primarily uses a suite of software tools to create illustrations for children’s
books. To manifest the warm and welcoming atmospheres that are a signature of her ______ she
occasionally relies on more traditional art techniques, such as painting with watercolors.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. work, though,

B. work, though

C. work; though,

D. work, though;

ID: 1c2fc2d3 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. The comma after
"work" pairs with the comma after "though" to separate the supplementary element "though" from the rest of the sentence.
This supplementary element signals that what follows is an exception to Chen using software tools to create illustrations,
and the pair of commas indicates that this element could be removed without affecting the grammatical coherence of the
sentence.

Choice B is incorrect because the comma after "work" must be paired with a comma after "though" to separate the
supplementary element from the rest of the sentence. Choice C is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be paired with a
comma in this way to separate the supplementary element from the rest of the sentence. Choice D is incorrect because a
semicolon can’t be paired with a comma in this way to separate the supplementary element from the rest of the sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 971ed23e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 971ed23e
Joshua Hinson, director of the language revitalization program of the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma, helped
produce the world’s first Indigenous-language instructional app, Chickasaw ______ Chickasaw TV, in 2010;
and a Rosetta Stone language course in Chickasaw, in 2015.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Basic; in 2009, an online television network;

B. Basic; in 2009, an online television network,

C. Basic, in 2009; an online television network,

D. Basic, in 2009, an online television network,

ID: 971ed23e Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of items in a complex series. It’s conventional to
use a semicolon to separate items in a complex series with internal punctuation, and in this choice, the semicolon after
“2009” is conventionally used to separate the first item (“the world’s…2009”) and the second item (“an online…2010”) in the
series of things that Hinson helped create. Further, the comma after “Basic” correctly pairs with the comma after “app,” and
the comma after “network” correctly pairs with the comma after “TV” to set off the supplemental elements (“Chickasaw
Basic” and “Chickasaw TV”) that provide the names of the app and the TV network, respectively. Altogether, the punctuation
in this choice results in a sentence that clearly indicates that Hinson helped make a language app in 2009, an online TV
network in 2010, and a language course in 2015.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to punctuate the complex series in a way that makes clear that Hinson helped make a
language app in 2009, an online TV network in 2010, and a language course in 2015. Choice B is incorrect because it fails to
punctuate the complex series in a way that makes clear that Hinson helped make a language app in 2009, an online TV
network in 2010, and a language course in 2015. Choice D is incorrect because the comma after “2009” doesn’t match the
semicolon used to separate the second and third items in the complex series.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 22030ce1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 22030ce1
In 1955, Indian Bengali filmmaker Satyajit Ray released his first movie, Pather ______ quiet black-and-white
drama about a family in rural India, Ray’s film was quite different from the loud, colorful action-romance
movies that were popular at the time.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Panchali a

B. Panchali, which was a

C. Panchali, a

D. Panchali. A

ID: 22030ce1 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence ("In…Panchali") and another ("A quiet…time"). The phrase
beginning with "a quiet" modifies the subject of the next sentence, "Ray’s film."

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences are fused without punctuation and/or a
conjunction. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to mark the
boundary between sentences. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way
to mark the boundary between sentences.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 0b330819
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 0b330819
The term “retroflex” derives from Latin and means “bent back,” an apt descriptor for the branch of
consonants—retroflex consonants—pronounced with the tongue curling up and back in the mouth. In many
languages, including English, these consonants are ______ in some dialects of Mandarin, however, four such
consonants (“ch,” “sh,” “zh,” and “r”) are relatively common.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. rare and

B. rare,

C. rare

D. rare;

ID: 0b330819 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice uses a
semicolon in a conventional way to join the first main clause ("In many…rare") and the second main clause ("in some…
common") in this sentence.

Choice A is incorrect. Joining the first main clause ("In many…rare") and the second main clause ("in some...common") with
the conjunction "and" conflicts with the use of "however" later in the sentence, resulting in a confusing and illogical sentence.
Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, a comma can’t be used in this
way to join two main clauses. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main clauses are fused
without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID b4774c86
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: b4774c86
In her 1983 book The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling, sociologist Arlie Russell
Hochschild first explored at length her conception of a “sociology of emotions”—the idea that the various
cultural and ideological frameworks a person has internalized (class, gender, political affiliation, etc.) ______
each emotional reaction that person has within a situation.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. underlies

B. is underlying

C. underlie

D. has been underlying

ID: b4774c86 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The plural verb "underlie" agrees in
number with the plural subject "frameworks."

Choice A is incorrect because the singular verb "underlies" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject "frameworks."
Choice B is incorrect because the singular verb "is underlying" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject "frameworks."
Choice D is incorrect because the singular verb "has been underlying" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject
"frameworks."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 05be3983
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 05be3983
American abstract artist Richard ______ his installations to make passersby keenly aware of how one’s
movements are affected by the physical features of one’s environment, assembles large-scale steel plates
into sculptures that dominate the outdoor spaces they occupy.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Serra is intending

B. Serra, intends

C. Serra, intending

D. Serra intends

ID: 05be3983 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms within a sentence. This choice pairs the
comma after "Serra" with the comma after "environment" and uses the nonfinite present participle "intending" to correctly
form a supplementary phrase describing the reaction Serra intends his sculptures to provoke. This supplementary phrase
appears between the noun phrase that it modifies ("American abstract artist Richard Serra") and the finite present tense verb
("assembles"), which functions as the sentence’s main verb and describes what Serra does.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite present continuous tense verb "is
intending" can’t be used in this way in conjunction with the finite present tense verb "assembles," which already functions as
the main verb in the sentence. Choice B is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite present
tense verb "intends" can’t be used in this way to supplement the noun phrase "American abstract artist Richard Serra." Choice
D is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The finite present tense verb "intends" can’t be used in this
way in conjunction with the finite present tense verb "assembles," which already functions as the main verb in the sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a1a0066e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: a1a0066e
In paleontology, the term “Elvis taxon” gets applied to a newly identified living species that was once
presumed to be extinct. Like an Elvis impersonator who might bear a striking resemblance to the late musical
icon Elvis Presley himself, an Elvis taxon is not the real thing, ______ is a misidentified look-alike.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. however but it

B. however it

C. however, it

D. however. It

ID: a1a0066e Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The clause “Like an Elvis impersonator…real thing” and the clause “it is…look-alike” are both
independent clauses, so making them into two separate sentences is grammatically correct.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice creates a run-on sentence error. The clause “Like an Elvis impersonator…real thing” and the
clause “it is…look-alike” are both independent clauses, so they need to be separated with at least a comma + a coordinating
conjunction. This choice provides the coordinating conjunction “but,” but it’s missing a comma. Choice B is incorrect. This
choice creates a run-on sentence error. The clause “Like an Elvis impersonator…real thing” and the clause “it is…look-alike”
are both independent clauses, so they need to be separated with a semicolon, a colon, a dash, a period, or a comma + a
coordinating conjunction. Choice C is incorrect. This choice creates a run-on sentence error. The clause “Like an Elvis
impersonator…real thing” and the clause “it is…look-alike” are both independent clauses, so they need to be separated with at
least a comma + a coordinating conjunction. This choice provides a comma, but it’s missing a coordinating conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7ebe1dd0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 7ebe1dd0
A species of Byropsis algae produces toxins to avoid being eaten by predators. However, in some cases, the
toxins the organism uses to protect itself from predation actually ______ its attractiveness to predators. The
Hawaiian sea slug, for example, not only tolerates Byropsis toxins but actually uses them for protection in the
same way the algae does.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. is increasing

B. increase

C. increases

D. has increased

ID: 7ebe1dd0 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The plural verb "increase" agrees in
number with the plural subject "toxins."

Choice A is incorrect because the singular verb "is increasing" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject "toxins."
Choice C is incorrect because the singular verb "increases" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject "toxins." Choice D
is incorrect because the singular verb "has increased" doesn’t agree in number with the plural subject "toxins."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e598da1c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: e598da1c
Roughly 300 nights a year, when the cold air descending from the Andes Mountains meets the warm air
rising from Venezuela’s coastal Lake Maracaibo, the result is a spectacular lightning storm, its strikes so
bright, so localized, and so ______ that it has become known as “Maracaibo’s Lighthouse.”

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. dependable:

B. dependable;

C. dependable

D. dependable,

ID: e598da1c Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of an integrated relative clause. No punctuation
is needed before the relative clause beginning with "that" because the content of the relative clause ("that...Lighthouse") is
integral to the meaning of the coordinated adjectival phrase ("so bright, so localized, and so dependable") that it modifies.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the coordinated adjectival phrase ("so bright...dependable")
and the integrated relative clause that modifies it. Choice B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the
coordinated adjectival phrase ("so bright...dependable") and the integrated relative clause that modifies it. Choice D is
incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the coordinated adjectival phrase ("so bright...dependable") and the
integrated relative clause that modifies it.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 98baf1ee
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 98baf1ee
Stomata, tiny pore structures in a leaf that absorb gases needed for plant growth, open when guard cells
surrounding each pore swell with water. In a pivotal 2007 article, plant cell ______ showed that lipid molecules
called phosphatidylinositol phosphates are responsible for signaling guard cells to open stomata.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. biologist, Yuree Lee

B. biologist Yuree Lee,

C. biologist Yuree Lee

D. biologist, Yuree Lee,

ID: 98baf1ee Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation between titles and proper nouns. No
punctuation is needed to offset the proper noun "Yuree Lee" from the title "plant cell biologist" that describes Lee.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed. Choice B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed. Choice D
is incorrect because no punctuation is needed around the proper noun "Yuree Lee." Setting the phrase off with punctuation
suggests that it could be removed without affecting the coherence of the sentence, which isn’t the case.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 618d94c4
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 618d94c4
In 2018, a team of researchers led by Dr. Caitlin Whalen compiled every available measurement of ocean
mixing rates from the past two decades. With this novel data set, the team was able to determine how
current-driven mixing varies across ______ and what impact it has on the distribution of heat and nutrients in
the ocean.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. regions,

B. regions:

C. regions;

D. regions

ID: 618d94c4 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation between coordinates in a sentence. The two
elements "how…regions" and "what…ocean" work together as coordinates to complete the description of what the team was
able to determine. Because there are only two coordinates in this case (as opposed to a series of three or more), no
punctuation is needed between them.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the coordinates "how…regions" and "what…ocean." Choice
B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the coordinates "how…regions" and "what…ocean." Choice C is
incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the coordinates "how…regions" and "what…ocean."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d902a695
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: d902a695
When a given industry—water and electricity are two well-known examples—carries high infrastructural start-
up costs and other barriers that discourage competition, ______ of just one or two suppliers per municipality.
Such industries are known as natural monopolies.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. these often consist

B. they often consist

C. it often consists

D. this often consists

ID: d902a695 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is pronoun-antecedent agreement. The singular pronoun "it" agrees
in number with the singular antecedent "industry" and clearly indicates that the industry consists of just one or two suppliers
per municipality.

Choice A is incorrect. The plural pronoun "these" neither agrees in number with the singular antecedent "industry" nor clearly
indicates that the industry—not another plural noun in the sentence, such as "start-up costs" or "barriers"—consists of just
one or two suppliers per municipality. Choice B is incorrect because the plural pronoun "they" doesn’t agree in number with
the singular antecedent "industry." Choice D is incorrect because the singular pronoun "this" is ambiguous in this context; the
resulting sentence leaves unclear what consists of just one or two suppliers per municipality.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f8ac582e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: f8ac582e
Chondrites are stony meteorites that are undifferentiated—that is, their contents have not melted and
separated into distinct layers. They are hardly ______ many chondrites experience aqueous alteration as a
result of exposure to fluids, as well as fracturing, veining, and localized melting due to collisions with other
objects.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. pristine, though

B. pristine, though;

C. pristine; though

D. pristine, though,

ID: f8ac582e Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice correctly
uses a comma to separate the supplementary adverb "though" from the preceding main clause ("They are hardly pristine")
and uses a semicolon to join the two main clauses ("They…though" and "many…objects"). Further, placing the semicolon after
"though" indicates that the information in the preceding main clause (chondrites are far from pristine) is contrary to what
might be assumed from the information in the previous sentence (chondrites have been generally unaltered by their
environment).

Choice A is incorrect because placing the comma after "pristine" and using "though" as a subordinating conjunction
illogically indicates that the information in the next main clause (many chondrites have experienced damage) is contrary to
the information in the previous clause (chondrites are far from pristine). Choice C is incorrect because placing the semicolon
after "pristine" illogically indicates that the information in the next main clause (many chondrites have experienced damage)
is contrary to the information in the previous clause (chondrites are far from pristine). Choice D is incorrect because it
results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, the comma after "though" can’t be used in this way to join two
main clauses.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a778e64f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: a778e64f
Using natural debris, such as dried ______ such as plastic bags; and more traditional art supplies, such as tree
glue, Ghanaian artist Ed Franklin Gavua creates his striking Yiiiiikakaii African masks, which he hopes can
help viewers rethink how waste is used in their communities.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. leaves, man-made trash:

B. leaves; man-made trash,

C. leaves, man-made trash,

D. leaves; man-made trash;

ID: a778e64f Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of elements in a complex series. It’s
conventional to use a semicolon to separate items in a complex series with internal punctuation, and in this choice, the
semicolon after "leaves" is conventionally used to separate the first item ("natural debris, such as dried leaves") and the
second item ("man-made trash, such as plastic bags") in the series of materials used by Gavua. Further, the comma after
"trash" correctly separates the noun phrase "man-made trash" from the supplementary phrase ("such as plastic bags") that
describes it.

Choice A is incorrect because a comma after "leaves" doesn’t match the semicolon used later to separate the second and
third items in the series ("man-made...bags" and "and...glue"). Additionally, it’s not conventional to use a colon in this way to
separate a supplementary phrase ("such as plastic bags") from the noun phrase it modifies ("man-made trash"). Choice C is
incorrect because a comma after "leaves" doesn’t match the semicolon used later to separate the second and third items in
the series ("man-made...bags" and "and...glue"). Choice D is incorrect because it’s not conventional to use a semicolon in this
way to separate a supplementary phrase ("such as plastic bags") from the noun phrase it modifies ("man-made trash").

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 771b3e53
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 771b3e53
Entomologists Yash Sondhi and Samuel Fabian have tried to explain why moths fly erratically around light
sources at night. Knowing that flying insects keep their backs pointed toward sunlight during the day, ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. the researchers theorize that moths, mistaking nighttime lights for the Sun, continually try to reorient their
bodies while flying near such lights.

B. the researchers’ theory is that moths mistake nighttime lights for the Sun, continually trying to reorient
their bodies while flying near such lights.

C. moths mistake nighttime lights for the Sun and continually try to reorient their bodies while flying near
such lights, the researchers theorize.

D. moths continually try to reorient their bodies while flying near nighttime lights, the researchers theorize,
mistaking such lights for the Sun.

ID: 771b3e53 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice makes the noun phrase
"the researchers" the subject of the sentence and places it immediately after the modifying phrase "knowing…day." In doing
so, this choice clearly establishes that the researchers—and not another noun in the sentence—know that flying insects keep
their backs pointed toward sunlight during the day.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase "the researchers’ theory"
immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the researchers’ theory knows that flying insects keep their
backs pointed toward sunlight during the day. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement
of the noun "moths" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that moths know that flying insects keep
their backs pointed toward sunlight during the day. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The
placement of the noun "moths" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that moths know that flying
insects keep their backs pointed toward sunlight during the day.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 30b2a7b8
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 30b2a7b8
The relationship between genomes and epigenomes reveals how cells with identical DNA develop different
______ whereas the genome in each cell contains a complete DNA sequence, the epigenome consists of
chemical compounds that determine which traits in the sequence will be expressed.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. functions

B. functions,

C. functions and,

D. functions:

ID: 30b2a7b8 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of a colon within a sentence. In this choice, the colon
correctly introduces the following explanation of the different functions of genomes and epigenomes.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main clauses ("The relationship…functions" and
"whereas…expressed") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a
comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses ("The relationship…functions" and "whereas…
expressed"). Choice C is incorrect. Without a comma preceding it, the conjunction "and" can’t be used in this way to join two
main clauses. Furthermore, "and" fails to indicate that what follows is an explanation of how cells with identical DNA develop
different functions.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 0447b140
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 0447b140
The Limón technique, developed by Mexican-born dancer and choreographer Jose Limón, is known for its
emphasis on breath control and its interplay of weight and ______ dancers may explore, for example, the
moment of mid-air suspension at the top of a jump.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. weightlessness

B. weightlessness which

C. weightlessness,

D. weightlessness;

ID: 0447b140 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice uses a
semicolon in a conventional way to join the first main clause ("The Limón…weightlessness") and the second main clause
("dancers…jump").

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main clauses are fused without punctuation and/or a
conjunction. Choice B is incorrect. The relative pronoun "which" can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses. Choice C
is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, a comma can’t be used in this way to
join two main clauses.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4dc1b152
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 4dc1b152
In discussing Mary Shelley’s 1818 epistolary novel Frankenstein, literary theorist Gayatri Spivak directs the
reader’s attention to the character of Margaret Saville. As Spivak points out, Saville is not the protagonist of
Shelley’s ______ as the recipient of the letters that frame the book’s narrative, she’s the “occasion” of it.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. novel

B. novel,

C. novel; rather,

D. novel, rather,

ID: 4dc1b152 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the coordination of main clauses within a sentence. This choice
correctly uses a semicolon to join a main clause (“Saville...novel”) and a second main clause (“she’s...it”) preceded by
supplementary elements (“rather...narrative”).

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main clauses are fused without punctuation and/or a
conjunction. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction following it, a comma can’t be
used in this way to join two main clauses. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction
following it, the comma after “novel” can’t be used in this way to join the two main clauses.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 51bd4147
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 51bd4147
During the American Civil War, Thomas Morris Chester braved the front lines as a war correspondent for the
Philadelphia Press. Amplifying the voices and experiences of Black soldiers ______ of particular importance
to Chester, who later became an activist and lawyer during the postwar Reconstruction period.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. were

B. have been

C. are

D. was

ID: 51bd4147 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The singular verb "was" agrees in
number with the singular subject "amplifying." Gerunds such as "amplifying" are always singular.

Choice A is incorrect because the plural verb "were" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "amplifying." Choice B
is incorrect because the plural verb "have been" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "amplifying." Choice C is
incorrect because the plural verb "are" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "amplifying."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e93dd6f3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: e93dd6f3
In the 1970s, Janaki Ammal, a prominent botanist, emerged as a powerful voice in India’s environmental
conservation movement. Her exhaustive chromosomal survey of plants in Silent Valley, a pristine tropical
forest in Kerala, India, that is home to nearly 1,000 species of native flora (many of which are endangered),
______ instrumental in the government’s decision to preserve the forest.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. are

B. were

C. have been

D. was

ID: e93dd6f3 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The subject "survey" is singular, and so is the verb "was."

Choice A is incorrect. The subject "survey" is singular, but the verb "are" is plural. Choice B is incorrect. The subject "survey" is
singular, but the verb "were" is plural. Choice C is incorrect. The subject "survey" is singular, but the verb "have been" is plural.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 0d0e04ec
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 0d0e04ec
After immigrating from Mexico and obtaining U.S. citizenship, Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo entered politics,
earning a reputation for being a fervent defender of Hispanic civil rights. In 1919 Larrazolo was elected
governor of ______ in 1928 he became the nation’s first Hispanic U.S. Senator.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. New Mexico and

B. New Mexico,

C. New Mexico, and

D. New Mexico

ID: 0d0e04ec Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the coordination of main clauses within a sentence. This choice
correctly uses a comma and the coordinating conjunction "and" to join the first main clause ("In 1919 Larrazolo was elected
governor of New Mexico") and the second main clause ("in 1928 he became the nation’s first Hispanic US Senator").

Choice A is incorrect because when coordinating two longer main clauses such as these, it’s conventional to use a comma
before the coordinating conjunction. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Without a conjunction
following it, a comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on
sentence. The two main clauses are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c6dd0280
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: c6dd0280
With the development of new technologies that use natural resources more efficiently, the overall
consumption of those resources might be expected to decrease. Economists have observed that
improvements in efficiency often correlate negatively with resource ______ efficiency gains, lowering the cost
of use, may increase demand to the extent that resource consumption ultimately rises.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. conservation, though,

B. conservation; though

C. conservation, though;

D. conservation, though

ID: c6dd0280 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within a sentence. This choice correctly
uses a comma to separate the supplementary adverb "though" from the preceding main clause ("Economists…conservation")
and uses a semicolon to join the next main clause ("efficiency gains…rises") to the rest of the sentence. Further, placing the
semicolon after "though" indicates that the information in the preceding main clause ("improvements in efficiency often
correlate negatively with resource conservation") is contrary to what might be assumed from the information in the previous
sentence (resource consumption would be expected to decrease with the development of new, more efficient technologies).

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Commas can’t be used in this way to punctuate a supplementary
word or phrase between two main clauses. Choice B is incorrect because it fails to mark the boundary between the two main
clauses ("Economists...though" and "efficiency gains....rises") with appropriate punctuation. Moreover, placing the semicolon
after "conservation" illogically indicates that the information in the next clause (gains in efficiency may lead to an increase in
resource consumption) is contrary to the information in the previous clause ("improvements in efficiency often correlate
negatively with resource conservation"). Choice D is incorrect because placing a comma after "conservation" illogically
indicates that the information in the next clause (gains in efficiency may lead to an increase in resource consumption) is
contrary to the information in the previous clause ("improvements in efficiency often correlate negatively with resource
conservation").

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6b4c8b42
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 6b4c8b42
The 1977 play And the Soul Shall Dance depicts two Japanese American farming families in Depression-era
Southern California. Critics have noted the way pioneering ______ compares the experiences of issei
(Japanese nationals who emigrated to America) and nisei (their American-born children).

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. playwright, Wakako Yamauchi,

B. playwright, Wakako Yamauchi

C. playwright Wakako Yamauchi,

D. playwright Wakako Yamauchi

ID: 6b4c8b42 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation between titles and proper nouns. No
punctuation is needed to set off the proper noun "Wakako Yamauchi" from the title that describes Yamauchi, "pioneering
playwright." Because "Wakako Yamauchi" is essential information identifying the "pioneering playwright," no punctuation is
necessary.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed before or after the proper noun "Wakako Yamauchi." Setting the
playwright’s name off with commas suggests that it could be removed without affecting the coherence of the sentence,
which isn’t the case. Choice B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the title "pioneering playwright" and
the proper noun "Wakako Yamauchi." Choice C is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the proper noun
"Wakako Yamauchi" and the verb "compares."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7a8c1e9c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 7a8c1e9c
Woven from recycled yarn and hand tufted using a carpet weaving technique passed down by the artist’s
Turkish grandmother, ______ so lush and tactilely inviting that you are tempted to reach out and touch them.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. the topological tapestries of Argentine textile artist Alexandra Kehayoglou are

B. the Argentine textile artist Alexandra Kehayoglou creates topological tapestries that are

C. when she creates her topological tapestries, Argentine textile artist Alexandra Kehayoglou makes them

D. Alexandra Kehayoglou is an Argentine textile artist whose topological tapestries are

ID: 7a8c1e9c Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice makes the noun phrase
"topological tapestries" the subject of the sentence and places it immediately after the modifying phrase "woven…
grandmother." In doing so, this choice clearly establishes that the topological tapestries—and not another noun in the
sentence—are being described as woven from recycled yarn and hand tufted.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase "Argentine textile artist
Alexandra Kehayoglou" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that Kehayoglou is woven from recycled
yarn and hand tufted. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the pronoun "she" and
the noun phrase "Argentine textile artist Alexandra Kehayoglou" after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that
Kehayoglou is woven from recycled yarn and hand tufted. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The
placement of the noun "Alexandra Kehayoglou" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that Kehayoglou
is woven from recycled yarn and hand tufted.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 2d3abce3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 2d3abce3
Despite being cheap, versatile, and easy to produce, ______ they are made from nonrenewable petroleum, and
most do not biodegrade in landfills.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. there are two problems associated with commercial plastics:

B. two problems are associated with commercial plastics:

C. commercial plastics’ two associated problems are that

D. commercial plastics have two associated problems:

ID: 2d3abce3 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice ensures that the
modifying phrase “despite being cheap, versatile, and easy to produce” appears immediately before the noun it modifies,
“commercial plastics,” clearly establishing that the commercial plastics—and not another noun in the sentence—are being
described as cheap, versatile, and easy to produce.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the function word “there” immediately after
the modifying phrase illogically and confusingly suggests that “there” is cheap, versatile, and easy to produce. Choice B is
incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun “two problems” immediately after the
modifying phrase illogically suggests that the “problems” are cheap, versatile, and easy to produce. Choice C is incorrect
because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “commercial plastics’ two associated problems”
immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the “problems” are cheap, versatile, and easy to produce.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3152fbb0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 3152fbb0
Researcher Lin Zhi developed a process for increasing the tensile strength—measured in gigapascals, or GPa
—of silkworm ______ dissolving and reweaving the silk in a solution of iron metal ions, zinc, and sugar, Zhi
increased the amount of force required to stretch it from approximately 0.5 GPa to 2 GPa.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. silk, by

B. silk by

C. silk and by

D. silk. By

ID: 3152fbb0 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The independent clauses "researcher Lin Zhi…silk" and "by dissolving…2 GPa" can be
grammatically separated by a period. They can stand alone as sentences, and this is the only choice that lets them do that.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice results in a grammar error called a comma splice. "Researcher Lin Zhi…silk" and "by
dissolving…2 GPa" are both independent clauses. They need to either be separated with punctuation like a period or a
semicolon, or they need to be connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction like "and." A comma alone isn’t
enough. Choice B is incorrect. This choice results in a grammar error called a run-on sentence. "Researcher Lin Zhi…silk" and
"by dissolving…2 GPa" are both independent clauses. They need to either be separated with punctuation like a period or a
semicolon, or they need to be connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction like "and." Choice C is incorrect. This
choice results in a grammar error called a run-on sentence. "Researcher Lin Zhi…silk" and "by dissolving…2 GPa" are both
independent clauses. The coordinating conjunction "and" isn’t enough to link them by itself. We need a comma, too.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID dcc8a25e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: dcc8a25e
In 1943, in the midst of World War II, mathematics professor Grace Hopper was recruited by the US military
to help the war effort by solving complex equations. Hopper’s subsequent career would involve more than
just ______ as a pioneering computer programmer, Hopper would help usher in the digital age.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. equations, though:

B. equations, though,

C. equations. Though,

D. equations though

ID: dcc8a25e Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation to mark boundaries between
supplements and clauses. The comma after “equations” is used to separate the independent clause (“Hopper’s…equation”)
from the supplementary adverb phrase “though.” The colon after “though” is used to mark the boundary between the clause
ending with “though” and the following clause (“as…age”). A colon used in this way introduces information that illustrates or
explains information that has come before it. In this case, the colon after “though” introduces the following explanation of
how Hopper’s subsequent career would involve more than just solving equations: she would become a pioneering computer
programmer.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join two independent
clauses (“Hopper’s…though” and “as…age”) such as these. Choice C is incorrect because it results in an illogical sequence of
sentences. Placing the period after “equations” and beginning the next sentence with “Though” illogically suggests that the
following information (that Hopper would help usher in the digital age) is contrary to the information in the previous
sentence (Hopper’s subsequent career would involve more than just solving equations). Instead, the information that follows
supports the information from the previous sentence by explaining how her work and influence extended beyond solely
solving equations. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two independent clauses (“Hopper’s…
though” and “as…age”) are fused without punctuation.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID b3eebd97
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: b3eebd97
Rabinal Achí is a precolonial Maya dance drama performed annually in Rabinal, a town in the Guatemalan
highlands. Based on events that occurred when Rabinal was a city-state ruled by a king, ______ had once been
an ally of the king but was later captured while leading an invading force against him.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Rabinal Achí tells the story of K’iche’ Achí, a military leader who

B. K’iche’ Achí, the military leader in the story of Rabinal Achí,

C. the military leader whose story is told in Rabinal Achí, K’iche’ Achí,

D. there was a military leader, K’iche’ Achí, who in Rabinal Achí

ID: b3eebd97 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The modifier “Based on events…by a king,” is describing the drama “Rabinal Achí.” Modifiers
need to be next to the subjects they describe, so “Rabinal Achí” needs to be the first word after the comma.

Choice B is incorrect. This doesn’t complete the text in a way that conforms to the conventions of Standard English. The
modifier “Based on events…by a king,” is describing the drama “Rabinal Achí.” Modifiers need to be next to the subjects they
describe, so “Rabinal Achí” needs to be the first word after the comma. Choice C is incorrect. This doesn’t complete the text
in a way that conforms to the conventions of Standard English. The modifier “Based on events…by a king,” is describing the
drama “Rabinal Achí.” Modifiers need to be next to the subjects they describe, so “Rabinal Achí” needs to be the first word
after the comma. Choice D is incorrect. This doesn’t complete the text in a way that conforms to the conventions of
Standard English. The modifier “Based on events…by a king,” is describing the drama “Rabinal Achí.” Modifiers need to be
next to the subjects they describe, so “Rabinal Achí” needs to be the first word after the comma.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a7340a4c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: a7340a4c
English poet and Shakespeare contemporary John Donne’s ______ much admired during his lifetime (1572–
1631) and in the decades that followed, had, at the time of their enthusiastic rediscovery by the early
twentieth-century modernists, been essentially gathering dust for the intervening 250 years.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. works were

B. works, were

C. works,

D. works had been

ID: a7340a4c Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation and verb forms within a sentence. This
choice leaves the verb "admired" in its nonfinite past participle form to function within a supplementary element ("much…
followed"). Offset by commas after "works" and "followed," this supplementary element interrupts the main clause ("English
poet and Shakespeare contemporary John Donne’s works…had…been essentially gathering dust…") with additional
information about the works’ reception during Donne’s lifetime.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to offset the supplementary element ("much…followed") with appropriate punctuation,
and using the finite verb "were much admired" results in an ungrammatical sentence. Choice B is incorrect because using the
finite verb "were much admired" results in an ungrammatical sentence. Choice D is incorrect because it fails to offset the
supplementary element ("much…followed") with appropriate punctuation, and using the finite verb "had been much admired"
results in an ungrammatical sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 60c74aa0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 60c74aa0
In 2015, a team led by materials scientists Anirudha Sumant and Diana Berman succeeded in reducing the
coefficient of friction (COF) between two surfaces to the lowest possible level—superlubricity. A nearly
frictionless (and, as its name suggests, extremely slippery) state, ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. when their COF drops below 0.01, two surfaces reach superlubricity.

B. two surfaces, when their COF drops below 0.01, reach superlubricity.

C. reaching superlubricity occurs when two surfaces’ COF drops below 0.01.

D. superlubricity is reached when two surfaces’ COF drops below 0.01.

ID: 60c74aa0 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The subject of the modifier “a nearly frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier
placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another, so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the
missing clause.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice creates a subject-modifier placement error. The subject of the modifier “a nearly
frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another,
so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the missing clause. Choice B is incorrect. This choice creates a subject-modifier
placement error. The subject of the modifier “a nearly frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier placement
requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another, so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the missing clause.
Choice C is incorrect. This choice creates a subject-modifier placement error. The subject of the modifier “a nearly
frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another,
so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the missing clause.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID b5e68ea0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: b5e68ea0
As cheesemaking practices spread throughout Europe and Asia during and after the Neolithic, divergent
strategies for preserving milk ______ whereas rennet-coagulated cheesemaking became key to milk
preservation in Europe and Southwest Asia, acid-heat coagulation methods became common among
nomadic herding populations of the northeastern Eurasian steppe.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. emerged

B. emerged and

C. emerged:

D. emerged,

ID: b5e68ea0 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use within a sentence. A colon can be used
between two main clauses to signal that what follows is an elaboration of what came before. In this choice, the colon
correctly introduces the following explanation of the divergent milk preservation strategies that emerged.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The main clause ("As…emerged") and the subordinate clause
followed by another main clause ("whereas…steppe") are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction. Choice B is
incorrect. Without a comma preceding it, the conjunction "and" can’t be used in this way to join a main clause ("As…
emerged") and a subordinate clause followed by another main clause ("whereas…steppe"). Choice D is incorrect because it
results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join a main clause ("As…emerged") and a subordinate
clause followed by another main clause ("whereas…steppe").

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID b466ecb2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: b466ecb2
Several advantages—the ability to react strongly with chip components, to avoid interference from other
waves, and to be confined within tiny circuits—______ acoustic waves as a promising alternative to electrical
waves for transmitting data on computer chips; as a result, researchers are invested in developing more
acoustic wave–based chips.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. have positioned

B. positioning

C. by positioning

D. having positioned

ID: b466ecb2 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms within a sentence. A main clause requires
a finite (tensed) verb to perform the action of the subject. In this case, the subject is "several advantages," and the present
perfect tense verb "have positioned" supplies the finite verb to indicate what has made acoustic waves a promising
alternative to electrical waves.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The nonfinite participle "positioning" doesn’t supply
the main clause with a finite verb. Choice C is incorrect because it results in an ungrammatical sentence. The prepositional
phrase "by positioning" doesn’t supply the main clause with a finite verb. Choice D is incorrect because it results in an
ungrammatical sentence. The nonfinite participle "having positioned" doesn’t supply the main clause with a finite verb.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 1e43d5ea
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 1e43d5ea
A recent study tracked the number of bee species present in twenty-seven New York apple orchards over a
ten-year period. ______ found that when wild growth near an orchard was cleared, the number of different bee
species visiting the orchard decreased.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Entomologist Heather Grab:

B. Entomologist, Heather Grab,

C. Entomologist Heather Grab

D. Entomologist Heather Grab,

ID: 1e43d5ea Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a name and title and between a
subject and a verb. No punctuation is needed between the proper noun “Heather Grab” and “entomologist,” the title that
describes Grab. Additionally, no punctuation is needed between the sentence’s subject (“Entomologist Heather Grab”) and
the main verb (“found”) that indicates what Grab did.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the subject and the verb. Choice B is incorrect because no
punctuation is needed. Setting the entomologist’s name off with commas suggests that it could be removed without
affecting the coherence of the sentence, which isn’t the case. Choice D is incorrect because no punctuation is needed
between the subject and the verb.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID ae88a59f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: ae88a59f
Using satellite remote sensing, Dr. Catherine Nakalembe, director of NASA’s Harvest Africa initiative, gathers
important data on crop health. Nakalembe doesn’t just compile the ______ she also shares her findings with
African farmers, enabling them to make data-driven decisions about managing critical food crops.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. information, though;

B. information, though,

C. information; though

D. information though,

ID: ae88a59f Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. This choice uses a semicolon to join two independent clauses ("Nakalembe doesn’t just…
though" and "she also shares..."). This choice also appropriately includes "though" in the first clause, where it logically
belongs.

Choice B is incorrect. This choice results in a grammar error called a comma splice. It incorrectly joins two independent
clauses with only a comma instead of a comma and a coordinating conjunction like "and" or "but." "Though" is a transition
word, but it’s not a coordinating conjunction. Choice C is incorrect. This choice results in a punctuation error. A semicolon
can only be used to link two independent clauses. However, if "though" is included in the second clause, it turns the second
clause into a dependent clause, so a semicolon can’t be used after "information." Choice D is incorrect. This choice results in
a grammar error called a comma splice. It incorrectly joins two independent clauses with only a comma instead of a comma
and a coordinating conjunction like "and" or "but."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 9ab4d6ff
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 9ab4d6ff
On November 2, 1772, amid rising tensions with Great Britain, Boston colonists formed the Boston
Committee of Correspondence. By 1774, what had started as a local means of mobilizing support for the
Patriot cause had grown into something far more ______ network of such committees that, facilitating
communication among the colonies, helped lay the groundwork for the Continental Congress.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. extensive: a

B. extensive; a

C. extensive, it was a

D. extensive. A

ID: 9ab4d6ff Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of a colon within a sentence. In this choice, the colon is
correctly used to introduce the following explanation of what the Patriot cause had grown into by 1774.

Choice B is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join the main clause ("what…extensive") and the
supplementary element ("a network…Congress"). A semicolon is conventionally used to join two main clauses, whereas a
colon is conventionally used to introduce an element that explains or amplifies the information in the preceding clause,
making the colon the better choice in this context. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. The addition of
the pronoun and verb "it was" forms the start of a new main clause in the sentence, and a comma can’t be used in this way
to mark the boundary between two main clauses. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable
sentence fragment beginning with "a network."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3233279a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 3233279a
Nigerian author Buchi Emecheta’s celebrated literary oeuvre includes The Joys of Motherhood, a novel about
the changing roles of women in 1950s ______ a television play about the private struggles of a newlywed
couple in Nigeria; and Head Above Water, her autobiography.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Lagos, A Kind of Marriage,

B. Lagos; A Kind of Marriage,

C. Lagos, A Kind of Marriage:

D. Lagos; A Kind of Marriage

ID: 3233279a Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of items in a complex series (a series including
internal punctuation). In this choice, the semicolon after “Lagos” is conventionally used to separate the first item (“The
Joys…Lagos”) and the second item (“A Kind…Nigeria”) in the series. Further, the comma after “Marriage” correctly separates
the title “A Kind of Marriage” from the supplementary phrase (“a television…Nigeria”) that describes it.

Choice A is incorrect because the comma after “Lagos” doesn’t match the semicolon used later in the series to separate the
second item (“A Kind…Nigeria”) from the third item (“and…autobiography”). Choice C is incorrect because the comma after
“Lagos” doesn’t match the semicolon used later in the series to separate the second item (“A Kind…Nigeria”) from the third
item (“and…autobiography”). Additionally, a colon can’t be used in this way to separate the title “A Kind of Marriage” from the
supplementary phrase (“a television…Nigeria”) that describes it. Choice D is incorrect because it fails to use appropriate
punctuation to separate the title “A Kind of Marriage” from the supplementary phrase (“a television…Nigeria”) that describes
it.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 11db42e0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 11db42e0
On sunny days, dark rooftops absorb solar energy and convert it to unwanted heat, raising the surrounding air
______ a light-colored covering to an existing dark roof, either by attaching prefabricated reflective sheets or
spraying on a paint-like coating, helps combat this effect.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. temperature; by adding

B. temperature, adding

C. temperature. Adding

D. temperature by adding

ID: 11db42e0 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used correctly to mark the boundary between the first sentence (“On…temperature”) and the second sentence (“Adding…
effect”). The gerund phrase beginning with “adding” is the subject of the second sentence, and the verb phrase “helps
combat this effect” describes what adding a light-colored covering can do.

Choice A is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join the sentence “On...temperature” and the
supplementary phrases that follow. Doing so leaves the verb phrase “helps combat” without a subject and thus results in a
grammatically unconventional sentence. Choice B is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used
in this way to mark the boundary between sentences. Choice D is incorrect. This choice results in a confusing and illogical
sentence that suggests that adding a light-colored covering to an existing dark roof raises the temperature of the
surrounding air. Furthermore, it creates ambiguity by leaving the verb phrase “helps combat” without a subject (so it isn’t
clear what helps combat the effect).

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 1020223f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 1020223f
Long attributed to Jacques-Louis David, the preeminent Neoclassical painter of his day, the 1801 painting
Marie Joséphine Charlotte du Val d’Ognes gained fresh attention in the 1990s when art historians
discovered that the painting—which depicts a solitary young woman sketching—was actually the work of
little-known French portrait ______ Marie-Denise Villers (1774–1821).

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. artist—

B. artist

C. artist:

D. artist,

ID: 1020223f Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation between titles and proper nouns. No
punctuation is needed to set off the proper noun "Marie-Denise Villers" from the title that describes Villers, "little-known
French portrait artist."

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed. Choice C is incorrect because no punctuation is needed. Choice D
is incorrect because no punctuation is needed.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bff3cf74
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: bff3cf74
Sociologist Alton Okinaka sits on the review board tasked with adding new sites to the Hawai‘i Register of
Historic Places, which includes Pi‘ilanihale Heiau and the ‘Ōpaeka‘a Road Bridge. Okinaka doesn’t make such
decisions ______ all historical designations must be approved by a group of nine other experts from the fields
of architecture, archaeology, history, and Hawaiian culture.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. single-handedly, however;

B. single-handedly; however,

C. single-handedly, however,

D. single-handedly however

ID: bff3cf74 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of a supplementary word or phrase between two
main clauses. This choice correctly uses a comma to separate the supplementary adverb “however” from the preceding
main clause (“Okinaka doesn’t…single-handedly”) and a semicolon to join the next main clause (“all…culture”) to the rest of
the sentence. Further, placing the semicolon after “however” correctly indicates that the information in the preceding main
clause (Okinaka doesn’t make such decisions single-handedly) is contrary to what might be assumed from the information in
the previous sentence (Okinaka sits on the review board that adds new sites to the Hawaii Register of Historic Places).

Choice B is incorrect because placing the semicolon after “single-handedly” and the comma after “however” illogically
indicates that the information in the next main clause (all historical designations must be approved by a group of experts) is
contrary to the information in the previous clause (Okinaka doesn’t make such decisions single-handedly). Choice C is
incorrect because it results in a comma splice. Commas can’t be used in this way to punctuate a supplementary word or
phrase between two main clauses. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The two main clauses are
fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4f7c4558
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 4f7c4558
Mathematician Grigori Perelman, sometimes in conjunction with mathematicians Richard S. Hamilton and
Shing-Tung Yau, ______ credited with proving the Poincaré conjecture. Having built on Hamilton’s previous
work to solve the proof, Perelman has insisted that Hamilton receive credit. Yau later found and closed gaps
in Perelman’s proof, persuading some mathematicians that he deserves credit as well.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. are

B. have been

C. are being

D. is

ID: 4f7c4558 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The singular verb "is credited" agrees in
number with the singular subject "mathematician Grigori Perelman."

Choice A is incorrect because the plural verb "are credited" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "mathematician
Grigori Perelman." Choice B is incorrect because the plural verb "have been credited" doesn’t agree in number with the
singular subject "mathematician Grigori Perelman." Choice C is incorrect because the plural verb "are being credited" doesn’t
agree in number with the singular subject "mathematician Grigori Perelman."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7405d67a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 7405d67a
A model created by biologist Luis Valente predicts that the rate of speciation—the rate at which new species
form—on an isolated island located approximately 5,000 kilometers from the nearest mainland ______ triple
the rate of speciation on an island only 500 kilometers from the mainland.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. being

B. to be

C. to have been

D. will be

ID: 7405d67a Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is finite and nonfinite verb forms within a sentence. Relative
clauses, such as the one beginning with “that,” require a finite verb, a verb that can function as the main verb of a clause. This
choice correctly supplies the clause with the finite future tense verb “will be.”

Choice A is incorrect because the nonfinite participle “being” doesn’t supply the clause with a finite verb. Choice B is
incorrect because the nonfinite to-infinitive “to be” doesn’t supply the clause with a finite verb. Choice C is incorrect because
the nonfinite to-infinitive “to have been” doesn’t supply the clause with a finite verb.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 2879d763
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 2879d763
Bengali author Toru Dutt’s A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields (1876), a volume of English translations of
French poems, ______ scholars’ understanding of the transnational and multilingual contexts in which Dutt
lived and worked.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. has enhanced

B. are enhancing

C. have enhanced

D. enhance

ID: 2879d763 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-verb agreement. The singular verb “has enhanced”
agrees in number with the singular subject “A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields,” which is the title of a book of poems.

Choice B is incorrect because the plural verb “are enhancing” doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject “A Sheaf
Gleaned in French Fields.” Choice C is incorrect because the plural verb “have enhanced” doesn’t agree in number with the
singular subject “A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields.” Choice D is incorrect because the plural verb “enhance” doesn’t agree in
number with the singular subject “A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields.”

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 36e0f3e2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 36e0f3e2
The Tantaquidgeon Museum in Uncasville, Connecticut, was founded in 1931 with the goal of showcasing
the culture and history of the Mohegan ______ today, nearly a century later, it is the oldest Native-owned and -
operated museum in the country.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. Tribe, and

B. Tribe

C. Tribe and

D. Tribe,

ID: 36e0f3e2 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. This choice uses a comma and a coordinating conjunction (“and”) to join two independent
clauses (“The Tantaquidgeon…Tribe” and “Today…country”).

Choice B is incorrect. This choice results in a grammar error known as a run-on sentence. The clauses before and after
“Tribe” are both independent, so they need to be separated with some sort of punctuation. Choice C is incorrect. This choice
results in a grammar error known as a run-on sentence. The clauses before and after “and” are both independent, so they
can’t be linked with just a conjunction. A comma would also be required. Choice D is incorrect. This choice results in a
grammar error called a comma splice. The clauses before and after “Tribe” are both independent, so they can’t be linked with
just a comma. A coordinating conjunction like “and” or “but” would also be required.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f852bcbd
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: f852bcbd
In the canon of North African literature, Moroccan author Driss Chraïbi’s 1954 novel The Simple Past (Le
Passé simple) looms large. A coming-of-age story, a social meditation, and a sober gaze into the dark maw
of French colonialism, ______ interrogates systemic power with memorable intensity.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Morocco gained its independence two years before the publication of Chraïbi’s debut novel, which

B. Chraïbi’s debut novel, published two years before Morocco gained its independence,

C. Chraïbi wrote a debut novel that, published two years before Morocco gained its independence,

D. published two years before Morocco gained its independence, Chraïbi wrote a debut novel that

ID: f852bcbd Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. Subject-modifier placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to each other. The
subject of the modifier "a coming-of-age story…colonialism" is Chraïbi’s novel The Simple Past, so the subject "Chraïbi’s
debut novel" fits perfectly after this introductory modifying phrase.

Choice A is incorrect. Modifiers and their subjects must go next to each other. The introductory modifier "a coming-of-age
story…colonialism" is describing Chraïbi’s novel, not Morocco. However, this choice places Morocco directly next to that
modifier. Choice C is incorrect. Modifiers and their subjects must go next to each other. The introductory modifier "a coming-
of-age story…colonialism" all describes Chraïbi’s novel, not Chraïbi himself. However, this choice places Chraïbi directly next
to that modifier. Choice D is incorrect. Modifiers and their subjects must go next to each other. The modifier "a coming-of-
age story…" is describing Chraïbi’s novel, so that needs to be the subject immediately after the modifier. This choice adds
another modifier that describes Chraïbi’s novel, but then puts "Chraïbi" himself—not the novel—right after that modifier, which
doesn’t make sense. Chraïbi wasn’t "published two years before" Moroccan independence; his novel The Simple Past was.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 836e370c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 836e370c
When external forces are applied to common glass made from silicates, energy builds up around minuscule
defects in the material, resulting in fractures. Recently, engineer Erkka Frankberg of Tampere University in
Finland used the chemical ______ to make a glassy solid that can withstand higher strain than silicate glass
can before fracturing.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. compound, aluminum oxide

B. compound aluminum oxide,

C. compound, aluminum oxide,

D. compound aluminum oxide

ID: 836e370c Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation around noun phrases. No punctuation is
needed because the noun phrase “aluminum oxide” is a restrictive appositive, meaning that it provides essential identifying
information about the noun phrase before it, “the chemical compound,” and thus doesn’t require punctuation around it.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed. Choice B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed. Choice C
is incorrect because the noun phrase “aluminum oxide” is a restrictive appositive. Setting the phrase off with punctuation
suggests that it could be removed without affecting the coherence of the sentence, which isn’t the case.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4fe1258f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 4fe1258f
The haiku-like poems of Tomas Tranströmer, which present nature- and dream-influenced images in crisp,
spare language, have earned the Swedish poet praise from leading contemporary ______ them Nigerian
American essayist and novelist Teju Cole, who has written that Tranströmer’s works “contain a luminous
simplicity.”

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. writers. Among

B. writers among

C. writers; among

D. writers, among

ID: 4fe1258f Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a main clause and a supplementary
phrase. This choice correctly uses a comma to mark the boundary between the main clause (“The haiku-like…writers”) and
the supplementary phrase (“among…Cole”) that specifies a contemporary writer who has praised Tomas Tranströmer’s
haiku-like poems.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with “among.” Choice B
is incorrect because it fails to mark the boundary between the main clause and the supplementary phrase with appropriate
punctuation. Choice C is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join the main clause (“The haiku-like…
writers”) and the supplementary phrase (“among…Cole”).

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c72d5a53
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: c72d5a53
The ghazal, a poetic form originating in seventh-century Arabic poetry, has an intricate structure. The
twentieth-century Kashmiri American poet Agha Shahid Ali explains that each one of a ghazal’s couplets,
while adhering to the patterns of rhyme (qafia) and refrain (radif) established in the poem’s opening lines
(matla), ______ thematically and logically autonomous, resulting in a poem with “a stringently formal disunity.”

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. is

B. were

C. have been

D. are

ID: c72d5a53 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of verb forms within a sentence. The singular verb "is"
agrees in number with the singular subject "each one of a ghazal’s couplets." While the prepositional phrase "of a ghazal’s
couplets" within the subject contains a plural noun, the head of the subject ("each one") is singular, indicating that each
individual couplet (not the couplets as a group) is "thematically and logically autonomous," or self-standing.

Choice B is incorrect because the plural verb "were" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "each one of a ghazal’s
couplets." Choice C is incorrect because the plural verb "have been" doesn’t agree in number with the singular subject "each
one of a ghazal’s couplets." Choice D is incorrect because the plural verb "are" doesn’t agree in number with the singular
subject "each one of a ghazal’s couplets."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c876444f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: c876444f
American writer Edwidge Danticat, who emigrated from Haiti in 1981, has won acclaim for her powerful short
stories, novels, and ______ her lyrical yet unflinching depictions of her native country’s turbulent history, writer
Robert Antoni has compared Danticat to Nobel Prize–winning novelist Toni Morrison.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. essays, praising

B. essays and praising

C. essays praising

D. essays. Praising

ID: c876444f Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period
after “essays” is used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence (“American…essays”) and another (“praising…
Morrison”). The participial phrase beginning with “Praising” modifies the subject of the second sentence, “writer Robert
Antoni.”

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to mark the boundary
between sentences. Choice B is incorrect. Without a comma preceding it, the conjunction “and” can’t be used in this way to
join sentences. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences (“American…essays” and
“Praising…Morrison”) are fused without punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID d9d4d944
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: d9d4d944
The artistic talents of Barbara Chase-Riboud, most known for her 1979 historical novel Sally Hemings and
the conversation it inspired, ______ limited to the realm of prose: she first excelled in sculpture, where her
affinity for bronze—a material she described as “timeless” due to its use across eras and cultures—became
part of her artistic identity.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. hasn’t been

B. wasn’t

C. isn’t

D. aren’t

ID: d9d4d944 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The subject "talents" is plural, and so is the verb "aren’t": "the artistic talents…aren’t limited."

Choice A is incorrect. The subject "talents" is plural, but the verb "hasn’t been" is singular. Choice B is incorrect. The subject
"talents" is plural, but the verb "wasn’t" is singular. Choice C is incorrect. The subject "talents" is plural, but the verb "isn’t" is
singular.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f3a157b1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: f3a157b1
Known as Earth’s “living skin,” biocrusts are thin layers of soil held together by surface-dwelling
microorganisms such as fungi, lichens, and cyanobacteria. Fortifying soil in arid ecosystems against erosion,
______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. a recent study’s estimate is that these crusts reduce global dust emissions by 60 percent each year.

B. an estimated 60 percent reduction in global dust emissions each year is due to these crusts, according to
a recent study.

C. these crusts reduce global dust emissions by an estimated 60 percent each year, according to a recent
study.

D. a recent study has estimated that these crusts reduce global dust emissions by 60 percent each year.

ID: f3a157b1 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The subject of the modifier "fortifying soil in arid ecosystems against erosion" is "biocrusts."
Subject-modifier placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to each other, so "biocrusts" or some variant
meaning "biocrusts" (in this case, "these crusts") must begin the missing clause.

Choice A is incorrect. Modifiers and their subjects must go next to each other. The subject of the modifier "fortifying soil in
arid ecosystems against erosion" is "biocrusts," not "a recent study’s estimate." Choice B is incorrect. Modifiers and their
subjects must go next to each other. The subject of the modifier "fortifying soil in arid ecosystems against erosion" is
"biocrusts," not "an estimated 60 percent reduction." Choice D is incorrect. Modifiers and their subjects must go next to each
other. The subject of the modifier "fortifying soil in arid ecosystems against erosion" is "biocrusts," not "a recent study."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 06fea80f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: 06fea80f
Working from an earlier discovery of Charpentier’s, chemists Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna—
winners of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry—re-created and then reprogrammed the so-called “genetic
scissors” of a species of DNA-cleaving bacteria ______ a tool that is revolutionizing the field of gene
technology.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. to forge

B. forging

C. forged

D. and forging

ID: 06fea80f Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of finite and nonfinite verb forms within a sentence. The
nonfinite to-infinitive “to forge” is correctly used to form a nonfinite (infinitive) clause that explains why the chemists re-
created and reprogrammed the DNA-cleaving bacteria.

Choice B is incorrect. Without a comma separating the main clause (“chemists...bacteria”) from the participle “forging,” this
choice illogically suggests that the bacteria are forging a tool, which doesn’t make sense. Choice C is incorrect. Without a
coordinating conjunction such as “and” placed before it, the finite past tense verb “forged” can’t be used in this way to
describe the chemists’ actions. Choice D is incorrect. If read as a finite verb, the present progressive verb “forging” isn’t
consistent with the past tense verbs used in this sentence to describe the actions of the chemists. If read as a nonfinite verb,
the participle “forging” can’t be used in this way because there is no following main clause for it to modify.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID bd907188
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: bd907188
The field of geological oceanography owes much to American ______ Marie Tharp, a pioneering
oceanographic cartographer whose detailed topographical maps of the ocean floor and its multiple rift
valleys helped garner acceptance for the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. geologist,

B. geologist

C. geologist;

D. geologist:

ID: bd907188 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. “Marie tharp” is essential information that completes the first clause — the first clause doesn’t
function without it. So we don’t want to separate it with punctuation.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice creates a punctuation error. “The field of geological oceanography owes much to
American geologist” is unclear: which geologist are we talking about? We need the “Marie Tharp” for clarity, which means it’s
essential information and should not be separated by a comma. Choice C is incorrect. This choice creates a punctuation
error. “The field of geological oceanography owes much to American geologist” is unclear: which geologist are we talking
about? We need the “Marie Tharp” for clarity, which means it’s essential information and should not be separated by a
semicolon. Choice D is incorrect. This choice creates a punctuation error. “The field of geological oceanography owes much
to American geologist” is unclear: which geologist are we talking about? We need the “Marie Tharp” for clarity, which means
it’s essential information and should not be separated by a colon.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 2680b96d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 2680b96d
The Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden in Norway and the Jardim Botânico of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil are two of
many botanical gardens around the world dedicated to growing diverse plant ______ fostering scientific
research; and educating the public about plant conservation.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. species, both native and nonnative,

B. species, both native and nonnative;

C. species; both native and nonnative,

D. species both native and nonnative,

ID: 2680b96d Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of items in a complex series (a series including
internal punctuation). The semicolon after “nonnative” is correctly used to separate the first item (“growing diverse plant
species, both native and nonnative”) and the second item (“fostering scientific research”) in the series of things that
botanical gardens are dedicated to. Further, the comma after “species” is correctly used to separate the noun phrase “diverse
plant species” and the supplementary phrase “both native and nonnative” that modifies it.

Choice A is incorrect because a comma (specifically, the comma after “nonnative”) can’t be used in this way to separate
items in a complex series. Choice C is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to separate the noun phrase
“diverse plant species” and the supplementary phrase “both native and nonnative” that modifies it. Further, a comma can’t be
used in this way to separate items in a complex series. Choice D is incorrect because it fails to use appropriate punctuation
to separate the noun phrase “diverse plant species” and the supplementary phrase “both native and nonnative” that modifies
it. Further, a comma can’t be used in this way to separate items in a complex series.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 7dbcbcde
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 7dbcbcde
Journalists have dubbed Gil Scott-Heron the “godfather of rap,” a title that has appeared in hundreds of
articles about him since the 1990s. Scott-Heron himself resisted the godfather ______ feeling that it didn’t
encapsulate his devotion to the broader African American blues music tradition as well as “bluesologist,” the
moniker he preferred.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. nickname, however

B. nickname, however;

C. nickname, however,

D. nickname; however,

ID: 7dbcbcde Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a main clause and two supplementary
elements. In this choice, the commas after “nickname” and “however” are correctly used to separate the supplementary
adverb “however” from the main clause (“Scott-Heron…nickname”) on one side and the supplementary participial phrase
(“feeling…bluesologist”) on the other.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to mark the boundary between the supplementary adverb “however” and the
supplementary phrase (“feeling…bluesologist”). Choice B is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join
the supplementary adverb “however” and the supplementary phrase (“feeling…bluesologist”). Choice D is incorrect because a
semicolon can’t be used in this way to join the main clause (“Scott-Heron…nickname”) and the supplementary word and
phrase (“however” and “feeling…bluesologist”). Moreover, placing the semicolon after “nickname” illogically signals that the
following information (Scott-Heron’s feeling that the nickname didn’t encapsulate his devotion to the blues tradition) is
contrary to the information in the previous clause (Scott-Heron’s resistance to the nickname).

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 26cce062
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 26cce062
As the fourteenth US librarian of Congress, Carla Hayden has many responsibilities. These include
overseeing the Library of Congress’s collections, which boast more than 162 million ______ the US Copyright
Office, which registers copyright claims and advises Congress on copyright law; and appointing the US poet
laureate.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. items managing

B. items, managing

C. items; managing

D. items. Managing

ID: 26cce062 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of elements in a complex series. It’s
conventional to use a semicolon to separate items in a complex series with internal punctuation, and in this choice, the
semicolon after "items" is conventionally used to separate the first item ("overseeing…items") and the second item
("managing…law") in a list of Hayden’s responsibilities.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to use appropriate punctuation to separate the first item and the second item in the
complex series. Choice B is incorrect because a comma after "items" doesn’t match the semicolon used later to separate the
second and third items in the series ("managing…law" and "and appointing the US poet laureate"). Choice D is incorrect
because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with "Managing."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 22022bf7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 22022bf7
In the 1950s, novel audio technologies allowed the addition of another instrument to jazz and swing ______
relatively quiet instrument, its full range of sound was finally audible alongside the blaring brass instruments
of the time, allowing flautists like Bennie Maupin and Bobbi Humphrey to perform with other jazz greats.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. music, the flute, a

B. music. The flute, a

C. music; the flute, a

D. music: the flute. A

ID: 22022bf7 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation within and between sentences. In this
choice, the colon correctly introduces the name of the instrument (the flute) that novel audio technologies allowed to be
added to jazz and swing. In addition, the period is used to correctly mark the boundary between one sentence ("In…flute")
and another ("A relatively…greats").

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join two main clauses ("In…
quiet instrument" and "its…greats"). Choice B is incorrect. In standard English, it’s unconventional to form a sentence in this
way with two uncoordinated subjects ("the flute" and "its full range of sound"), and the lack of a clear main subject results in
an awkwardly constructed and confusing sentence. Choice C is incorrect. In standard English, it’s unconventional to form an
independent clause in this way with two uncoordinated subjects ("the flute" and "its full range of sound"), and the lack of a
clear main subject results in an awkwardly constructed and confusing clause.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID be5d95f7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: be5d95f7
In 1453, English King Henry VI became unfit to rule after falling gravely ill. As a result, Parliament appointed
Richard, Third Duke of York, who had a strong claim to the English throne, to rule as Lord Protector. Upon
recovering two years later, ______ forcing an angered Richard from the royal court and precipitating a series
of battles later known as the Wars of the Roses.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Henry resumed his reign,

B. the reign of Henry resumed,

C. Henry’s reign resumed,

D. it was Henry who resumed his reign,

ID: be5d95f7 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice ensures that the
introductory phrase “upon recovering two years later” appears immediately before the noun it modifies (“Henry”), clearly
establishing that Henry recovered two years later.

Choice B is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “the reign of Henry”
immediately after the introductory phrase illogically suggests that the reign of Henry recovered two years later. Choice C is
incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase “Henry’s reign” immediately after the
introductory phrase illogically suggests that Henry’s reign recovered two years later. Choice D is incorrect because it results
in a dangling modifier. The placement of the function word “it” immediately after the introductory phrase illogically suggests
that “it” recovered two years later.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 8f2d7e11
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 8f2d7e11
Quantum particles of light—photons—provide an unhackable means of transmitting encryption keys over
networks, as attempts to observe particles in quantum states will invariably alter the particles ______
dismantle any information they transmit.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. and in the process,

B. and, in the process,

C. and in the process—

D. and, in the process

ID: 8f2d7e11 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. This choice uses paired punctuation in the form of two commas to set off the nonessential
phrase "in the process."

Choice A is incorrect. The phrase "in the process" is a nonessential element and needs to be set off with paired punctuation.
We need a comma after "and" to match the one after "process." Choice C is incorrect. The phrase "in the process" is a
nonessential element and needs to be set off with paired punctuation, so we would need a dash after "and" to match the one
following "process." Choice D is incorrect. The phrase "in the process" is a nonessential element and needs to be set off with
paired punctuation. We would need a comma after "process" to match the one following "and."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a38e3b40
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: a38e3b40
A government body officially known as the Althing, ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. the world’s oldest parliaments include one which first met in 930 CE, Iceland’s.

B. Iceland’s parliament is one of the oldest in the world, first meeting in 930 CE.

C. the first meeting of one of the oldest parliaments in the world, Iceland’s, was in 930 CE.

D. 930 CE was the year when Iceland’s parliament, one of the oldest parliaments in the world, first met.

ID: a38e3b40 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is subject-modifier placement. This choice makes the noun phrase
"Iceland’s parliament" the subject of the sentence and places it immediately after the modifying phrase "a government body
officially known as the Althing." In doing so, this choice clearly establishes that Iceland’s parliament—and not another noun in
the sentence—is the government body known as the Althing.

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the noun phrase "the world’s oldest
parliaments" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the world’s oldest parliaments are a
government body known as the Althing. Choice C is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The placement of the
noun phrase "the first meeting" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the first meeting of Iceland’s
parliament was a government body known as the Althing. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a dangling modifier. The
placement of the noun phrase "930 CE" immediately after the modifying phrase illogically suggests that the year 930 CE is a
government body known as the Althing.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a5f7262f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: a5f7262f
In addition to advocating for South America’s independence in two political treatises, the Cartagena
Manifesto and the Letter from Jamaica, Simón Bolívar personally led armies against the Spanish, liberating
three South American territories—New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama), Venezuela, and Quito
(present-day ______ from colonial rule.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. Ecuador,)

B. Ecuador)

C. Ecuador),

D. Ecuador)—

ID: a5f7262f Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the punctuation of a supplementary element within a sentence.
The dash after “Ecuador” and the closing parenthesis pairs with the dash after “territories” to separate the supplementary
element (“New…Ecuador”) from the rest of the sentence. The supplementary element specifies the three South American
territories that Simón Bolívar liberated, and the pair of dashes indicates that this element could be removed without affecting
the grammatical coherence of the sentence.

Choice A is incorrect because it fails to use appropriate punctuation to separate the supplementary element from the rest of
the sentence. Furthermore, punctuation isn’t needed between “Ecuador” and the closing parenthesis. Choice B is incorrect
because it fails to use appropriate punctuation to separate the supplementary element from the rest of the sentence. Choice
C is incorrect because a comma can’t be paired with a dash to separate the supplementary element from the rest of the
sentence.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID aa21be9a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: aa21be9a
In 2018, the innovative works of Congolese sculptor and architect Bodys Isek ______ were featured in City
Dreams, a solo exhibition at New York’s Museum of Modern Art.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Kingelez;

B. Kingelez,

C. Kingelez

D. Kingelez:

ID: aa21be9a Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation between a subject and a verb. No punctuation is
needed when the subject of a sentence is immediately followed by a main verb. In this case, the sentence’s subject (“the
innovative works of Congolese sculptor and architect Bodys Isek Kingelez”) is followed by the main verb “were featured,” and
no punctuation should come between them.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the subject and the verb. Choice B is incorrect because no
punctuation is needed between the subject and the verb. Choice D is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between
the subject and the verb.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c1ddb039
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, and Hard
Conventions Sense

ID: c1ddb039
A second-generation Japanese American, Wataru Misaka ______ in World War II (1941-45) and won two
amateur national basketball championships at the University of Utah when he joined the New York Knicks for
the 1947-48 season, becoming the first non-white basketball player in the US’s top professional league.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. already served

B. was already serving

C. already serves

D. had already served

ID: c1ddb039 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. Misaka served in World War II before he joined the New York Knicks in 1947. To show that a
past occurrence took place before another past occurrence, we need to use “had” + the past tense form of the verb. This is
called the past perfect tense.

Choice A is incorrect. Misaka served in World War II before he joined the Knicks. Both events are in the past, but his service
in World War II happened earlier, so we need a verb that makes it clear that his service (and the two national championships)
had ended by the time he joined the Knicks. Choice B is incorrect. “Was already serving” forms the continuous past tense,
which we use when we’re showing a past action that was ongoing. Misaka served in World War II before he joined the
Knicks. Both events are in the past, but they’re not happening at the same time, so we shouldn’t use the continuous past
tense here. Choice C is incorrect. Misaka served in World War II in the past, so we shouldn’t use the present tense “serves.”

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID fdb98f0e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: fdb98f0e
In modern plays, actors typically won’t acknowledge the ______ do so breaks the fourth wall, a metaphorical
barrier between actors and audiences that allows viewers to suspend the knowledge that they’re watching a
staged performance.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. audience. As to

B. audience to

C. audience. To

D. audience, to

ID: fdb98f0e Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period is
used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence ("In modern…audience") and another ("To do…performance").

Choice A is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment beginning with "as." Choice B is
incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences ("In modern…audience" and "To do…performance") are fused
without punctuation and/or a conjunction. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be
used in this way to mark the boundary between sentences.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 4800f3d3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 4800f3d3
From afar, African American fiber artist Bisa Butler’s portraits look like paintings, their depictions of human
faces, bodies, and clothing so intricate that it seems only a fine brush could have rendered them. When
viewed up close, however, the portraits reveal themselves to be ______ stitching barely visible among the
thousands of pieces of printed, microcut fabric.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. quilts, and the

B. quilts, the

C. quilts; the

D. quilts. The

ID: 4800f3d3 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between a main clause and a supplementary
phrase. This choice correctly uses a comma to mark the boundary between the main clause (“the portraits...quilts”) and the
supplementary noun phrase (“the stitching...fabric”) that provides a further description of how the portraits can be identified
as quilts.

Choice A is incorrect. A comma and the conjunction “and” can’t be used in this way to join a main clause and a
supplementary noun phrase. Choice C is incorrect because a semicolon can’t be used in this way to join a main clause and a
supplementary noun phrase. Choice D is incorrect because it results in a rhetorically unacceptable sentence fragment
beginning with “the stitching.”

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3839f96c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 3839f96c
On July 23, 1854, a clipper ship called the Flying Cloud entered San Francisco ______ left New York Harbor
under the guidance of Captain Josiah Perkins Creesy and his wife, navigator Eleanor Creesy, a mere 89 days
and 8 hours earlier, the celebrated ship set a record that would stand for 135 years.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. Bay and having

B. Bay. Having

C. Bay, having

D. Bay having

ID: 3839f96c Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The convention being tested is punctuation use between sentences. In this choice, the period
after “Bay” is used correctly to mark the boundary between one sentence (“On…Bay”) and another sentence that begins with
a supplementary phrase (“Having…years”). Here, the supplementary phrase beginning with “having” modifies the subject of
the second sentence, “the celebrated ship.”

Choice A is incorrect. Without a comma preceding it, the conjunction “and” can’t be used in this way to join sentences.
Choice C is incorrect because it results in a comma splice. A comma can’t be used in this way to join two sentences. Choice
D is incorrect because it results in a run-on sentence. The sentences (“On…Bay” and “having…years”) are fused without
punctuation and/or a conjunction.

Question Difficulty: Hard