What is a Relative Clause?

We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information about something.
Examples
I bought a new car. It is very fast.
I bought a new car that is very fast.
She lives in Mekelle. She likes living in Mekelle.
She lives in Mekelle, which she likes.
Defining and Non-defining Relative Clause
A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about:
Examples: I like the woman who lives next door.
(If I don't say 'who lives next door', then we don't know which woman I mean).
A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don't need this
information to understand the sentence.
I live in Bahir Dar, which has some fantastic parks.
(Everybody knows where Bahir Dar is, so 'which has some fantastic parks' is extra information).

Defining Relative Clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something –
information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative
clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.
We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining
relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is
underlined.):
They’re the people who want to buy our house.
Here are some cells which have been affected.
They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most. (talking about an
actress)
She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.
Spoken English:
In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which. This is very common in
informal speaking:
They’re the people that want to buy our house.
Here are some cells that have been affected.
Relative pronouns
Subject or object
The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:
They’re the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our house. The people is the subject.)
They’re the people who/that she met at Jon’s party. (She met the people. The people is the object.)
Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show abnormality. Some cells is the
subject.)
Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The researcher has identified some cells.
Some cells is the object.)
No relative Pronoun
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We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:
They’re the people she met at Jon’s party.
Here are some cells the researcher has identified.
No Relative Pronoun
Warning: In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:
This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.
Note: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.
Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or
noun in the relative clause because the subject (underlined) is the same:
She’s the lady who lent me her phone. (who is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the
personal pronoun she)
Not: She’s the lady who she lent me her phone.
There are now only two schools in the area that actually teach Latin. (that is the subject of the relative
clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun they)
Not: There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.
When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or
noun in the relative clause because the object (underlined) is the same:
We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended. (which is the object of the relative clause,
so we don’t need the personal pronoun it)
Not: We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.
Non-defining relative clauses
We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not
necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.
We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative
clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is
underlined.)
Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers, which account for 70%
of cancers treated in the western world.
Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching
course in the autumn.
Warning: We don’t use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:
Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.
Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.
Punctuation : In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:
Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis, whose injury forced him to
withdraw last week.
Non-defining Relative Clauses
As the name suggests, non-defining relative clauses tell us more about someone or something, but the
information in these clauses does not help us to define what we are talking about. Take for example the
sentence: Gorillas, which are large and originate in Africa, can sometimes be found in zoos. In this

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sentence we are talking about all gorillas, not just some of them. The information in the non-defining
relative clause tells us something more about gorillas in general. It does not define a small group of
gorillas or an individual gorilla. If the non-defining relative clause were removed from the sentence, the
sentence would still be grammatically correct and the meaning would not have changed, although we
would have less detail.
Non-defining relative clauses are composed of a relative pronoun, a verb, and optional other elements
such as the subject or object of the verb. Commas or parentheses are always used to separate non-
defining relative clauses from the rest of the sentence.
Examples
John's mother, who lives in Dire Dawa, has 6 grandchildren.
My friend John, who went to the same school as me, has just written a best-selling novel.
My grandmother, who is dead now, came from the Jimma.
We stopped at the museum, which we had never visited before.
I've just come back from Hawassa, where John lives.
Yesterday I met a woman named Rahel, whose husband works in Addis Ababa.

Study also the following examples and notice whether the nouns referred are general or specific.
1. Teddy Afro, who is one of the most creative artists of Ethiopia, is arrested.
2. Mosquitoes, which come mostly at night, are harmful insects.
3. Swimming, which is a good sport, makes people feel strong.
4. The camel, whose humps hold water, is a very useful animal in the desert areas.
Have you noticed that the underlined nouns above are not as general as the nouns artists, insects, sport
and animal? As you might have realized that the nouns artists, insects, sport and animal are general
nouns under which the underlined specific nouns Teddy Afro, mosquitoes, swimming and the camel can
be drawn respectively.
Relative pronouns
The following relative pronouns are used in non-defining relative clauses. These relative pronouns
appear at the start of the non-defining relative clause and refer to a noun that appears earlier in the
sentence.
Person Thing Place
Subject who which
Object who/whom which where
Possessive whose

Differences with defining relative clauses

In defining relative clauses, the pronouns who, whom, and which are often replaced by that in spoken
English. In non-defining relative clauses, you cannot replace other pronouns with that. You also cannot
leave out the relative pronoun in non-defining relative clauses, in the way you sometimes can in defining
relative clauses. The pronoun is required, even when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause.

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Finally, non-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas,
unlike defining relative clauses, which have no punctuation.
Examples
He gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope. (non-defining clause: There was only one letter, it
happened to be blue. You must use which)
He gave me the letter which/that was in a blue envelope. (defining clause: There were several letters of
different colors and he gave me the blue one. Which may be replaced by that. The commas are
removed.)
He gave me the letter, which I read immediately. (non-defining clause: There was only one letter.
which is the object of read, but it still must be included in the sentence.)
Stratford on Avon, which many people have written about, is Shakespeare's birthplace. (Any
preposition that appears is normally placed at the end of the clause.)
Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written, is Shakespeare's birthplace. (In formal
written English, you can also put the preposition before the pronoun.)
Introductory expressions in non-defining clauses
Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of or many of followed by the relative
pronoun.
Person/ thing
all of, any of, some of, a few of, both of, each of, either of, half of, many of, most of, much of, none of,
one of, two of, etc.
Examples
There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I had known for years.
There are 14 girls in my class, a few of whom are my friends.
He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken.
He had thousands of books, most of which he had read.
He picked up a handful of stones, one of which was sharp.
Using "which" to refer to another clause
The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause can refer to all the
information contained in the previous part of the sentence rather than to just one word.
Examples
Chaltu did really well in her exams, which is quite a surprise.
My friends were all hiding in my apartment, which isn't what I'd expected.
She's studying to become a doctor, which is difficult
The difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses
A defining relative clause identifies or classifies a noun:
Do you know the guy who is talking to Will over there?
I wrote my essay on a photo which was taken by Milkiyas.
If we omit this type of clause, the sentence does not make sense or has a different meaning:
Do you know the guy? (which guy?)
I wrote my essay on a photo. (what kind of photo?)
A non-defining relative clause adds extra information about a noun which already has a clear reference:
The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci, who was also a prolific engineer and inventor.
If we leave out this type of clause, the sentence still makes sense:

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The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. (we know who Leonardo da Vinci was)
Sometimes, the use of commas marks a difference in meaning:
The athletes who failed the drug test were disqualified. (defining)
The athletes, who failed the drug test, were disqualified. (non-defining)
 The defining relative clause tells us that only those athletes who failed the drug test were
disqualified. The sentence implies that there were other athletes who did not fail the drug test and
that they were not disqualified.
 The non-defining relative clause tells us that all the athletes (mentioned earlier in the context)
failed the drug test and that all of them were disqualified.
Relative Pronouns
When the relative pronoun is that, the preposition always stands at the end of the relative clause: I
like the man that I work for.
E.g. These are the books that she spoke about.
When an indirect object noun is changed to a relative pronoun, the preposition to or for should be added
to give the meaning of the original sentence. Examples:
Do you know the man? I gave the man ten dollars.
Do you know the man to whom I gave ten dollars?
Dawit saw the girl. I bought the girl some flowers.
Dawit saw the girl that I bought some flowers for.
If the relative pronoun is used as direct object or object of a preposition, it can be omitted. It is then
called elliptical If a preposition is involved, it must stand at the end of the relative clause. Usage
Relative Pronoun Used Elliptical Relative Pronoun direct object He's the man that I met in Canada.
He's the man I met in Canada.
preposition Where's the car in which she was sitting? Where's the car she was sitting in?
Note: You should be aware that in casual speech many English speakers regularly substitute who for
whom.
There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive clauses and nonrestrictive clauses. Restrictive relative
clauses contain information that is essential to the meaning of the sentence. If that information is
omitted, the sentence cannot be understood as intended. The restrictive relative
clause identifies the person or thing talked about in the other clause. Here are two examples:
The woman who stole the ring was soon arrested. (who stole the ring is essential information)
What's the maker of the car that you bought? (that you bought is essential information) Nonrestrictive
relative clauses merely give additional information but do not define the person or thing talked about in
the other clause. The relative pronoun that should not be used in nonrestrictive relative clauses.
However, in casual speech there is often substitution between that
and the relative pronouns who and which. Here are two examples of nonrestrictive clauses:
The mayor, who is out of town right now, will give a speech on Friday. (who is out of town
right now) is additional but nonessential information)
The play, which lasted over three hours, was given rave reviews. (which lasted over three hours is
additional but nonessential information)
1. Defining Relative Clauses
These describe the preceding noun in such a way to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class. A
clause of this kind is essential to clear understanding of the noun.

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 E.g. The boy who was playing is my brother.
Defining Relative Pronouns
Defining Relative Clauses: people
A. Subject: who or that
Who is normally used:
The man who robbed you has been arrested.
The girls who serve in the shop are the owner’s daughters.
But that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those:
Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
Nobody who/that watched the match will ever forget it.
B. Object of a verb: whom, who or that
The object form is whom, but it is considered very formal. In spoken English we normally use who
or that (that being more usual than who), and it is still more common to omit the object pronoun
altogether:
The man whom I saw told me to come back today.
The man who I saw told me to come back today.
The man that I saw told me to come back today.
The man I saw told me to come back today.
C. With a preposition: whom or that
In formal English the preposition is placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be put into the
form whom:
The man to whom I spoke…
In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause. Whom
then is often replaced by that, but it is still more common to omit the relative altogether:
The man who/whom I spoke to…
The man that I spoke to…
The man I spoke to…
D. Possessive
Whose is the only possible form:
People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
Defining Relative Clauses: things
A. Subject
Either which or that. Which is more formal.
This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation.
The stairs which/that lead to the cellar are rather slippery.
B. Object of a verb
Which or that or no relative at all.
The car which/that I hired broke down.
The car I hired broke down.
Which is hardly ever used after all, everything, little, much, none, no and compounds of no, or after
superlatives. Instead we use that, or omit the relative altogether, if it is the object of a verb:
All the apples that fall are eaten by the pigs.

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 This is the best hotel (that) I know.
C. Object of a preposition
The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual to move the preposition to the end
of the clause, using which or that or omitting the relative altogether:
The ladder on which I was standing began to slip.
The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip.
The ladder I was standing on began to slip.
D. Possessive
Whose + a clause is possible but with + a phrase is more usual:
a house whose walls were made of glass
a house with glass walls
E. Relative adverbs: when, where, why
Note that when can replace in/on which (used of time):
the year when (= in which) he was born
the day when (= in which) they arrived
Where can replace in/at which (used of place):
The hotel where (= in/at which) they were staying
Why can replace for which:
The reason why he refused is…
When, where and why used in this way are called relative adverbs.
2. Non-defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite already. They do not therefore
define the noun. But merely add something to it by giving some more information about it. They are not
essential in the sentence and can be omitted without causing confusion. They are separated from their
noun by commas. The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining relative clause.
The boy who was playing is my brother.
Non-Defining Relative Pronouns
SUBJECT Object Possessive
For people Who Whom/Who Whose
For things Which Which Whose/ Of which
Non-Defining Relative Clauses: people
A. Subject: who
No other pronoun is possible. Note the commas:
My neighbor, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.
Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.
B. Object: whom, who
The pronoun cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form, though who is sometimes used in
conversation:
Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent..
C. Object of a preposition: whom
The pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is normally placed before whom:
Mr. Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about overtime payments.
It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is commonly done in

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conversation, and who then usually takes the place of whom:
Mr. Jones, who I was working for, was very generous about overtime payments.
If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end:
Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than me. could become:
Peter, who/whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter than me.
D. Possessive: whose
Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job.
This is George, whose class you will be taking.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses: things
A. Subject: which
That is not used here:
That block, which cost £5 million to build, has been empty for years.
The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late today.
B. Object: which
That is not used here, and the which can never be omitted.
She gave me this jumper, which she had knitted herself.
These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you need.
C. Object of a preposition
The preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the end of the clause:
Ashdown Forest, through which we’ll be driving, isn’t a forest any longer.
Ashdown Forest, which we’ll be driving through, isn’t a forest any longer.
His house, for which he paid £10,000, is now worth £50,000.
His house, which he paid £10,000 for, is now worth £50,000.
D. Possessive: whose or of which
Whose is generally used both for animals and things. Of which is possible for things, but it is unusual
except in very formal English.
His house, whose windows are all broken, was a depressing sight.
The car, whose handbrake wasn’t very reliable, began to slide backwards.
Reported Speech
Direct speech is speech inside quotation marks. It is used to repeat the exact words that somebody said:
My mother told me, "You have to work harder in school, or you'll fail."
While this is okay for sharing stories with friends, this is not the best way to report a conversation,
either in speech or in writing. It shows a better education to use reported speech:
My mother told me that I had to work harder or that I would fail.
Rules for Forming Reported Speech
1. When reporting a statement (not a question), we generally use that:
In short sentences, we often drop that, but in writing it is a good idea to use it all the time, even for short
sentences!
NOTE: In reported speech, we repeat that after and, but and or.
NOTE: There are no commas before or after and, but or or in reported speech.
NOTE: There are no commas before or after that!
She said that he was hungry and that he wanted to eat soon.
He told me that he had never been to France but that he wanted to go.

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 They promised us that they would tell the truth.
2. When reporting a question, we use if for yes/no questions or the appropriate question words (who,
what, where, when, how, why) for information questions:
NOTE: You never use that when reporting a question!
NOTE: You never use a question mark (?) when reporting a question!
He asked me if I was going to the office party. ("Are you going to the...")
He asked me when I would call him. ("When will you call me?")
He asked me how much my rent was. ("How much is your rent?")
3a. The following verbs must be used with an indirect object:
(There is no to before these indirect objects!)
told He told me that he was hungry.
informed We informed her that the store was closed.
reminded He reminded the staff that the meeting was at 8 PM.

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3b. The following verbs may be used with an indirect object, but the indirect object is optional (up
to you).
(There is no to before these indirect objects!)
He asked his wife why she was so angry.
OR He asked why she was so angry.
asked We asked [her] where her husband was.
answered He answered [me] that he couldn't help.
promised She promised [him] that she would stay.
3c. The following verbs need to before the indirect object. For any verb that needs to before the
indirect object, the indirect object is optional:
He said to me that he was the chief of police.
OR He said that he was the chief of police.
said He said [to his wife] that he was hungry.
explained We explained [to her] why we had been late.
exclaimed She exclaimed [to the boy] that she was furious.
complained They complained [to us] that the room was too cold.
4. In English we report commands, orders, requests and suggestions to other people in a five-
part format:
1 2 3 4 5
Somebody somebody else
She told her daughter to eat.
We asked them to help us.
The officer ordered me not to run.
He advised the student not to quit.
Mr. and Mrs. Jones wanted their son to study.
5. If the direct speech was in the present tense, the reported speech must be in the past tense:
She said, "I am an actress, and I also sing."
She said that she was an actress and that she also sang.
6. If the direct speech was in the past tense, the reported speech must be in the past perfect
(the "past before a past" form, had + past participle):
He said, "I was scared when I fell down the stairs."
He said that he had been scared when he had fallen down the stairs.
7. Some x-words change from direct to reported speech:
can/could I asked him, "Can I see your sister?"
I asked him if I could see his sister.
shall/should She asked, "Shall I call you later?"
She asked if she should call me later.
will/would He told them, "I'll help you tomorrow."
He told them that he would help them the following day.
may/might She said, "I may study tonight."
She said that she might study that night.
must/had to He said, "I must see a doctor soon."
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 He said that he had to see a doctor soon.
8. Some verbs and verb combinations have no change in the reported form. Don't change the
past perfect (had + p.p.), the unreal (present or past), or any combination with could,
should, would, or might.
past perfect He said, "My father had already died before I graduated."
He said that his father had already died before he had graduated.
present He said, "I would help the homeless if I were mayor."
unreal He said that he would help the homeless if he were mayor.
past She said, "I would have given the answer if I had known it."
unreal She said that she would have given the answer if she had known it.
could I said, "I could run faster when I was young."
I said that I could run faster when he had been young.
should He said, "You should get married."
He said that I should get married.
should have She said, "I should have worn a better dress yesterday."
She said that she should have worn a better dress the day before.
might I said, "I might go to the Statue of Liberty."
I said that I might go to the Statue of Liberty.
Rules for Reporting Questions
9a. The normal form for asking a direct question is [W] X S V:
(question word) (auxiliary) (subject) {verb) [a base form, ing form, or past participle]
1. Where is your fatherworking these days?
2. Are they going to the picnic?
3. Why do you talk so much?
4. Does your brother eat meat?
5. How much did that book cost?
6. Have you seen my textbook?
9b. In reported speech, a question is reported with the order W S [X] V.
1. A question with is changes to was.
2. A question with are changes to was/were.
3. A question with do changes to the simple past.
4. A question with does changes to the simple past.
5. A question with did changes to the past perfect (had + past participle).
6. The present perfect also changes to the past perfect.
7. The question word (under the W) is if for all yes/no (XSV) questions.
8. There are no commas and no question marks in reported questions.
9c. Here are the reported speech forms of the questions in 9a (above):
1. He asked me where my father was working those days.
2. He asked me if they were going to the picnic.
3. He asked me why I talked so much.
4. He asked me if my brother ate meat.
5. He asked me how much that book had cost.
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6. He asked me if I had seen his textbook.
Expressions That Change in Reported Speech
10. Certain expressions must change in the reported form of speech:

this that
these those
here there
tomorrow the following day or the next day
next month the following month or the next month
today that day
tonight that night
this afternoon that afternoon
yesterday the day before or the previous day
last year the year before or the previous year
last night the night before or the previous night

The word now does not have to change, but it can change to then. Most native English speakers
don't change now.
He said, "I was sick yesterday, but now I'm all right."
He said that he had been sick the day before but that now he was all right.
He said that he had been sick the day before but that then he was all right.
On the following, and last, page of this handout, there is a dialogue. Try to report the conversation.

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Dad's Not Coming Home for Dinner
Instructions: Change the dialog to the reported form. Tell what each person did and said.
Mrs. Cantor: (comes into the living room) What are you doing, Andy?
Andy: (looks up) I'm fixing my radio.
Mrs. Cantor: Where's your sister?
Andy: She's in the kitchen making a sandwich.
Mrs. Cantor: (runs into the kitchen) Dolores!
Don't eat anything before dinner!
Dolores: (quickly swallows a piece of cake) Mom, I'm starving!
Mrs. Cantor: Have some cheese, but don't eat the cake.
Dolores: There isn't any cheese left. I ate it yesterday.
Mrs. Cantor: (speaks angrily) Go to the store and buy some more because
I'm making lasagna tonight.
Dolores: Okay, I will. I'll go when I finish my homework.
Andy: (enters the kitchen) Mom, when's Dad coming home?
Dolores: He's working late tonight, remember?
Mrs. Cantor: I completely forgot!
Andy: Don't worry, Mom. He doesn't like your lasagna anyway.
Reported Speech Verbs
ask- to get information or to make a request for someone to do something (He asked her...)
beg- to ask strongly and emotionally for someone to do something (She begged him...)
tell- to give information or to give a command (He told us....)
order- to give somebody a strong command (She ordered them....)
answer- to respond (We answered [him]...)
respond- to answer (He responded [to her]...)
remind- to tell somebody something that he or she might have forgotten (He reminded me...)
exclaim- to state information with great emotion (not used for giving commands) (He exclaimed
[to her]...)
explain- to state information that will help somebody understand something (She explained [to
him]...)
Reported Speech Action Verbs (These verbs are often used to report short exchanges.)

thank- He thanked her. (He said thank you to her.)

greet- She greeted him. (She said hello to him.)
agree- He agreed. (He said that somebody was right or that he would do what somebody
wanted.)
refuse- She refused. (She said that she wouldn't obey somebody or that she wouldn't do
somebody a favor.)