480 Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration

57. Evaluate 1 x3 21 - x2 dx using b. Solve the equation in part (a) for ƒ(x), using ƒ(30) = 0.
a. integration by parts. y
b. a u-substitution. y = f (x) path of skier
c. a trigonometric substitution.
58. Path of a water skier Suppose that a boat is positioned at the boat 30 ft rope
origin with a water skier tethered to the boat at the point (30, 0) (x, f (x)) skier
f (x)
on a rope 30 ft long. As the boat travels along the positive y-axis,
the skier is pulled behind the boat along an unknown path
y = ƒ(x), as shown in the accompanying figure.
x
- 2900 - x2 0 x (30, 0)
a. Show that ƒ′(x) = x .
NOT TO SCALE
(Hint: Assume that the skier is always pointed directly at the boat
and the rope is on a line tangent to the path y = ƒ(x).)

8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

This section shows how to express a rational function (a quotient of polynomials) as a sum
of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, which are easily integrated. For instance, the
rational function (5x - 3)>(x2 - 2x - 3) can be rewritten as
5x - 3 2 3
= + .
x2 - 2x - 3 x + 1 x - 3
You can verify this equation algebraically by placing the fractions on the right side over a
common denominator (x + 1)(x - 3). The skill acquired in writing rational functions as
such a sum is useful in other settings as well (for instance, when using certain transform
methods to solve differential equations). To integrate the rational function
(5x - 3)>(x2 - 2x - 3) on the left side of our previous expression, we simply sum the
integrals of the fractions on the right side:
5x - 3 2 3
dx = dx + dx
L (x + 1)(x - 3) Lx + 1 Lx - 3
= 2 ln 0 x + 1 0 + 3 ln 0 x - 3 0 + C.
The method for rewriting rational functions as a sum of simpler fractions is called the
method of partial fractions. In the case of the preceding example, it consists of finding
constants A and B such that
5x - 3 A B
= + . (1)
x2 - 2x - 3 x + 1 x - 3
(Pretend for a moment that we do not know that A = 2 and B = 3 will work.) We call the
fractions A>(x + 1) and B>(x - 3) partial fractions because their denominators are
only part of the original denominator x2 - 2x - 3. We call A and B undetermined coef-
ficients until suitable values for them have been found.
To find A and B, we first clear Equation (1) of fractions and regroup in powers of x,
obtaining
5x - 3 = A(x - 3) + B(x + 1) = (A + B)x - 3A + B.
This will be an identity in x if and only if the coefficients of like powers of x on the two
sides are equal:
A + B = 5, -3A + B = -3.
Solving these equations simultaneously gives A = 2 and B = 3.
 8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 481

General Description of the Method

Success in writing a rational function ƒ(x)>g(x) as a sum of partial fractions depends on
two things:
● The degree of ƒ(x) must be less than the degree of g(x). That is, the fraction must be
proper. If it isn’t, divide ƒ(x) by g(x) and work with the remainder term. Example 3 of
this section illustrates such a case.
● We must know the factors of g(x). In theory, any polynomial with real coefficients can
be written as a product of real linear factors and real quadratic factors. In practice, the
factors may be hard to find.
Here is how we find the partial fractions of a proper fraction ƒ(x)>g(x) when the factors of
g are known. A quadratic polynomial (or factor) is irreducible if it cannot be written as
the product of two linear factors with real coefficients. That is, the polynomial has no real
roots.

Method of Partial Fractions when ƒ(x) , g(x) is Proper

1. Let x - r be a linear factor of g(x). Suppose that (x - r)m is the highest
power of x - r that divides g(x). Then, to this factor, assign the sum of the
m partial fractions:
A1 A2 Am
+ + g+ .
(x - r) (x - r) 2 (x - r)m
Do this for each distinct linear factor of g(x).
2. Let x2 + px + q be an irreducible quadratic factor of g(x) so that
x2 + px + q has no real roots. Suppose that (x2 + px + q)n is the highest
power of this factor that divides g(x). Then, to this factor, assign the sum of
the n partial fractions:

B1 x + C1 B2 x + C2 Bn x + Cn
+ + g+ 2 .
(x2 + px + q) (x2 + px + q)2 (x + px + q)n

Do this for each distinct quadratic factor of g(x).

3. Set the original fraction ƒ(x)>g(x) equal to the sum of all these partial
fractions. Clear the resulting equation of fractions and arrange the terms in
decreasing powers of x.
4. Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the resulting
equations for the undetermined coefficients.

EXAMPLE 1 Use partial fractions to evaluate

x2 + 4x + 1
dx.
L (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)

Solution The partial fraction decomposition has the form

x2 + 4x + 1 A B C
= + + .
(x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) x - 1 x + 1 x + 3
To find the values of the undetermined coefficients A, B, and C, we clear fractions and get
x2 + 4x + 1 = A(x + 1)(x + 3) + B(x - 1)(x + 3) + C(x - 1)(x + 1)
= A ( x2 + 4x + 3 ) + B ( x2 + 2x - 3 ) + C ( x2 - 1 )
= (A + B + C)x2 + (4A + 2B)x + (3A - 3B - C).
482 Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration

The polynomials on both sides of the above equation are identical, so we equate coeffi-
cients of like powers of x, obtaining
Coefficient of x2: A + B + C = 1
Coefficient of x1: 4A + 2B = 4
Coefficient of x0: 3A - 3B - C = 1
There are several ways of solving such a system of linear equations for the unknowns A, B,
and C, including elimination of variables or the use of a calculator or computer. Whatever
method is used, the solution is A = 3>4, B = 1>2, and C = -1>4. Hence we have

c d dx
x2 + 4x + 1 3 1 1 1 1 1
dx = + -
L (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) L 4 x - 1 2 x + 1 4 x + 3

= ln 0 x - 1 0 + ln 0 x + 1 0 - ln 0 x + 3 0 + K,
3 1 1
4 2 4
where K is the arbitrary constant of integration (to avoid confusion with the undetermined
coefficient we labeled as C).

EXAMPLE 2 Use partial fractions to evaluate

6x + 7
dx.
L + 2)
2
(x

Solution First we express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions with undetermined
coefficients.
6x + 7 A B
= +
(x + 2)2 x + 2 (x + 2)2
6x + 7 = A(x + 2) + B Multiply both sides by (x + 2)2.
= Ax + (2A + B)
Equating coefficients of corresponding powers of x gives
A = 6 and 2A + B = 12 + B = 7, or A = 6 and B = -5.
Therefore,

a b dx
6x + 7 6 5
dx = -
L (x + 2) 2
L x + 2 (x + 2)2
dx
= 6 - 5 (x + 2)-2 dx
L x + 2 L
= 6 ln 0 x + 2 0 + 5(x + 2)-1 + C.

The next example shows how to handle the case when ƒ(x)>g(x) is an improper frac-
tion. It is a case where the degree of ƒ is larger than the degree of g.

EXAMPLE 3 Use partial fractions to evaluate

2x3 - 4x2 - x - 3
dx.
L x2 - 2x - 3
Solution First we divide the denominator into the numerator to get a polynomial plus a
proper fraction.
2x
x2 - 2x - 3) 2x3 - 4x2 - x - 3
2x3 - 4x2 - 6x - 3
5x - 3
 8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 483

Then we write the improper fraction as a polynomial plus a proper fraction.

2x3 - 4x2 - x - 3 5x - 3
= 2x + 2
x2 - 2x - 3 x - 2x - 3
We found the partial fraction decomposition of the fraction on the right in the opening
example, so
2x3 - 4x2 - x - 3 5x - 3
dx = 2x dx + dx
L x - 2x - 3
2
L L x - 2x - 3
2

2 3
= 2x dx + dx + dx
L L x + 1 L x - 3

= x2 + 2 ln 0 x + 1 0 + 3 ln 0 x - 3 0 + C.

EXAMPLE 4 Use partial fractions to evaluate

-2x + 4
dx.
L ( x + 1 ) (x - 1)
2 2

Solution The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor as well as a repeated linear
factor, so we write
-2x + 4 Ax + B C D
= 2 + + . (2)
(x2 + 1)(x - 1)2 x + 1 x - 1 (x - 1)2
Clearing the equation of fractions gives
-2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x - 1)2 + C(x - 1) ( x2 + 1 ) + D ( x2 + 1 )
= (A + C)x3 + (-2A + B - C + D)x2
+ (A - 2B + C)x + (B - C + D).
Equating coefficients of like terms gives
Coefficients of x3: 0 = A + C
Coefficients of x2: 0 = -2A + B - C + D
Coefficients of x1: -2 = A - 2B + C
Coefficients of x0: 4 = B - C + D
We solve these equations simultaneously to find the values of A, B, C, and D:
-4 = -2A, A = 2 Subtract fourth equation from second.
C = -A = -2 From the first equation
B = (A + C + 2)>2 = 1 From the third equation and C = - A
D = 4 - B + C = 1. From the fourth equation.

We substitute these values into Equation (2), obtaining

-2x + 4 2x + 1 2 1
= 2 - + .
(x2 + 1)(x - 1)2 x + 1 x - 1 (x - 1)2
Finally, using the expansion above we can integrate:

a 2 b dx
-2x + 4 2x + 1 2 1
dx = - +
L (x + 1)(x - 1)
2 2
L x + 1 x - 1 (x - 1)2

a b dx
2x 1 2 1
= + 2 - +
L x 2
+ 1 x + 1 x - 1 (x - 1)2

= ln (x2 + 1) + tan-1 x - 2 ln 0 x - 1 0 -
1
+ C.
x - 1
484 Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration

EXAMPLE 5 Use partial fractions to evaluate

dx
.
L x ( x 2
+ 1 )2

Solution The form of the partial fraction decomposition is

1 A Bx + C Dx + E
= x + 2 + 2 .
x ( x2 + 1 ) 2 x + 1 ( x + 1 )2
Multiplying by x(x2 + 1)2, we have
1 = A ( x2 + 1 ) 2 + (Bx + C)x ( x2 + 1 ) + (Dx + E)x
= A ( x4 + 2x2 + 1 ) + B ( x4 + x2 ) + C ( x3 + x ) + Dx2 + Ex
= (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A.
If we equate coefficients, we get the system
A + B = 0, C = 0, 2A + B + D = 0, C + E = 0, A = 1.
Solving this system gives A = 1, B = -1, C = 0, D = -1, and E = 0. Thus,

cx + 2 d dx
dx 1 -x -x
= + 2
L x(x + 1) x + 1 (x + 1)2
2 2
L
dx x dx x dx
= x - -
L L x 2
+ 1 L (x 2
+ 1)2
dx 1 du 1 du u = x2 + 1,
= x - 2 u - 2 u2
L L L du = 2x dx

= ln 0 x 0 - ln 0 u 0 +
1 1
+ K
2 2u
= ln 0 x 0 - ln ( x2 + 1 ) +
1 1
+ K
2 2 ( x2 + 1 )
0x0 1
= ln + + K.
2x2 + 1 2 ( x2 + 1 )

The Heaviside “Cover-up” Method for Linear Factors

HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY
Oliver Heaviside When the degree of the polynomial ƒ(x) is less than the degree of g(x) and
(1850–1925)
g(x) = (x - r1)(x - r2) g(x - rn)
is a product of n distinct linear factors, each raised to the first power, there is a quick way
to expand ƒ(x)>g(x) by partial fractions.

EXAMPLE 6 Find A, B, and C in the partial fraction expansion

x2 + 1 A B C
= + + . (3)
(x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) x - 1 x - 2 x - 3

Solution If we multiply both sides of Equation (3) by (x - 1) to get

x2 + 1 B(x - 1) C(x - 1)
= A + +
(x - 2)(x - 3) x - 2 x - 3
and set x = 1, the resulting equation gives the value of A:
(1)2 + 1
= A + 0 + 0,
(1 - 2)(1 - 3)
A = 1.
 8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 485

Thus, the value of A is the number we would have obtained if we had covered the factor
(x - 1) in the denominator of the original fraction
x2 + 1
(4)
(x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)
and evaluated the rest at x = 1:
(1)2 + 1 2
A = = = 1.
 (x - 1)  (1 - 2)(1 - 3) (-1)(-2)

A
Cover
Similarly, we find the value of B in Equation (3) by covering the factor (x - 2) in Expres-
sion (4) and evaluating the rest at x = 2:
(2)2 + 1 5
B = = = -5.
(2 - 1)  (x - 2)  (2 - 3) (1)(-1)

A
Cover
Finally, C is found by covering the (x - 3) in Expression (4) and evaluating the rest at
x = 3:
(3)2 + 1 10
C = = = 5.
(3 - 1)(3 - 2)  (x - 3)  (2)(1)

A
Cover

Heaviside Method
1. Write the quotient with g(x) factored:
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
= .
g(x) (x - r1)(x - r2) g(x - rn)
2. Cover the factors (x - ri) of g(x) one at a time, each time replacing all the
uncovered x’s by the number ri . This gives a number Ai for each root ri:
ƒ(r1)
A1 =
(r1 - r2) g(r1 - rn)
ƒ(r2)
A2 =
(r2 - r1)(r2 - r3) g(r2 - rn)
f
ƒ(rn)
An = .
(rn - r1)(rn - r2) g(rn - rn - 1)
3. Write the partial fraction expansion of ƒ(x)>g(x) as
ƒ(x) A1 A2 An
= + + +
g(x) (x - r1) (x - r2) g (x - rn)
.

EXAMPLE 7 Use the Heaviside Method to evaluate

x + 4
dx.
L x + 3x - 10x
3 2
486 Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration

Solution The degree of ƒ(x) = x + 4 is less than the degree of the cubic polynomial
g(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 10x, and, with g(x) factored,
x + 4 x + 4
= .
x3 + 3x2 - 10x x(x - 2)(x + 5)

The roots of g(x) are r1 = 0, r2 = 2, and r3 = -5. We find

0 + 4 4 2
A1 = = = -
 x  (0 - 2)(0 + 5) (-2)(5) 5
A
Cover
2 + 4 6 3
A2 = = =
2  (x - 2)  (2 + 5) (2)(7) 7
A
Cover
-5 + 4 -1 1
A3 = = = - .
(-5)(-5 - 2)  (x + 5)  (-5)(-7) 35
A
Cover
Therefore,
x + 4 2 3 1
= - + - ,
x(x - 2)(x + 5) 5x 7(x - 2) 35(x + 5)
and

dx = - ln 0 x 0 + ln 0 x - 2 0 - ln 0 x + 5 0 + C.
x + 4 2 3 1
L x(x - 2)(x + 5) 5 7 35

Other Ways to Determine the Coefficients

Another way to determine the constants that appear in partial fractions is to differentiate,
as in the next example. Still another is to assign selected numerical values to x.

EXAMPLE 8 Find A, B, and C in the equation

x - 1 A B C
= + +
(x + 1)3 x + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
by clearing fractions, differentiating the result, and substituting x = -1.

Solution We first clear fractions:

x - 1 = A(x + 1)2 + B(x + 1) + C.
Substituting x = -1 shows C = -2. We then differentiate both sides with respect to x,
obtaining
1 = 2A(x + 1) + B.
Substituting x = -1 shows B = 1. We differentiate again to get 0 = 2A, which shows
A = 0. Hence,
x - 1 1 2
= - .
(x + 1)3 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3

In some problems, assigning small values to x, such as x = 0, {1, {2, to get equa-
tions in A, B, and C provides a fast alternative to other methods.
 8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 487

EXAMPLE 9 Find A, B, and C in the expression

x2 + 1 A B C
= + +
(x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) x - 1 x - 2 x - 3
by assigning numerical values to x.

Solution Clear fractions to get

x + 1 = A(x - 2)(x - 3) + B(x - 1)(x - 3) + C(x - 1)(x - 2).
2

Then let x = 1, 2, 3 successively to find A, B, and C:

x = 1: (1)2 + 1 = A(-1)(-2) + B(0) + C(0)
2 = 2A
A = 1
x = 2: (2)2 + 1 = A(0) + B(1)(-1) + C(0)
5 = -B
B = -5
x = 3: (3)2 + 1 = A(0) + B(0) + C(2)(1)
10 = 2C
C = 5.
Conclusion:
x2 + 1 1 5 5
= - + .
(x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) x - 1 x - 2 x - 3

Exercises 8.5
Expanding Quotients into Partial Fractions 1 0
x3 dx x3 dx
Expand the quotients in Exercises 1–8 by partial fractions. 17. 18.
L0 x 2
+ 2x + 1 L-1 x 2
- 2x + 1
5x - 13 5x - 7
1. 2.
(x - 3)(x - 2) x2 - 3x + 2 dx x2 dx
19. 20.
x + 4 2x + 2 L ( x - 1 )22
L (x - 1) ( x2 + 2x + 1 )
3. 4. 2
(x + 1)2 x - 2x + 1
Irreducible Quadratic Factors
z + 1 z
5. 2 6. 3 In Exercises 21–32, express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions
z (z - 1) z - z2 - 6z and evaluate the integrals.
t2 + 8 t4 + 9 1 23
7. 8. dx 3t 2 + t + 4
t - 5t + 6
2
t + 9t 2
4 21. 22. dt
L0 (x + 1) ( x2 + 1 ) L1 t3 + t
Nonrepeated Linear Factors
In Exercises 9–16, express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions y + 2y + 1
2
8x2 + 8x + 2
23. dy 24. dx
and evaluate the integrals. L (y + 1) 2 2
L ( 4x2 + 1 ) 2
dx dx 2s + 2 s4 + 81
9. 10. 25. ds 26. ds
L - x L + 2x
2 2
1 x
L ( s2 + 1 ) (s - 1)3 L s2 + 9 ) 2
s (
x + 4 2x + 1
11. dx 12. dx x2 - x + 2 1
L x + 5x - 6 L x - 7x + 12
2 2 27. dx 28. dx
L x - 1 Lx + x
3 4
8 1
y dy y + 4
13. 14. dy x2 x2 + x
L4 y - 2y - 3 L1>2 y + y
2 2
29. dx 30. dx
Lx - 1 L x - 3x - 4
4 24

dt x + 3
15. 16. dx 2u 3 + 5u 2 + 8u + 4
L t 3
+ t 2 - 2t L 2x 3
- 8x 31. du
L ( u 2 + 2u + 2 ) 2
Repeated Linear Factors
In Exercises 17–20, express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions u 4 - 4u 3 + 2u 2 - 3u + 1
32. du
and evaluate the integrals. L ( u2 + 1 ) 3