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Brief Contents

Pa r t 1
Introduction: Security’s Role in Society 1
Chapter 1 History and Overview 2
Chapter 2 Threats to Safety and Security 25
Chapter 3 The Legal and Regulatory Environment of the Private Security
Industry 47

Pa r t 2
Security Operations: Essential Functions 71
Chapter 4 Physical Security 72
Chapter 5 Personnel Security 98
Chapter 6 Information Security 118

Pa r t 3
Security Sectors 139
Chapter 7 Institutional Security 140
Chapter 8 Commercial, Office, and Residential Security 167
Chapter 9 Homeland Security 186

Pa r t 4
Security Management 215
Chapter 10 Management, Leadership, and Ethics in Security Organizations 216
Chapter 11 Managing People and Organizations 239
Chapter 12 Risk Assessment, Security Surveys, and Continuity Planning 256

Pa r t 5
Trends and Challenges 275
Chapter 13 Security in an International Perspective 276
Chapter 14 The Future 296

vii
▼
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface xvii

Acknowledgments xx

About the Authors xxi

Pa r t 1
Introduction: Security’s Role in Society 1
Chapter 1 History and Overview 2
Learning Objectives 2
The Context for Security 2
Theoretical Foundations 3
Security: A Brief History 5
Ancient Traditions 5
English Origins 6
The American Experience 7
Security in America: Colonial Origins to WWI 7
Security in the Twentieth Century 10
World War II 11
The Cold War and the National Industrial Security Program 11
Federal Initiatives 13
Post-9-11 Security 15
The Contemporary Security Industry 15
Security Personnel 16
Proprietary Security 16
Contract Security Services 17
Hybrid Security Organizations 18
Determining Security Needs 19
Security’s Impact 20
Security: Essential Functions 20
Roles of the Security Manager 21
Summary 23 • Key Terms and Concepts 23 • Discussion Questions
and Exercises 24 • Your Turn 24

Chapter 2 Threats to Safety and Security 25

Learning Objectives 25
Introduction 25
Accidents 26
Human Error and Accidents 28

ix
▼
 Fire 28
Counterproductive Workplace Behaviors 32
Workplace Violence 32
Crime 33
Nature and Extent of Crime 33
White-Collar Crimes 35
Organized Crime 35
Theories of Crime 36
Crime Prevention 40
Terrorism 40
Civil Unrest 41
Labor Unrest 42
Man-made Disasters 42
Environmental Accidents/Disasters 42
Warfare 43
Natural Disasters 44
Civil Liability 45
Summary 45 • Key Terms and Concepts 46 • Discussion Questions and
Exercises 46 • Your Turn: Assessing Threats to Safety and Security in Your Area 46

Chapter 3 The Legal and Regulatory Environment of the Private

Security Industry 47
Learning Objectives 47
Introduction 47
Constitutional Law 48
Criminal Law 49
Civil Law 51
Negligence Torts 52
Intentional Torts 53
Defamation 53
Remedies under Tort Law 54
Defenses under Tort Law 54
Administrative Law 55
Contract Law 56
E-contracts 57
Noncompete Agreements 58
Property Law 58
Employment and Labor Law 59
Collective Bargaining Laws 60
Municipal Ordinances 61
Industrial Self-Regulation 61
Regulation of the Security Industry 62
Judicial Systems and Processes 63
State Courts 65
The Judicial Process 66
Criminal Cases 66
Summary 68 • Key Terms and Concepts 69 • Discussion Questions and
Exercises 69 • Your Turn: Researching and Writing a Case Brief 69

Contents x
▼
Pa r t 2
Security Operations: Essential Functions 71
Chapter 4 Physical Security 72
Learning Objectives 72
Introduction 72
Physical Security Systems 72
Levels of Protection 73
Core Elements of Physical Protection Systems 75
Perimeter Security 76
Lighting 77
Fencing and Barriers 78
Sensors 80
Alarm Systems 82
Alarm System Management 83
Building Exteriors and Interiors 85
Access Control 85
Locks 86
Fire Sensors and Alarms 89
Fire Protection Systems 91
Fire Extinguishers and Sprinkler Systems 91
Cameras and Surveillance Systems 92
Guard Forces 94
Summary 96 • Career opportunities 96 • Key Terms and
Concepts 96 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 96 • Your Turn:
Strengthening Physical Security for a Small Business Owner 97

Chapter 5 Personnel Security 98

Learning Objectives 98
Introduction 98
Personnel Security: Key Elements 98
Personnel Security and Hiring Practices 99
Continued Reliability 101
Other Personnel Security Issues 103
Personnel Safety 103
Executive Protection Details 104
Workplace Violence 106
The Nature and Extent of Workplace Violence 107
Preventing Workplace Violence 109
Violence in Health Care Settings 111
Violence in Retail Outlets and Convenience Stores 112
Personnel Security and International Issues 112
Executive/Corporate Kidnapping 113
Health Threats to Employees 114
Terrorism 115
Summary 115 • Careers in Personnel Security 116 • Key Terms and
Concepts 116 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 116 • Your Turn:
Managing Workplace Violence 117

Contents xi
▼
Chapter 6 Information Security 118
Learning Objectives 118
Introduction 118
Information Security 119
Information Security Objectives 119
Designing an Information Security Program 120
Key Components of an Information Security Program 121
Asset Classification and Access Control 121
Policies and Procedures (Operational Goals) 123
Physical Security Controls 124
Human Activities and Information Security Policy 124
Technical/Logical Controls 125
Communications and Operations Management 126
Systems Development and Maintenance 126
Business Continuity Management 127
Compliance 127
Cybersecurity 127
The Nature and Extent of Cybercrime 128
Types of Cybercrimes 128
SCADA-based Attacks 131
Protecting Computer Networks 131
Communications Security 132
Protecting Intellectual Property 133
Summary 136 • Career Opportunities in Information Security 136 • Key Terms
and Concepts 137 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 137 • Your Turn:
Preventing Cyberstalking 138

Pa r t 3
Security Sectors 139
Chapter 7 Institutional Security 140
Learning Objectives 140
Introduction 140
Financial Institution Security 140
ATM Security 143
User Authentication and Financial Institution Security 144
Courthouse and Courtroom Security 145
Educational Institution Security 147
Elementary and Secondary Schools 147
Institutions of Higher Education 150
Types of IHE Security Programs 151
IHE Legislation 152
Health Care Security 153
Extended Care/Nursing Home Security 155
Entertainment Security 155
Theme Parks 155
Mega Events 156
Gaming and Casino Security 158

Contents xii
▼
 Museum Security 159
Zoo and Aquarium Security 160
Religious Institutions and Security 162
Summary 164 • Career opportunities 164 • Key Terms and
Concepts 164 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 165 • Your Turn: Analyzing
the Virginia Tech Incident 165

Chapter 8 Commercial, Office, and Residential Security 167

Learning Objectives 167
Introduction 167
Industrial Security 167
Shipping/Cargo Security 168
Utilities Security 171
Hospitality Security 172
Retail Security and Loss Prevention 174
Internal Employee Theft and Retail Crime 175
External Threats and Retail Crime 176
Shoplifting Prevention Strategies 178
Office Building Security 180
Residential Security 181
Summary 184 • Career opportunities 184 • Key Terms and
Concepts 185 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 185 • Your Turn: Managing
Retail Crime 185

Chapter 9 Homeland Security 186

Learning Objectives 186
Introduction 186
Homeland Security: A Historical Perspective 187
The 9-11 Commission and Homeland Security 187
The USA PATRIOT Act 189
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security 190
DHS Main Components 192
Advisory Panels and Committees 193
Homeland Security: Function and Mission 194
The Role of the Private Sector in Homeland Security 194
The National Infrastructure Protection Plan 194
National Incident Management System 198
Terrorism and Homeland Security 200
Homeland Security: Natural, Technological, and Accidental Hazards 203
Transportation Security 205
Aviation Security 205
Strategies for Passenger Screening and Explosives Detection 207
Trucking Industry Security 208
Railroad Security 209
Maritime Security 210
Summary 211 • Career Opportunities in Homeland Security 212 • Key Terms
and Concepts 212 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 213 • Your Turn :
Spotting Potential Terrorist Activities 213

Contents xiii
▼
Pa r t 4
Security Management 215
Chapter 10 Management, Leadership, and Ethics in Security Organizations 216
Learning Objectives 216
Introduction 216
The Need for Effective Administration 217
What is Management? 219
Core Functions of Management 219
Managerial Levels 220
The Evolution of Managerial Thought 221
The Role of Supervision in the Workplace 223
Leadership 223
Leadership Theories 225
Behavioral Assumptions and Leadership Style 227
Ensuring Ethics and Integrity 230
Ethical Dilemmas 232
Unethical Activities 232
Ethical Standards 233
Ethical Leadership 233
The ASIS Code of Ethics 235
Summary 236 • Key Terms and Concepts 237 • Discussion Questions and
Exercises 237 • Careers in Security Management 237 • Your Turn:
Demonstrating Ethical Leadership in the Face of Workplace Theft 238
Chapter 11 Managing People and Organizations 239
Learning Objectives 239
Introduction 239
Personnel Recruitment and Selection 239
Hiring Off-duty Police Officers 240
Negligent Hiring and Retention 241
Employee Development and Training 242
Performance Appraisal 243
Policies and Procedures 244
Scheduling 245
Planning 247
Types of Plans 249
Performance Measures 249
Budgeting 252
Summary 254 • Career Opportunities 254 • Key Terms and
Concepts 255 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 255 •
Your Turn 255

Chapter 12 Risk Assessment, Security Surveys, and Continuity Planning 256

Learning Objectives 256
Introduction 256
The Concept of Risk 256

Contents xiv
▼
 Identifying Risk 259
Risk Assessment Techniques 261
Security Surveys 262
Conducting the Survey 263
Assigning Risk Levels 264
Quantifying Risk: Examples 265
Risk Management Techniques 267
Continuity and Contingency Planning 269
Contingency Plans 269
Contingency Plans and Emergency Management 270
Summary 272 • Key Terms and Concepts 273 • Discussion Questions and
Exercises 273 • Your Turn: Conducting a Safety and Security Survey 273

Pa r t 5
Trends and Challenges 275
Chapter13 Security in an International Perspective 276
Learning Objectives 276
Introduction 276
The Private Security Industry in Europe 277
The former USSR and Warsaw Pact Countries 277
Yugoslavia and Southern Eastern Europe 277
The European Union 279
The United Kingdom 281
The African Continent and Private Security 283
The Private Security Industry in Central and South America 285
International Issues and Private Security 286
High Seas Piracy 286
Private Military Security Companies (PMSCs) 289
Regulating the International Private Security Industry 291
The Montreux Document 291
The International Code of Conduct 292
The United Nations 292
Summary 294 • Career Opportunities in International Security 295 •
Key Terms and Concepts 295 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 295 •
Your Turn 295

Chapter 14 The Future 296

Learning Objectives 296
Introduction 296
Globalization 296
Human Security and Globalization 298
Technology 302
Legislative Trends in Security 304
Terrorism 305
Shifts in International Terrorism 308

Contents xv
▼
 Growth and Challenges 309
Partnerships 310
Changes in Security-Related Services 311
Changes in Higher Education 312
Summary 312 • Future Career Opportunities 313 • Key Terms and
Concepts 313 • Discussion Questions and Exercises 314 • Your Turn: Assessing
Intercultural Competency 314
Glo s s a r y 315

References 335

Index 369

Contents xvi
▼
 P re fa c e
World events including the attacks of September 11, 2001, warfare, man-made and natural
disasters, concern over crime, and security-related legislation have led to individuals,
institutions, and governmental units to discover, re-examine, and explore the practices,
roles, and functions of private security in society and organizations. The fifth edition of
INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY: Operations and Management is the culmination of years
of classroom teaching and practical experiences by the authors that provides readers with
an understanding of the diverse and complex field of private security. It is particularly
designed for two audiences: individuals exploring or seeking careers in private security,
and those who want to gain a better understanding of the practice and field of security and
how it differs from and complements the public sector criminal justice system.
The primary goal of this edition is to provide students and practitioners a detailed descrip-
tion and understanding of the private security industry and its diverse roles and functions in
the twenty-first century. The book is balanced between security and management and leader-
ship principles and practices. As such, it is relatively unique among other security texts,
integrating security and managerial practices into one comprehensive text. Because of its
design and content, it can readily be used in traditional and online undergraduate and gradu-
ate courses related to private security and security management. This text will also serve as a
useful desk reference for security personnel and serve as study guide and aid for professional
certifications, including the ASIS Certified Protection Professional (CPP) examination.

New to this Edition

This new edition has been updated to include the following:
• Most recent information related to the security industry and contemporary leadership
and managerial practices.
• Many of the previous edition’s topics have been reorganized and condensed into a
more cohesive format, concentrating on major themes.
• Application of the course content has also been enhanced through more applied learn-
ing opportunities found throughout the text, and there are updated exercises at the end
of each chapter.
• Many of the topics and issues reviewed in this edition are also approached in an inter-
disciplinary style, reflecting the diverse character of the security industry itself.
• A new chapter on security in an international perspective.

▶ Organization of the Book

The book is divided into five major parts that are additive and complementary in nature.
Part 1 introduces the reader to foundational information related to the history and evolution
of security, and security’s function and role in society. Chapter 1 presents a brief history
and overview of private security. Chapter 2 provides the reader with an understanding of
the role of security in society and organizations. Chapter 3, meanwhile, focuses on the
legal aspects that private security operations are exposed to and follow. Part 2 examines
the fundamental elements of private security programs and practices, concentrating on the
three pillars on which security programs are built. Chapter 4 focuses on physical security.

xvii
▼
Chapter 5 presents topics related to personnel security. Information security is the primary
subject of Chapter 6. Following an understanding of security’s role and its fundamental
activities within organizations, Part 3 reviews specific security sectors. Chapter 7 explores
security issues unique to specific institutions. Chapter 8 introduces the reader to security
practices and applications in the context of commercial, office, and residential security,
while Chapter 9 reviews key concepts and issues related to the concept and philosophy of
homeland security. Section 4 explores concepts related to how to lead and manage security
operations in the various security sectors that exist. For example, Chapter 10 reviews basic
concepts related to the effective management and leadership of security organizations.
Chapter 11, meanwhile, examines core human resource activities performed by security
managers and financial management activities related to budgeting. This section concludes
with Chapter 12, which includes information related to risk management: particularly risk
assessment and continuity planning. The last section of this text explores trends and
­challenges. Chapter 13 provides the reader with a review of the private security industry in
an international perspective while Chapter 14 explores future trends and issues.
This fifth edition also contains a variety of learning and study aids to assist in enhanc-
ing the reader’s foundational knowledge to ensure that key information, ideas, and
­perspectives important to the field of private security, management, and leadership are
mastered. Some of these study aids will also enhance critical, practical, and creative
thinking skills, which are essential attributes needed to manage the twenty-first-century
security organization. For example, each chapter begins with a set of learning objectives
that serve to explain what knowledge a person should be able to exhibit upon completion
of the chapter. Included within the chapters are “Quick Surveys” that serve to apply key
concepts found in the ­chapter to practical issues and situations, while “Security ­Spotlights”
are also found throughout the text where readers can further apply and synthesize infor-
mation from the chapter to actual, real-life issues related to security operations and
­management. Each ­chapter also concludes with a list of key terms and exercises and
­discussion questions to further ensure mastery of the information found in the chapter.
The text also has a comprehensive glossary that can serve as a ready reference guide for
key security terms and concepts.

▶ Instructor Supplements
Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. Includes content outlines for classroom discussion,
teaching suggestions, and answers to selected end-of-chapter questions from the text. This
also contains a Word document version of the test bank.
TestGen. This computerized test generation system gives you maximum flexibility in cre-
ating and administering tests on paper, electronically, or online. It provides state-of-the-art
features for viewing and editing test bank questions, dragging a selected question into a
test you are creating, and printing sleek, formatted tests in a variety of layouts. Select test
items from test banks included with TestGen for quick test creation, or write your own
questions from scratch. TestGen’s random generator provides the option to display differ-
ent text or calculated number values each time questions are used.
PowerPoint Presentations. Our presentations are clear and straightforward. Photos, illustra-
tions, charts, and tables from the book are included in the presentations when applicable.
To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to request an instructor access
code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an instructor
access code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming email,
­including an i­nstructor access code. Once you have received your code, go to the site and
log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use.

Preface xviii
▼
▶ Alternate Versions
eBooks This text is also available in multiple eBook formats. These are an exciting new choice
for students looking to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the printed textbook,
­students can purchase an electronic version of the same content. With an eTextbook, students
can search the text, make notes online, print out reading assignments that incorporate lecture
notes, and bookmark important passages for later review. For more information, visit your
favorite online eBook reseller or visit www.mypearsonstore.com.

Preface xix
▼
A c k n ow l e d g m e n t s
I wish to express my deepest appreciation to the many people who provided support and
assistance during the development of the fifth edition of this textbook. Gratitude is extended
to my colleagues at Pearson including Gary Bauer, Jennifer Sargunar and Nikhil Rakshit,
and to the excellent Aptara team led by Production Project Manager Rakhshinda Chishty
and copy editor Tripti Khurana. Thank you so much for your professionalism, attention to
detail, and dedication. Many thanks are also extended to the following individuals who
shared their expertise in security for this edition: Thomas Ackerman, Director, Institute of
Public Safety (Santa Fe College, Gainesville, Florida), Dan Bohle, Investigator, GVSU
Security, Daniel Carncross, Director of Security (Columbia-Sussex Corporation, East
Lansing Division), MACS (EXW/IDW) Steven J. Dyke, USN, Richard Grossenbacher
(U.S. Secret Service (Ret), and Brian F. Kingshott, Ph.D., FRSA (London). I would also
like to thank Andria Zwerk and Derek Manke for their assistance in the preparation of
the manuscript.
I also appreciate the valuable contributions made by the reviewers of the previous
editions: Jamie A. Latch, Remington College; Patrick Patterson, Remington College;
Charles Green, Remington College; Jerome Randall, University of Central Florida;
Richard Hill, University of Houston-Downtown; Dimitrius A. Oliver, Ph.D., Holly
Dershem-Bruce, Dawson Community College, Glendive, MT; Stephen Jones, University
of Maryland, College Park, MD; Sean Gabbidon, Penn State University, Middletown, PA;
Neal Strehlow, Fox Valley Technical College, Appleton, WI; Donald Jenkins, Central
Community College, Grand Island, NE; Michael Moberly, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, IL; Charles Biggs, Oakland City University, Oakland City, IN; Terrance
Hoffman, Nassau Community College, Garden City, NY; and Kevin Peterson, Innovative
Protection Solutions LLC, Herndon, VA; John Bolinger, MacMurray College; Sonya
Brown, Tarrant County College; Janice Duncan, Bauder College; and Bobby Polk,
Metropolitan Community College—Omaha, NE.
Finally, I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family, friends, and colleagues
for their encouragement and patience.

xx
▼
 A b o u t t h e A u t h o rs
Brian R. Johnson holds a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Criminal Justice from the University
of Wisconsin-Eau, masters’ degrees in Criminal Justice and Labor and Industrial Relations
(emphasis in human resource management), and a Ph.D. in the Social Sciences (Criminal
Justice) from Michigan State University. He served as a police officer and has years of
experience in contract, proprietary security services, and security consulting in addition to
police and security training-related activities. Johnson has also developed and implemented
numerous courses in the field of criminal justice and has taught security-related courses at
the undergraduate and graduate levels. Johnson is the author of Principles of Security
Management, Safe Overseas Travel and Crucial Elements of Police Firearms Training. He
has written several academic and practitioner-based articles in the fields of private security,
policing, management, and criminology. He has worked with many local-, state-, and
national-level organizations on security and poling-related issues. He is currently a
Professor of Criminal Justice at Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Comments regarding the book and suggestions for future editions are welcomed. The
author is also available to provide assistance to any faculty who adopts this text for a course.

P.J. Ortmeier held bachelor’s and master’s degrees in criminal justice and a Ph.D. in
educational leadership with an emphasis in public safety training and development. He is a
U.S. Army veteran, a former police officer, and a former vice-president of United Security
Systems, Incorporated. Ortmeier developed and implemented numerous courses and degree
programs in law enforcement, corrections, security management, and public safety. He
served as the chair of the 1,400-student Administration of Justice Department at Grossmont
College in the San Diego suburb of El Cajon, California. P.J. died on September 15, 2012.
Ortmeier is the author of Public Safety and Security Administration, Policing the
Community: A Guide for Patrol Operations, and Introduction to Law Enforcement and
Criminal Justice as well as several articles appearing in journals such as Police Chief, The
Law Enforcement Executive Forum, California Security, Police and Security News, and
Security Management. With Edwin Meese III, former attorney general of the United
States, Ortmeier coauthored Leadership, Ethics, and Policing: Challenges for the 21st
Century. He also coauthored Crime Scene Investigation: A Forensic Technician’s Field
Manual with Tina Young as well as Police Administration: A Leadership Approach with
Joseph J. Davis, a retired New York police captain. Ortmeier’s publications focus on police
field services, security operations, forensic science, professional career education,
management, leadership, and competency development for public safety personnel.

xxi
▼
This page intentionally left blank
 Part 1

Introduction
Security’s Role in Society

The three chapters constituting Part 1 introduce readers to security’s role in society.
­Chapter 1 presents a brief history and overview of functions of security. Chapter 2 reviews
and addresses the wide range of threats to safety and security, from accidents, human
error, and fire to natural disasters, civil liability, and numerous manifestations of crime.
Chapter 3 focuses on the legal and regulatory environment of the private security sector,
including the judicial process, a variety of types of laws and regulations, the regulation of
the security industry, and professional certification and education programs.

1
▼
1 History and Overview

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to:
❶ define what security is
❷ explain some of the theoretical explanations related to the need
for security
❸ outline and describe the function of security in pre-modern England
❹ know the three eras of security in the United States
❺ understand and explain the contemporary security industry in the
United States
❻ explain contract, proprietary, and hybrid security
❼ know the three essential elements of security
❽ describe the different types of security organizations
❾ describe the goals of security management
❿ evaluate the roles of the security manager

▶ The Context for Security

“Security” encompasses a wide variety of definitions, concepts, and practices. The phi-
losopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) proposed that a natural right or value that is
inherently recognizable through human reason or nature is the quest to seek out and live
in peace—security (Bobbio, 1993). When examined in this broad philosophical manner,
security can be considered a core need and social process whose end goal is to ensure
individual, social, economic, and political security. In fact, perhaps it is better to under-
stand that security exists to change a state of insecurity. To address these insecurities,
security operates in the individual, organizational, and governmental domains. The need
for security also creates and oftentimes relies upon social cohesion and relationships in
order to ensure that individuals will effectively live with one another, while also strength-
ening organizations, governments, and nation states.
Security can be a subjective or psychological state of mind where at the individual
level, the feeling or perceptions of security/insecurity or danger/safety coexist and inter-
twine. As a subjective state, individuals may feel insecure because of their surroundings,
location, activities, life experiences, upbringing, or demographic characteristics, includ-
ing age and gender. These subjective states can be shaped by real and intangible events
that could decrease or increase perceptions of insecurity. These subjective states or per-
ceptions can also exist at various social levels where the group, community, organiza-
tion, and even a nation feel “unsafe” leading to a culture of “insecurity” (Weldes, 1999).
For example, following a criminal activity, employees in a company may feel “unsafe,”
prompting employers to ensure that a state of security exists by increasing the amount of

2
▼
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Georgia is perhaps the most interesting and valuable tract we possess
descriptive of the colonization of the southern portion of Georgia. That
there might be no confusion in their labors, Oglethorpe divided the
colonists into working parties. To some was assigned the duty of cutting
forks, poles, and laths for building the bowers; others set them up;
others still gathered palmetto leaves; while “a fourth gang,” under the
superintendence of a Jew workman, bred in Brazil and skilled in the
matter, thatched the roofs “nimbly and in a neat manner.”
Men accustomed to agriculture instructed the colonists in hoeing and
preparing the soil. Potatoes, Indian corn, flax, hemp-seed, barley,
turnips, lucern-grass, pumpkins, and water-melons were planted. Labor
was common, and inured to the general benefit of the community. As it
was rather too late in the season to till the ground fully and sow a crop
to yield sufficient to subsist the settlement for the current year, many of
the men were put upon pay and set to work upon the fortifications and
the public buildings.
Frederica, situated on the west side of St. Simon’s Island, on a bold
bluff confronting a bay formed by one of the mouths of the Alatamaha
River, was planned as a military town, and constructed with a view to
breasting the shock of hostile assaults. Its houses were to be
substantially built, not of wood as in Savannah, but of tabby. At an early
period its streets by their names proclaimed the presence of men-at-
arms, while its esplanade and parade-ground characterized it as a
permanent camp.[842] Including the camp on the north, the parade on
the east, and a small wood on the south which was to serve as a blind
in the event of an attack from ships coming up the river, the settlement
was about a mile and a half in circumference.
 Note.—The map opposite, showing the coast from St. Augustine to
Charlestown (S. C.), is copied from one in vol. v. of the Urlsperger
Tracts. There is another plan of St. Simon’s Island in W. B.
Stevens’s Georgia. i. 186.

The town proper was to be protected by embankment and ditch,

and places for two gates, called respectively the Town and Water posts,
were indicated. The citadel was to be made of tabby, and formidably
armed. In front, a water battery, mounting several eighteen-pounder
guns, was designed to command the river. It was contemplated to
guard the town on the land side by a formidable intrenchment, the
exterior ditch of which could be filled with water. As Savannah was
intended as the commercial metropolis of the province, so was Frederica
to constitute its southern outpost and strong defence. It soon became
the Thermopylæ of the southern Anglo-American Colonies, the
headquarters of Oglethorpe’s regiment, the depot of military supplies for
the dependent forts built at the south, and the strong rallying point for
British colonization in the direction of Florida. In the history of the
colony there is no brighter chapter, and in the eventful life of Oglethorpe
no more illustrious epoch, than that which commemorates the
protracted and successful struggle with the Spaniards for the retention
of the charming island of St. Simon. In 1737 Oglethorpe kissed His
Majesty’s hand on receiving his commission as colonel. He was also
appointed general and commander-in-chief of all His Majesty’s forces in
South Carolina and Georgia, that he might the more readily wield the
military power of the two provinces in their common defence.
The finances of the Trust were now in a depressed condition, and
the General was compelled to draw largely upon his private fortune and
to pledge his individual credit in conducting the operations necessary for
the security of the southern frontier, and in provisioning the settlers.
Matters were further complicated by the defalcation of Thomas Causton,
the first Magistrate of Savannah and Keeper of the public stores. Silk
culture, from which so much was anticipated, proved a positive
expense. There was no profit in the vine. Enfeebled by the hot suns of
summer, and afflicted with fevers and fluxes engendered by malarial
exhalations from the marish grounds, many of the inhabitants lost heart
and cried aloud for the introduction of African slavery. Disappointed in
their plans for the religious instruction of the colonists and the
conversion of the natives, the brothers John and Charles Wesley had
quitted the province. In the consummation of his benevolent and
educational scheme, the Rev. George Whitefield was compelled to rely
upon foreign aid. With the exception of the Highlanders at Darien, the
Salzburgers at Ebenezer, and the Indian traders at Augusta, Georgia
could not boast that her inhabitants were either contented or
prosperous. There was general clamor for fee-simple title to lands, and
permission to buy slaves was constantly urged. The disaffected
hesitated not to malign the authorities, to disquiet the settlers, and to
exaggerate the unpleasantness of the situation. Fortunately the Indian
nations remained peaceful; and in general convention held at Coweta-
town in August, 1739, in the presence of Oglethorpe, they renewed
their fealty to the King of Great Britain, and in terms most explicit
confirmed their previous grants of territory.

[Fac-simile of a plan of St. Augustine in Roberts’s Account of

Florida, London, 1763.—Ed.]

And now the Spanish war-cloud which had so long threatened the
southern confines of the province, seemed about to descend in wrath
and power. Acting under the discretionary powers confided to him,
General Oglethorpe resolved to anticipate the event by an invasion of
Florida and the reduction of St. Augustine,—the stronghold of Spanish
dominion in that province.
 COAST OF FLORIDA.
Fac-simile of the plan in An Impartial Account of the late Expedition
against St. Augustine under General Oglethorpe. London, 1742.

HARBOR AND TOWN OF ST. AUGUSTINE.

[Fac-simile of part of the map in An Impartial Account of the late
Expedition against St. Augustine under General Oglethorpe,
occasioned by the suppression of the Report of the General
Assembly of South Carolina, with an exact plan of St. Augustine
and the adjacent coast of Florida, showing the disposition of our
Forces. London, 1742.—Ed.]

Collecting his regiment, summoning to his assistance forces from

South Carolina, and calling in his Indian allies, in May, 1740, with a
mixed army of rather more than two thousand men, he moved upon the
capital of Florida. In this expedition Sir Yelverton Peyton, with the British
vessels of war,—the “Flamborough,” the “Phœnix,” the “Squirrel,” the
“Tartar,” the “Spence,” and the “Wolf,”—was to participate. The castle of
St. Augustine consisted of a fort built of soft stone. Its curtain was sixty
yards in length, its parapet nine feet thick, and its rampart twenty feet
high, “casemated underneath for lodgings, and arched over and newly
made bombproof.” Its armament consisted of fifty cannon, sixteen of
brass, and among them some twenty-four pounders. For some time had
the garrison been working upon a covered way, but this was still in an
unfinished condition. The town was protected by a line of
intrenchments, with ten salient angles, in each of which field-pieces
were mounted. In January, 1740, the Spanish forces in Florida,
exclusive of Indians and one company of militia, were estimated at nine
hundred and sixty-five men of all arms. As foreshadowed in his dispatch
of the 27th of March, 1740, it was the intention of General Oglethorpe
to advance directly upon St. Augustine, and attack by sea and land the
town and the island in its front. Both, he believed, could be taken
“sword in hand.” Conceiving that the castle would be too small to afford
convenient shelter for the two thousand one hundred men, women, and
children of the town, he regarded the capitulation of the fortress as not
improbable. Should it refuse to surrender, he proposed to shower upon
it “Granado-shells from the Coehorns and Mortars,” and other
projectiles. If it should not yield under the bombardment, he was
resolved to open trenches and reduce it by a regular siege. The result
was a disastrous failure. This miscarriage may be fairly attributed,—first,
to the delay in inaugurating the movement, caused mainly, if not
entirely, by the tardiness on the part of the South Carolina authorities in
contributing the troops, munitions, and provisions for which requisition
had been made; in the second place, to the reinforcement of men and
supplies from Havana introduced into St. Augustine just before the
English expedition set out, thereby repairing the inequality previously
existing between the opposing forces; again, to the injudicious
movements against Forts Francis de Papa and Diego, which put the
Spaniards upon the alert, encouraged concentration on their part, and
foreshadowed an immediate demonstration in force against their
stronghold; and to the inability on the part of the fleet to participate in
the assault previously planned, and which was to have been vigorously
undertaken so soon as General Oglethorpe with his land forces came
into position before the walls of St. Augustine. Finally, the subsequent
surprise and destruction of Colonel Palmer’s command, thereby enabling
the enemy to communicate with and draw supplies from the interior;
the lack of heavy ordnance with which to reduce the castle from the
batteries planted on Anastasia island; the impossibility of bringing up
the larger war vessels that they might participate in the bombardment;
the inefficiency of Colonel Vanderdussen’s command; the impatience
and disappointment of the Indian allies, who anticipated early capture
and liberal spoils; as well as hot suns, heavy dews, a debilitating
climate, sickness among the troops, and the arrival of men, munitions of
war, and provisions from Havana through the Matanzas River,—all
conspired to render futile whatever hopes at the outset had been
entertained for a successful prosecution of the siege.
Although this attempt—so formidable in its character when we
consider the limited resources at command, and so full of daring when
we contemplate the circumstances under which it was prosecuted—
resulted in disappointment, its effects were not without decided
advantage to Georgia and her sister colonies. For two years the
Spaniards remained on the defensive. During that time General
Oglethorpe enjoyed an opportunity for strengthening his fortifications
and increasing his army; so that when the counter blow was delivered
by his adversary, he was the better prepared not only to parry it, but
also to punish the uplifted arm.
During the preceding seven years, which constituted the entire life of
the colony, Oglethorpe had enjoyed no respite from his labors.
Personally directing all movements; supervising the location and
providing for the comfort, safety, and good order of the colonists as
they arrived from time to time; reconciling their differences,
encouraging and directing their labors; propitiating the aborigines,
influencing necessary supplies, inaugurating suitable defences, and
enforcing the regulations of the Trustees,—he had passed constantly
from point to point, finding no rest. Upon his shoulders, as the Trustees’
representative and as a de facto colonial governor, did the
administration of the affairs of the province rest. Now in tent at
Savannah; now in open boat reconnoitring the coast, now upon the
southern islands, his only shelter the wide-spreading live-oak,
designating sites for forts and lookouts, and with his own hands
planning military works and laying out villages; again journeying
frequently along the Savannah, the Great Ogeechee, the Alatamaha, the
St. John, and far off into the heart of the Indian country; often
inspecting his advanced posts; undertaking voyages to Charlestown and
to England in behalf of the Trust, and engaged in severe contests with
the Spaniards,—his life had been one of incessant activity and
solicitude. But for his energy, intelligence, watchfulness, valor, and self-
sacrifice, the important enterprise must have languished. As we look
back upon this period of trial, uncertainty, and poverty, our admiration
for his achievements increases the more closely we scan his limited
resources and opportunities, the more thoroughly we appreciate the
difficulties he was called upon to surmount.
There was a lull in the storm; but the skies were still overcast. In the
distance were heard ominous mutterings portending the advent of
another and a darker tempest. Anxious but calm, Oglethorpe scanned
the adverse skies and prepared to breast their fury. In alluding to the
expected invasion from St. Augustine, he thus writes to the Duke of
Newcastle: “If our men-of-war will not keep them from coming in by
sea, and we have no succor, but decrease daily by different accidents,
all we can do will be to die bravely in His Majesty’s service.... I have
often desired assistance of the men-of-war, and continue to do so. I go
on in fortifying this town [Frederica], making magazines, and doing
everything I can to defend the province vigorously; and I hope my
endeavors will be approved of by His Majesty, since the whole end of
my life is to do the duty of a faithful subject and grateful servant.”
Late in June, 1742, a Spanish fleet of fifty-one sail, with nearly five
thousand troops on board, under the command of Don Manuel de
Monteano, governor of St. Augustine, bore down upon the Georgia
coast with a view to the capture of the island of St. Simon and the
destruction of the English plantation south of the Savannah. To resist
this formidable descent, General Oglethorpe could oppose only a few
small forts, about six hundred and fifty men, a guard schooner, and
some armed sloops. With a bravery and dash almost beyond
comprehension, by strategy most admirable, Oglethorpe by a masterly
disposition of the troops at command, coupled with the timidity of the
invaders and the dissensions which arose in their ranks, before the
middle of July put the entire Spanish army and navy to flight. This
“deliverance of Georgia,” said Whitefield, “is such as cannot be
paralleled but by some instances out of the Old Testament.” The defeat
of so formidable an expedition by such a handful of men was a matter
of astonishment to all. The memory of this defence of St. Simon’s Island
and the southern frontier is one of the proudest in the annals of
Georgia. Never again did the Spaniards attempt to put in execution their
oft-repeated threat to extirpate all the English plantations south of Port-
Royal Sound. Sullenly and with jealous eye did they watch the
development of Georgia, until twenty-one years afterwards all disputes
were ended by the cession of Florida to the Crown of Great Britain.
Upon the confirmation of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle most of the
English troops were withdrawn from the island of St. Simon, and its
fortifications soon began to fall into decay.
Georgia at this time consisted of only two counties, Savannah and
Frederica. In April, 1741, Colonel William Stephens, who for several
years had been acting in the colony as secretary to the Trustees, was by
them appointed president of the county of Savannah. In the
administration of public affairs he was aided by four assistants. As
General Oglethorpe, who was charged with the direction and
management of the entire province, spent most of his time at Frederica,
the designation of a presiding officer for that division of Georgia was
regarded as superfluous. Bailiffs were constituted, whose duty it was,
under the immediate supervision of the General, to attend to the
concerns of that county. At Augusta, Captain Richard Kent acted as
“conservator to keep the peace in that town and in the precincts
thereof.” Upon the return of General Oglethorpe to England, in order to
provide for the government of the entire colony the Trustees decided
that the president and assistants who had been appointed for the
county of Savannah should be proclaimed president and assistants for
the whole province, and that the bailiffs at Frederica should be
considered simply as local magistrates. They further advised that the
salary of the recorder at Frederica be raised, and that he correspond
regularly with the president and assistants in Savannah, transmitting to
them from time to time the proceedings of the town court, and
rendering an account of such transactions and occurrences in the
southern part of the province as it might be necessary for them to
know. Thus, upon the departure of General Oglethorpe, the honest-
minded and venerable Colonel William Stephens succeeded to the office
of colonial governor. It was during his administration that the Trustees,
influenced by repeated petitions and anxious to promote the prosperity
of the province, removed the restrictions hitherto existing with regard to
the introduction, use, and ownership of negro slaves, and the
importation of rum and other distilled liquors. They also permitted
existing tenures of land “to be enlarged and extended to an absolute
inheritance.”
In bringing about the abrogation of the regulation which forbade the
ownership or employment of negro slaves in Georgia, no two gentlemen
were more influential than the Rev. George Whitefield and the Hon.
James Habersham. The former boldly asserted that the transportation of
the African from his home of barbarism to a Christian land, where he
would be humanely treated and required to perform his share of toil
common to the lot of humanity, was advantageous; while the latter
affirmed that the colony could not prosper without the intervention of
slave-labor. Georgia now enjoyed like privileges with those accorded to
the sister American provinces. Lands could now be held in fee-simple,
and the power of alienation was unrestricted. The ownership and
employment of negro slaves were free to all, and the New England
manufacturer could here find an open market for his rum.
The Trustees had up to this point seriously misinterpreted the
capabilities of the climate and soil of Georgia. Although substantial
encouragement had been afforded to Mr. Amatis, to Jacques Camuse, to
the Salzburgers at Ebenezer, and to others; although copper basins and
reeling-machines had been supplied and a filature erected; although
silk-worm eggs were procured and mulberry trees multiplied,—silk-
culture in Georgia yielded only a harvest of disappointment. The vine
also languished. Olive trees from Venice, barilla seeds from Spain, the
kali from Egypt, and other exotics obtained at much expense, after a
short season withered and died in the public garden. Hemp and flax,
from the cultivation of which such rich yields were anticipated, never
warranted the charter of a single vessel for their transportation, and
indigo did not then commend itself to public favor. Exportations of
lumber were infrequent. Cotton was then little more than a garden
plant, and white laborers could not compete successfully with Carolina
negroes in the production of rice. Up to this point the battle had been
with Nature for life and subsistence. Upon the stores of the Trust did
many long rely for food and clothing. Of trade there was little, and that
was confined to the procurement of necessaries. With the exception of
occasional shipments of copper money for circulation among the
inhabitants, sola bills constituted the chief currency of the province.
Now, however, all restrictions removed, Georgia entered upon a career
of comparative prosperity.

WHITEFIELD.
This cut (see also the Memorial History of Boston, ii. 238) follows a
painting in Memorial Hall, Cambridge, Mass. The portraits of
Whitefield are numerous. J. C. Smith (British Mezzotint Portraits, i.
442, 443; iii. 601, 692, 939; iv. 1545) enumerates various ones in
that style, giving a photo-reproduction of one. The Lives of him
usually give likenesses.

On the 8th of April, 1751, Mr. Henry Parker was appointed president
of the colony in the room of Colonel Stephens, who retired upon a
pension of £80. During his administration the first Provincial Assembly of
Georgia convened at Savannah. It was composed of sixteen delegates,
and was presided over by Francis Harris. As the privilege of enacting
laws was by the terms of the charter vested exclusively in the Trustees,
this assembly could not legislate. Its powers were limited to discussing
and suggesting such measures as its members might deem conducive
to the welfare of particular communities and important for the general
good of the province.
The “Trustees for establishing the Colony of Georgia in America”
resolved to surrender their charter and relieve themselves from the
further execution of a trust which had grown quite beyond their
management. For twenty years they had supported its provisions with
an earnest solicitude, a philanthropic zeal, a disinterested purpose, and
a loyal devotion worthy of every commendation. They had seen a feeble
plantation upon Yamacraw Bluff expand year by year, until it now
assumed the proportions of a permanent colony and disclosed the
potentialities of a future nation. The English drum-beat on the banks of
the Savannah is answered by the Highland bagpipe on the Alatamaha,
and the protecting guns of Frederica are supplemented by the sentinel
field-pieces at Augusta. At every stage of progress and in every act,
whether trivial or important, these Trustees, capable and worthy,
evinced a clear conception of duty, a patience of labor, a singleness of
purpose, an unselfish dedication of time and energy, and a rigid
adherence to all that was pure, elevated, and humanizing, which
become quite conspicuous when their proceedings are minutely and
intelligently scanned. That they erred in their judgment in regard to the
best method of utilizing many of these marish lands, smitten by sun and
storms and pregnant with fevers and fluxes, may not now be doubted;
that the theory upon which they administered the trust was in some
respects narrow and retarding in its influences, is equally certain; that
they were unfortunate in the selection of some of their agents excites
no surprise,—but that they were upright, conscientious, observant, and
most anxious to promote the best interests of the colony, as they
comprehended them, will be freely admitted.
The surrender of the charter was formally concluded on the 23d of
June, 1752; and Georgia, no longer the ward of the Trustees, passed
into the hands of the Crown. Until clothed with the attributes of State
sovereignty by the successful issue of the American Revolution, she was
recognized as one of the daughters of England under the special charge
of the Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations. By the terms of
the surrender, her integrity as an independent province, separate from
South Carolina, was fully assured, and all grants of land, hitherto made
to the inhabitants, were recognized and respected.
Upon the death of Mr. Parker, Patrick Graham succeeded to the
presidency of Georgia. Until a plan for establishing a civil government
could be perfected, all officers, both civil and military, holding
appointments from the Trustees, were continued in their respective
places of trust, with such emoluments, salaries, and fees as were
incident thereto. The population of the colony now consisted of two
thousand three hundred and eighty-one whites, and one thousand and
sixty-six negro slaves. This estimate did not include His Majesty’s troops
and boatmen, or a congregation of two hundred and eighty whites, with
negro slaves aggregating five hundred and thirty-six, coming from South
Carolina and partially settled in the Midway District, or Butler’s Colony
with sixty slaves.
The plan suggested by the Lords Commissioners for Trade and
Plantations for the establishment of a civil government in Georgia
contemplated the appointment of a governor, by commission under the
Great Seal, with the title of Captain-General and Governor-in-chief of His
Majesty’s Province of Georgia, and Vice-Admiral of the same. He was to
be addressed as Your Excellency, and was, within the colony, to be
respected as the immediate and highest representative of His Majesty.
His functions, as well as those of the two Houses of the Assembly, were
well defined.[843]
The plan thus submitted for the government of the Province of
Georgia received royal sanction; and His Majesty, upon the nomination
of the Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, was pleased, on
the 6th of August, 1754, to appoint Captain John Reynolds governor of
the Province of Georgia; William Clifton, Esq., attorney-general; James
Habersham, Esq., secretary and register; Alexander Kellet, Esq.,
provost-marshal; William Russel, Esq., naval officer; Henry Yonge and
William De Brahm joint surveyors; Sir Patrick Houstoun, Bart., register
of grants and receiver of quit rents; and Patrick Graham, Sir Patrick
Houstoun, James Habersham, Alexander Kellet, William Clifton, Noble
Jones, Pickering Robinson, Francis Harris, Jonathan Bryan, William
Russell, and Clement Martin members of Council.
 When during the same year (1754) the other English colonies sent
delegates to represent them at the Congress of Albany, in order to draft
a plan of union against the French, Georgia filled so narrow a space in
the regard of the other colonies that her failure to join in the proposed
league was hardly remarked.
Only three Royal Governors did Georgia have. The terms of service
of Captain Reynolds and of Henry Ellis were short. Assuming the reins of
government in 1760, the third and last Royal Governor, Sir James
Wright, encountered the storms of the Revolution, and in a brave
adherence to the cause of his royal master suffered arrest, mortification,
and loss. It was his lot to preside at an epoch full of doubt and trouble.
During his administration the political ties which united Georgia to the
mother country were violently sundered, and a union of American
colonies was formed, which in after years developed into the great
Republic. The rapid development of Georgia under the conduct of these
royal governors will be admitted when it is remembered that in 1754
her exports did not amount to £30,000 a year; while, at the opening of
the Revolutionary War, they did not fall short of £200,000 sterling.

CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

G
EORGIA was named in honor of the reigning king of England,
George II., who graciously sanctioned a charter, liberal in its
provisions, and who granted to the Trustees a territory, extensive
and valuable, for the plantation.
In a report submitted to Congress by the Hon. Charles Lee, attorney-
general of the United States (Philadelphia, 1796), will be found a
valuable collection of charters, treaties, and documents explanatory of
the original cession to the “Trustees for establishing the Colony of
Georgia in America,” and of the modifications and enlargements to
which the same was later subjected. The territory which, in 1733,
became the Province of Georgia at an earlier day formed a part of
ancient Florida, which stretched in the Spanish conception from the Gulf
of Mexico to the far north and westward to the Mississippi and
indefinitely beyond.
It has fallen to the lot of another writer in the present work to
mention the authorities on the primitive peoples of this region; and by
still another an enumeration is made of the archæological traces of their
life.[844]

The project of Sir Robert Mountgomery for planting a colony in the

territory subsequently ceded to the Georgia Trustees is fully unfolded in
his Discourse concerning the design’d Establishment of a New Colony to
the South of Carolina in the most delightful Country of the Universe,
London, 1717.[845] Accompanying this Discourse is an engraved “plan
representing the Form of Settling the Districts or County Divisions in the
Margravate of Azilia.”[846] Although extensively advertised, this scheme
failed to attract the favor of the public, and ended in disappointment.
The true story of the mission of Sir Alexander Cuming, of
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, to establish a trade with the Cherokees, and
confirm them in their friendship with and allegiance to the British crown,
has been well told by Samuel G. Drake in his Early History of Georgia,
embracing the Embassy of Sir Alexander Cuming to the Country of the
Cherokees in the year 1730, Boston, 1872. A reproduction of the rare
print giving the portraits of the Indians who accompanied Sir Alexander
on his return to London might have been advantageously employed in
lending additional attraction to this publication.[847]
 HANDWRITING OF OGLETHORPE.

Of the memoirs of Oglethorpe,—whose life Dr. Johnson desired to

write, and whom Edmund Burke regarded as the most extraordinary
person of whom he had read, because he founded a province and lived
to see it severed from the empire which created it and erected into an
independent State,—those best known are A Sketch of the Life of
General James Oglethorpe, presented to the Georgia Historical Society
by Thomas Spalding, Esq., resident member of the same, printed in
1840; Biographical Memorials of James Oglethorpe, Founder of the
Colony of Georgia in North America, by Thaddeus Mason Harris, D. D.,
Boston, 1841;[848] Life of James Oglethorpe, the Founder of Georgia, by
William B. O. Peabody, constituting a part of volume ii. of the second
series of The Library of American Biography, conducted by Jared Sparks,
Boston, 1847, and based mainly upon Dr. Harris’ work; and A Memoir of
General James Oglethorpe, one of the earliest Reformers of Prison
Discipline in England and the Founder of Georgia in America, by Robert
Wright, London, 1867. The advantages enjoyed by Mr. Wright were
exceptionally good, and until the appearance of his memoir that by Dr.
Harris was justly regarded as the best.[849]
That the public might be advised of the benevolent character and
scope of the undertaking, and might be made acquainted with the
designs of the Trustees with regard to the proposed colonization of
Georgia, two tracts were published with their sanction: one of them,
prepared by Oglethorpe, entitled A New and Accurate Account of the
Provinces of South Carolina and Georgia, with many curious and useful
Observations on the Trade, Navigation, and Plantations of Great Britain
compared with her most powerful Maritime Neighbors in ancient and
modern Times, printed in London in 1732;[850] and the other, written by
Benjamin Martyn, Secretary of the Board, entitled Reasons for
establishing the Colony of Georgia with regard to the Trade of Great
Britain, the Increase of our People, and the Employment and Support it
will afford to great numbers of our own Poor as well as Foreign
persecuted Protestants, with some account of the Country and the
Designs of the Trustees, London, 1733.[851] Well considered and widely
circulated, these tracts were productive of results most beneficial to the
Trust.[852]
The development of the province down to 1741 is described and the
regulations promulgated by the Trustees for the conduct of the
plantation and for the observance of its inhabitants are preserved in An
Account shewing the Progress of the Colony of Georgia in America from
its First Establishment, London, 1741. This publication was by authority,
and must be accepted as of the highest importance.[853]
Of like interest and value are An Impartial Enquiry into the State and
Utility of the Province of Georgia, London, 1741,—appearing
anonymously,[854] but with the sanction of the Trustees, and intended
to correct certain mischievous reports circulated with regard to the
health of the plantation, the fertility of the soil, the value of the
products, and the disabilities under which Georgia labored because of
restricted land tenures, and by reason of the regulations prohibiting the
introduction and use of spirituous liquors and negro slaves; and A State
of the Province of Georgia attested upon Oath in the Court of Savannah,
November 10, 1740, London, 1742,—in which the superior advantages
of Georgia, her resources and capabilities, are favorably considered and
proclaimed.
The history of the Salzburgers in Georgia may be learned from An
Extract of the Journals of Mr. Commissary Von Reck, who conducted the
First Transport of Salzburgers to Georgia; and of the Reverend Mr.
Bolzius, one of their Ministers, giving an Account of their Voyage to and
happy Settlement in the Province, published by the Directors of the
Society for promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1734;[855] from
Neuste und richtigste Nachricht von der Landschaft Georgia in dem
Engelländischen America, etc., von J. M. R., Göttingen, 1746;[856] from
De Præstantia Coloniæ Georgico-Anglicanæ præ Coloniis aliis,[857] et
seq., by Joannes Augustus Urlspergerus; from the Urlsperger Tracts,
which present with wonderful fidelity and minuteness of details all
events connected with the Salzburger settlements in America;[858] and
from the Salzburgers and their Descendants, being the history of a
Colony of German Lutheran Protestants who emigrated to Georgia in
1734, and settled at Ebenezer, twenty-five miles above the City of
Savannah, by P. A. Strobel, Baltimore, 1855.[859]
To the Gentleman’s Magazine and to the London Magazine must
recourse be had for valuable letters and contemporaneous documents
descriptive of the colonization of Georgia and the development of the
plantation.
There is in Section xxi. of Chapter iii. of the second volume of
Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or a Complete Collection of
Voyages and Travels, etc., by John Harris (London, 1748), a “History of
the Rise, Progress, and Present State of the Colony of Georgia.” It is
prefaced by an excellent map of the province, and is fortified by
illustrative documents. In its twenty-five quarto pages are embraced all
the noted incidents connected with the early life of the colony and the
successful efforts of General Oglethorpe in defending the southern
frontier of Georgia against the assaults of the Spaniards. The value of
this contribution cannot well be overestimated.
Another work of genuine merit, acquainting us specially with the
condition of Savannah and the adjacent region, with the settlement of
Frederica, and with those preliminary negotiations which resulted in a
postponement of impending hostilities between Georgia and Florida, is A
Voyage to Georgia begun in the year 1735, etc., by Francis Moore,
London, 1744.[860]
A most detailed statement of the affairs and events of the province
will be found in the three octavo volumes constituting the diary of
Colonel William Stephens, for some time resident Secretary in Georgia
of the Trustees, and, upon the departure of General Oglethorpe,
advanced to the responsible position of President of the colony,—
entitled A Journal of the Proceedings in Georgia beginning October
20th, 1737, which was printed in London in 1742.[861] Of this work but
a limited edition was published by the Trustees, and a complete copy is
very difficult to find. While its pages are cumbered with many trivial
matters, this rare Journal is remarkable for accuracy of statement and
minuteness of details. Its author was at the time far advanced in years,
and his narrative is not infrequently colored by his peculiar religious and
political notions. He was a firm friend of the colony, an honest servant
of the Trust, and in all things most obedient and loyal to his king.
Retired upon a pension of £80, he spent his last years on his plantation,
near the mouth of Vernon River, which he called Bewlie [Beaulieu]
because of a fancied resemblance to the manor of the Duke of
Montague in the New Forest. There, about the middle of August, 1753,
he died.
In the Executive Department of the State of Georgia may be seen
the original MS. folio volume containing A general account of all monies
and effects received and expended by the Trustees for establishing the
Colony of Georgia in America (June 9, 1732-June 9, 1752), the names
of the benefactors, and the sums contributed and the articles given by
them in aid of the Trust. This carefully written and unique volume, the
entries, charges, and discharges of which are certified by Harman
Verelst,—accountant to the Trustees,—exhibits a complete statement of
the finances of the Trust from its inception to the time of the surrender
of the charter.[862]
The fullest reports of the demonstration of General Oglethorpe
against St. Augustine are contained in An Impartial Account of the
Expedition against St. Augustine under General Oglethorpe, occasioned
by the suppression of the Report made by a Committee of the General
Assembly in South Carolina, transmitted under the great seal of that
Province to their Agent in England in order to be printed: with an exact
Plan of the Town, Castle, and Harbour of St. Augustine and the adjacent
Coast of Florida; shewing the Disposition of our Forces on that
Enterprize, London, 1741;[863] in The Report of the Committee of both
Houses of Assembly of the Province of South Carolina appointed to
enquire into the causes of the Disappointment of success in the late
Expedition against St. Augustine under command of General
Oglethorpe, published by the order of both Houses, Charlestown, S. C.,
and London, 1743;[864] and in The Spanish Hireling detected, being a
Refutation of the Several Calumnies and Falsehoods in a late Pamphlet
entitul’d An Impartial Account of the Late Expedition against St.
Augustine under General Oglethorpe, by George Cadogan, Lieutenant in
General Oglethorpe’s Regiment, etc., London, 1743.[865] Grievous was
the disappointment at the failure of the expedition; unjust and harsh
were the criticisms upon its leader. “One man there is, my Lords,” said
the Duke of Argyle in the British House of Peers, “whose natural
generosity, contempt of danger, and regard for the public prompted him
to obviate the designs of the Spaniards and to attack them in their own
territories: a man whom by long acquaintance I can confidently affirm
to have been equal to his undertaking, and to have learned the art of
war by a regular education, who yet miscarried in the design only for
want of supplies necessary to success.”[866]
Of his successful repulse of the Spanish attack upon the island of St.
Simon, the most spirited narratives are furnished in General
Oglethorpe’s official report of the 30th of July, 1742, printed in the 3d
volume of the Collections of the Georgia Historical Society; in the letter
of John Smith (who, on board the war vessel “Success,” participated in
the naval engagement), written from Charlestown, South Carolina, on
the 14th of July, 1742, and printed in the Daily Advertiser; and in a
communication on file in the Public Record Office in London among the
Shaftesbury Papers.[867]
That harmony did not always obtain among the Georgia colonists,
and that disagreements between the governing and the governed were
sometimes most pronounced, must be admitted. While the Trustees
endeavored to promote the development of the plantation and to assure
the public of the progress of the province, malcontents there were, who
thwarted their plans, questioned the expediency of their regulations,
and openly declared that their misrule and the partiality of the Trust’s
servants were the prolific causes of disquietude and disaster. That
General Oglethorpe may, at times, have been dictatorial in his
administration of affairs is quite probable; and yet it must be admitted
that, amid the dangers which environed and the disturbing influences
which beset the development of the province, an iron will and a strong
arm were indispensable for its guidance and protection.
The publication, in the interest of the Trust, of the two pamphlets to
which we have alluded, one entitled An Impartial Inquiry into the State
and Utility of the Province of Georgia, London, 1741,[868] and the other,
A State of the Province of Georgia attested upon Oath in the Court of
Savannah, November 10, 1740, London, 1742,[869]—both exhibiting
favorable views of the condition of the colony and circulated in
furtherance of the scheme of colonization,—so irritated these
malcontents that they indulged in several rejoinders, among which will
be remembered A Brief Account of the Causes that have retarded the
Progress of the Colony of Georgia in America, attested upon oath: being
a proper Contrast to A State of the Province of Georgia attested upon
oath and some other misrepresentations on the same subject, London,
1743.[870] The magistrates, both at Savannah and Frederica, were
therein declared to be oppressors of the inhabitants. General
Oglethorpe was accused of tyranny and partiality. It will be observed
that most of the supporting affidavits were verified outside the limits of
Georgia. A desire to sell forbidden articles, and to ply trades for which
special licenses had been issued to others; opposition to the regulation
which prohibited the owners of cattle and hogs from allowing them to
run at large on the common and in the streets of Frederica; alleged
misfeasance in the conduct of bailiffs and magistrates in the discharge
of their duties; the unprofitableness of labor, overbearing acts
committed by those in authority, and similar matters, formed the
burthen of these sworn complaints. While they tended to distract the
public mind and to annoy those upon whose shoulders rested the
provincial government, they fortunately failed in producing any serious
impression either within the colony or in the mother country.
Another Jacobinical tract was that prepared and published at the
instigation of Dr. Patrick Tailfer,—a thorn in the side of General
Oglethorpe, to whom, under the signature of “The Plain Dealer,” he
addressed a communication upon colonial affairs full of complaint,
condemnation, and sarcasm. He was the chief of a club of malcontents
in Savannah, whose conduct became so notorious that they were
forced, in September, 1740, to quit the province and seek refuge in
South Carolina. When thus beyond the jurisdiction of Georgia, in
association with Hugh Anderson, David Douglass, and others, he caused
to be printed a scurrilous tract entitled A True and Historical Narrative of
the Colony of Georgia in America from the first Settlement thereof until
the present period, etc., Charles-Town, South Carolina, 1741.[871] The
epistle dedicatory is addressed to General Oglethorpe, and is full of
venom. Craving rum, negro slaves, and fee-simple titles to land, such
disaffected colonists hesitated not to malign the authorities, disquiet the
settlers, and belie the true condition of affairs. Georgia was then in an
embarrassed and impoverished situation. Her population was increasing
but slowly. Labor was scarcely remunerative. Onerous were some of the
regulations of the Trustees, and the Spanish war cloud was darkening
the southern confines of the province. The impression, however, which
Dr. Tailfer and his associates sought to convey of the status of the
colony was exaggerated, spiteful, and without warrant.[872]
The visit of Tomo-chi-chi and his retinue to England is described in
contemporaneous numbers of the Gentleman’s Magazine and of the
London Magazine. It was also commemorated in what is now rarely
seen, Georgia a Poem; Tomo-cha-chi, an Ode; A copy of verses on Mr.
Oglethorpe’s second voyage to Georgia, “Facies non omnibus una, nec
diversa tamen,” London, 1736. Twenty-two years afterwards appeared
Tombo-chi-qui or The American Savage, a Dramatic Entertainment in
Three Acts, London, 1758. Although printed anonymously, it is generally
attributed to Cleland. The poet Freneau, at a later date, composed an
ode to The Dying Indian Tomo-chequi. In the Gentleman’s Magazine,
vol. x. p. 129, is an interesting letter describing the last moments and
sepulture of this noted Mico. In his Historical Sketch of Tomo-chi-chi,
Mico of the Yamacraws, Albany, 1868, the author of these notes
endeavored to present all that is known of this distinguished chief, to
whose friendship and aid the Colony of Georgia was indebted in a
remarkable degree.
It was the custom of the Trustees to assemble annually and listen to
a sermon delivered in commendation of the benevolent scheme in which
they were engaged. Some of these discourses possess historical value,
although most of them are simply moral essays.[873]
 In December, 1837, the General Assembly of Georgia empowered
the governor of the State to select a competent person to procure from
the government offices in London copies of all records and documents
respecting the settlement and illustrating the colonial life of Georgia.
The Rev. Charles Wallace Howard was entrusted with the execution of
this mission. He returned with copies of documents filling twenty-two
folio volumes. Fifteen of these were made from the originals on file in
the office of the Board of Trade, six from those in the State Paper
Office, and the remaining volume consisted of copies of important
documents included in the king’s library.[874] These MS. volumes are
preserved in the state library at Atlanta. While they embrace many of
the communications, regulations, reports, treaties, and documents
illustrative of the colonial life of Georgia, they do not exhaust the
treasures of the Public Record Office and the British Museum.
In private hands in England are several original MS. volumes,
connected with the colonization of Georgia and detailing the acts and
resolutions of the Trustees. Prominent among them are two quarto
volumes, closely written in the neat, small, round hand of John Percival,
the first Earl of Egmont and the first president of the Board of Trustees,
containing the original manuscript records of the meetings of the
Trustees for establishing the Colony of Georgia in America from June
14th, 1738, to the 24th of May, 1744.[875] They contain also an index of
proceedings, June, 1737, to June, 1738, together with some
memoranda relating to the proceedings of 1745-46. It is probable that
there were antecedent volumes, but they are not now known.
In the Department of State, and in the Executive Department of
Georgia, are some documents of great historical interest connected with
the English colonization of Georgia. The Historical Collections of the
Georgia Historical Society,[876] in four volumes, contain reprints of many
of the early tracts already referred to, and other papers illustrative of
Georgia history.[877]
In the library of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, there
is a folio MS. in excellent preservation, entitled History of the three
Provinces, South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida, by John Gerard
William de Brahm, surveyor-general of the southern provinces of North
America, then under the dominion of Great Britain, and illustrated by
over twenty maps and plans. The portion relating to Georgia was, in
1849, edited and printed with extreme accuracy and typographical
elegance by Mr. George Wymberley-Jones, of Savannah. The edition was
limited to forty-nine copies. Six of the eight maps appertaining to
Georgia were engraved.[878] This publication constitutes the second of
Mr. Jones’ “Wormsloe quartos,”[879] and is justly esteemed not only for
its typography and rarity, but also for its historical value. To the
engineering skill of Captain de Brahm was Georgia indebted for many
important surveys and military defenses. Through his instrumentality
were large accessions made to the German population between
Savannah and New Ebenezer.
Of the legislative acts passed by the general assemblies of Georgia
during the continuance of the royal government, many are retained in
the digests of Robert and George Watkins (Philadelphia, 1800), and of
Marbury and Crawford. Aware of the fact that numerous omissions
existed, Mr. George Wymberley-Jones De Renne caused diligent search
to be made in the Public Record Office in London for all acts originating
in Georgia which, having received royal sanction, were there filed. Exact
copies of them were then obtained; but Mr. De Renne’s death occurred
before he had compassed his purpose of printing the transcripts. His
widow, Mrs. Mary De Renne, carried out his design and committed the
editing of them to Charles C. Jones, Jr., LL. D. The result was a superb
quarto, entitled Acts passed by the General Assembly of the Colony of
Georgia, 1755 to 1774, now first printed. Wormsloe. 1881. The edition
was limited to forty-nine copies. In this volume appears no act which
had hitherto found its way into type. During the period covered by this
legislation, James Johnston was the public printer in Savannah. By him
were many of the acts, passed by the various assemblies, first printed,
—sometimes simply as broadsides, and again in thin quarto pamphlets.
William Ewen, who, at a later date, was president of the Council of
Safety, carefully preserved these printed acts, and caused them to be
bound in a volume which lies before us. The MS. index is in his
handwriting. It is the only complete copy of these colonial laws, printed
contemporaneously with their passage, of which we have any
knowledge. James Johnston was also the editor and printer of the
Georgia Gazette, the only newspaper published in Georgia prior to and
during the Revolution. In the office of the Secretary of State in Atlanta