PHYSICS SS3

WEEK 2:SIMPLE A.C CIRCUITS

Alternating current
Direct current (DC) circuits involve current flowing in one
direction. In alternating current (AC) circuits, instead of a
constant voltage supplied by a battery, the voltage oscillates in a
sine wave pattern, varying with time as V = Vo sin ωt.
In a household circuit, the frequency is 60 Hz. The angular
frequency is related to the frequency, f, by ω = 2πfVo represents
the maximum voltage, which in a household circuit in North
America is about 170 volts. We talk of a household voltage of
120 volts, though; this number is a kind of average value of the
voltage. The particular averaging method used is something
called root mean square (square the voltage to make everything
positive, find the average, take the square root), or rms. Voltages
and currents for AC circuits are generally expressed as r.m.s.
values. For a sine wave, the relationship between the peak and
the r.m.s. average is:
r.m.s. value = 0.707 peak value

Resistance in an AC circuit
The relationship V = IR applies for resistors in an AC circuit, so
I = V/R = (Vo/R) sin(ωt) = Io sin(ωt)
In AC circuits we’ll talk a lot about the phase of the current
relative to the voltage. In a circuit which only involves resistors,
the current and voltage are in phase with each other, which
means that the peak voltage is reached at the same instant as
peak current. In circuits which have capacitors and inductors
(coils) the phase relationships will be quite different.

Capacitance in an AC circuit

Consider now a circuit which has only a capacitor and an AC

power source (such as a wall outlet). A capacitor is a device for
storing charging. It turns out that there is a 90° phase difference
between the current and voltage, with the current reaching its
peak 90° (1/4 cycle) before the voltage reaches its peak. Put
another way, the current leads the voltage by 90° in a purely
capacitive circuit.
To understand why this is, we should review some of the relevant
equations, including: relationship between voltage and charge for a
capacitor:
CV = Q relationship between current and the flow of change: I =
∆Q/∆t
The AC power supply produces an oscillating voltage. We should
follow the circuit through one cycle of the voltage to figure out
what happens to the current.
Step 1 – At point a (see diagram) the voltage is zero and the
capacitor is uncharged. Initially, the voltage increases quickly. The
voltage across the capacitor matches the power supply voltage, so
the current is large to build up charge on the capacitor plates. The
closer the voltage gets to its peak, the slower it changes, meaning
less current has to flow. When the voltage reaches a peak at point
b, the capacitor is fully charged and the current is momentarily
zero.
Step 2 – After reaching a peak, the voltage starts dropping. The
capacitor must discharge now, so the current reverses direction.
When the voltage passes through zero at point c, it’s changing
quite rapidly; to match this voltage the current must be large and
negative.
Step 3 – Between points c and d, the voltage is negative. Charge
builds up again on the capacitor plates, but the polarity is opposite
to what it was in step one. Again the current is negative, and as the
voltage reaches its negative peak at point d the current drops to
zero.
Step 4 – After point d, the voltage heads toward zero and the
capacitor must discharge. When the voltage reaches zero it’s gone
through a full cycle so it’s back to point a again to repeat the cycle.
The larger the capacitance of the capacitor, the more charge has to
flow to build up a particular voltage on the plates, and the higher
the current will be. The higher the frequency of the voltage, the
shorter the time available to change the voltage, so the larger the
current has to be. The current, then, increases as the capacitance
increases and as the frequency increases.
Usually this is thought of in terms of the effective resistance of the
capacitor, which is known as the capacitive reactance, measured in
ohms. There is an inverse relationship between current and
resistance, so the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to
the capacitance and the frequency:
A capacitor in an AC circuit exhibits a kind of resistance called
capacitive reactance, measured in ohms. This depends on the
frequency of the AC voltage, and is given by Capacitive reactance
Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC
We can use this like a resistance (because, really, it is a resistance)
in an equation of the form V = IR to get the voltage across the
capacitor:
V = IXc
Note that V and I are generally the r.m.s. values of the voltage and
current.

Inductance in an AC circuit

An inductor is simply a coil of wire (often wrapped around a piece

of ferromagnet). If we now look at a circuit composed only of an
inductor and an AC power source, we will again find that there is a
90° phase difference between the voltage and the current in the
inductor. This time, however, the current lags the voltage by 90°,
so it reaches its peak 1/4 cycle after the voltage peaks.
The reason for this has to do with the law of induction:

e = -N∆ɸ/∆t or e = – L∆I/∆t
Applying Kirchoff’s loop rule to the circuit above gives:
V – L∆I/∆t = 0 so V = L∆I/∆t
As the voltage from the power source increases from zero, the
voltage on the inductor matches it. With the capacitor, the voltage
came from the charge stored on the capacitor plates (or,
equivalently, from the electric field between the plates). With the
inductor, the voltage comes from changing the flux through the
coil, or, equivalently, changing the current through the coil, which
changes the magnetic field in the coil.
To produce a large positive voltage, a large increase in current is
required. When the voltage passes through zero, the current
should stop changing just for an instant. When the voltage is large
and negative, the current should be decreasing quickly. These
conditions can all be satisfied by having the current vary like a
negative cosine wave, when the voltage follows a sine wave.
How does the current through the inductor depend on the
frequency and the inductance? If the frequency is raised, there is
less time to change the voltage. If the time interval is reduced, the
change in current is also reduced, so the current is lower. The
current is also reduced if the inductance is increased.
As with the capacitor, this is usually put in terms of the effective
resistance of the inductor. This effective resistance is known as the
inductive reactance. This is given by XL = ωL = 2πfL, where L is
the inductance of the coil (this depends on the geometry of the
coil and whether it’s got a ferromagnetic core). The unit of
inductance is the henry.
As with capacitive reactance, the voltage across the inductor is
given by: V = IXL
Where does the energy go?
One of the main differences between resistors, capacitors, and
inductors in AC circuits is in what happens with the
electrical energy. With resistors, power is simply dissipated as heat.
In a capacitor, no energy is lost because the capacitor alternately
stores charge and then gives it back again. In this case, energy is
stored in the electric field between the capacitor plates. The
amount of energy stored in a capacitor is given by energy in a
capacitor: Energy = ½ CV2
In other words, there is energy associated with an electric field. In
general, the energy density (energy per unit volume) in an electric
field with no dielectric is: Energy density in an electric field = ½
e0 E2
With a dielectric, the energy density is multiplied by the dielectric
constant.
There is also no energy lost in an inductor, because energy is
alternately stored in the magnetic field and then given back to the
circuit. The energy stored in an inductor is:
Energy in an inductor: Energy = ½ LI2
What are Reactance and Impedance in Alternating Current
Circuit?
May 17, 2020 by admin
Reactance is defined an electrical quantity due to which
alternating current is opposed by inductor or capacitor or
combination of both of them in a circuit. Impedance is the
net opposing factor to alternating current. Reactance may
also be called impedance offered either by inductor or
capacitor. Reactance is denoted by X and impedance by
Z. In this article, we will discuss reactance and impedance
in detail.
What is Reactance?
Reactance is the opposition offered to flow of alternating
current. This opposition may either be due to inductor (L)
and or capacitor (C). The value of reactance due to
inductor having inductance L is ωL whereas its value is
(1/ωC) for capacitor having capacitance C.
Explanation of Reactance:
Let us consider a circuit for better understanding. In the
circuit, an inductor with inductance L Henry is connected
to an alternating source V = VmSinωt. Here, ω is the
angular frequency in radian/sec. ω = 2πf where f is supply
frequency in Hz. The current in the circuit is I.
The current I flowing through the circuit is equal to
[VmSin(ωt – π/2) / (ωL)]. Hence, maximum value of this
current is given as
Im = (Vm/ ωL)
= (Vm/ XL)
where XL = ωL
Carefully observe the above expression of current and
compare it with Ohm’ Law (I = V/R). You will notice that,
here XL is doing the job of R. That is, XL = ωL is opposing
the flow of current just like a resistance does. This is the
reason; it is called reactance. Since it is offered by an
inductor, it called inductive reactance and indicated by
symbol XL.
Let us now consider another circuit comprising of
capacitor and an alternating source as shown below.

The current through the circuit is equal to

(VmωC)Sin(ωt+π/2). Therefore, maximum value of current
will take place when Sin(ωt+π/2) = 1 and this value is
given as below.
Im = Vm/ (1/ωC)
= Vm/ XC
On comparing the above value of current Im with Ohm’s
Law (I = V/R), it is clear that XC is opposing the flow of
current and acts as resistance. This XC = (1/ωC) is called
capacitive reactance.
What is Impedance?
Impedance in alternating current circuit is defined as the
net opposing factor to flow of current. This opposition may
be due to Resistance & Inductance or Resistance &
Capacitance or Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.
It is denoted by symbol Z. Z is often expressed as Z =
R+jX where X is the reactance.
Explanation of Impedance:
To have a crystal-clear concept of impedance, let us
consider a circuit shown below. In this circuit, a pure
resistance R and a pure inductive coil with inductance L
are connected in series.
Let, V = rms value of applied voltage
I = rms value of circuit current
VR = Voltage drop across R
VL = Voltage drop across coil
Assume circuit current to be the reference phasor. The
voltage drop in resistance will be in phase with current I.
However, the voltage drop in inductive coil will lead the
current I by 90°. These voltage drops are shown in voltage
triangle OAB.

Vector OA, AB and OB represents the voltage drop in

resistance (VR), inductive voltage drop (VL) and the supply
voltage (V) respectively. The supply voltage (V) is the
hypotenuse of this voltage triangle. Therefore, the supply
voltage may be calculated as below.
The quantity Z is the magnitude impedance of alternating
current circuit. From the voltage triangle, the supply
voltage may also be written using j operator. This is shown
below.
V = (IR) + j(IXL)
I = V / (R+jXL)
= V/Z
Thus, impedance Z = R+jX. Thus, impedance is a
complex quantity. The angle which the Z makes with
reference phasor is calculated from tanƟ = (X/R).
What are Reactance and Impedance in Alternating Current
Circuit?
May 17, 2020 by admin
Reactance is defined an electrical quantity due to which
alternating current is opposed by inductor or capacitor or
combination of both of them in a circuit. Impedance is the
net opposing factor to alternating current. Reactance may
also be called impedance offered either by inductor or
capacitor. Reactance is denoted by X and impedance by
Z. In this article, we will discuss reactance and impedance
in detail.
What is Reactance?
Reactance is the opposition offered to flow of alternating
current. This opposition may either be due to inductor (L)
and or capacitor (C). The value of reactance due to
inductor having inductance L is ωL whereas its value is
(1/ωC) for capacitor having capacitance C.
Explanation of Reactance:
Let us consider a circuit for better understanding. In the
circuit, an inductor with inductance L Henry is connected
to an alternating source V = VmSinωt. Here, ω is the
angular frequency in radian/sec. ω = 2πf where f is supply
frequency in Hz. The current in the circuit is I.

The current I flowing through the circuit is equal to

[VmSin(ωt – π/2) / (ωL)]. Hence, maximum value of this
current is given as
Im = (Vm/ ωL)
 = (Vm/ XL)
where XL = ωL
Carefully observe the above expression of current and
compare it with Ohm’ Law (I = V/R). You will notice that,
here XL is doing the job of R. That is, XL = ωL is opposing
the flow of current just like a resistance does. This is the
reason; it is called reactance. Since it is offered by an
inductor, it called inductive reactance and indicated by
symbol XL.
Let us now consider another circuit comprising of
capacitor and an alternating source as shown below.

The current through the circuit is equal to

(VmωC)Sin(ωt+π/2). Therefore, maximum value of current
will take place when Sin(ωt+π/2) = 1 and this value is
given as below.
Im = Vm/ (1/ωC)
= Vm/ XC
On comparing the above value of current Im with Ohm’s
Law (I = V/R), it is clear that XC is opposing the flow of
current and acts as resistance. This XC = (1/ωC) is called
capacitive reactance.
What is Impedance?
Impedance in alternating current circuit is defined as the
net opposing factor to flow of current. This opposition may
be due to Resistance & Inductance or Resistance &
Capacitance or Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.
It is denoted by symbol Z. Z is often expressed as Z =
R+jX where X is the reactance.
Explanation of Impedance:
To have a crystal-clear concept of impedance, let us
consider a circuit shown below. In this circuit, a pure
resistance R and a pure inductive coil with inductance L
are connected in series.

Let, V = rms value of applied voltage

I = rms value of circuit current
VR = Voltage drop across R
VL = Voltage drop across coil
Assume circuit current to be the reference phasor. The
voltage drop in resistance will be in phase with current I.
However, the voltage drop in inductive coil will lead the
current I by 90°. These voltage drops are shown in voltage
triangle OAB.

Vector OA, AB and OB represents the voltage drop in

resistance (VR), inductive voltage drop (VL) and the supply
voltage (V) respectively. The supply voltage (V) is the
hypotenuse of this voltage triangle. Therefore, the supply
voltage may be calculated as below.
The quantity Z is the magnitude impedance of alternating
current circuit. From the voltage triangle, the supply
voltage may also be written using j operator. This is shown
below.
V = (IR) + j(IXL)
I = V / (R+jXL)
= V/Z
Thus, impedance Z = R+jX. Thus, impedance is a
complex quantity. The angle which the Z makes with
reference phasor is calculated from tanƟ = (X/R).