Emotions and Motivation

UNIT 6 PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION

MAKING AND CREATIVITY*
Structure

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Problem Solving
6.3.1 Nature and Stages of Problem Solving
6.3.2 Ways of Problem Solving
6.3.3 Barriers to Effective Problem Solving
6.4 Decision Making
6.4.1 Nature and Stages of Decision Making
6.4.2 Strategies for Effective Decision Making
6.5 Creativity
6.5.1 Nature and Aspects of Creativity
6.5.2 Stages of Creativity
6.5.3 Ways to Enhance Creativity
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
6.9 Unit End Questions
6.10 References
6.11 Further Learning Resources

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
 Explain the nature of problem solving;
 Describe the barriers to problem solving and discuss ways to improve it;
 Explain the nature and stages of decision making;
 Delineates the strategies for effective decision making;
 Explain the meaning of creativity; and
 Discuss the stages of creativity and ways to enhance creativity.

6.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two Units, you have learned about several correlates of the self,
namely attitude, personality, thinking, emotions and motivation. In the present
*
Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi 97
Self and its Correlates Unit, you will learn about further correlates of self such as problem solving,
decision making, and creativity. All these aspects of our self play an important
role in influencing our way of functioning and interaction with others in our
surrounding. They reflect our ways of thinking. When we encounter any type of
problem, how do we think about it, analyze the problem, consider various
alternatives to solve the problem, choose among the alternatives, take a decision,
and also use creativity to gain new perspective and ways to solve problems.

6.3 PROBLEM SOLVING

6.3.1 Nature and Stages of Problem Solving
Human beings are always engaged in problem solving, be it in day-to-day life or
at school, workplace or interpersonal relationships. Problems can range from
simple to complex. Problem solving means there is a problem which needs to be
solved. It involves reaching a goal, and thus includes goal-directed thinking.
Various alternative ways are explored to achieve goals. We solve problems based
on our existing knowledge, earlier experience and thinking in terms of future.
There are three components in problem solving – (a) an original state, refers to
the present situation of problem/difficulty; (b) a goal state, which is the desired
state which we want to achieve; and (c) the rules that are applied to reach to the
goal state to achieve the desired outcome. Here the person (the operator)uses
various skills and techniques to arrive at the goal state.
The internal or mental representation of all the three is called the problem space,
i.e., the space in which we visualize the original and end state/goal state, andwhere
alternative solutions are found and employed.
Usually problems can be described as of two types such as
 Well defined problems: These are the problems that are easy to define
and describe. Nature of the problem is clear and correct solutions are
available, e.g., puzzles. The initial state and goal states are clearly
definable, and there are available rules and strategies to reach the goal.
 Ill defined problems: Here the nature of the problem is not clear and
cannot be described in specific ways, e.g., defining justice or peace, or
creating an abstract painting. All the aspects of problem space such as
the initial state, goal state, the operator and the rules used are not clear
and defined.
The stages in problem solving usually begins with defining and understanding
the problem. Then it involves thinking about the alternative ways to solve the
problem, implementing the best alternative, and finally evaluating it in terms of
the desired outcome.
Problem solving stages generally follows the stages in creativity which is described
in detail in the section on creativity.

6.3.2 Ways of Problem Solving

Trial and Error: As the name indicates, it involves solving a problem by trying
98 different methods in a random way. We keep on trying one solution after another
on a trial and error basis until we get a correct solution. It works in a mechanical Problem Solving, Decision
Making and Creativity
way and is not very effective.
Algorithms: This is another way of solving problems which follows a step-by-
step procedure to reach the solution. It will always result in a correct solution.
However, it takes a long time to reach the solution as it keeps exploring the
options one by one in a systematic way.
Heuristics: This is comparatively the fastest and most effective way of problem
solving. We cannot possibly use trial and error always or have long enough time
to go through the tedious process of using the algorithm way of problem solving.
Though we can make use of algorithms in the computers to generate solutions,
we, as human beings need something else to solve problems in our day-to-day
life. A heuristic is a better approach here which refers to a “rule of thumb”. That
is, heuristic is a simple rule based on prior experiences which is used to solve
problem. Thus, there is no trying out of each possible solution in a step-by-step
way, but this method reduces it by taking intelligent guesses at solution on the
basis of previous learning and experiences. However, heuristics does not always
lead to correct solutions as it is in the case of algorithm, but it increases the
chances of getting the correct solution by narrowing down the possible solutions
unlike the trial and error method.
Various types of heuristic methods are used such as backward search, means end
analysis etc. Backward search as the name implies starts at the goal state or the
desired outcome and moves backward towards the original state, e.g., in solving
a maze problem, if you start tracing from the end state, it becomes easier for you
to reach the initial state in short time. In means end analysis, the end is identified
and various means are used to reduce the difference between the current state
and goal state. It tries to identify sub goals between the two and minimize the gap
in the process.
Insight: Insight is also another strategy of solving problem. Here the solution
comes suddenly to the person, hence called insight. It is like an “Aha” experience
or the “Eureka” moment. Insight involves reorganization of experiences in the
mind when one is engaged in other things, and then suddenly the solution appears
to the person.

6.3.3 Barriers to Effective Problem Solving

Various factors can affect problem solving, for example, lack of appropriate
information and facts about the problem, lack of understanding about the problem,
lack of knowledge about problem solving techniques and process, being
unsystematic, lack of patience and commitment in solving the problem etc.
There are certain barriers which may impact individual’s problem solving
capability.
Perceptual barriers
Sometimes we fail to see the problem from alternative perspective because of
our fixed and set beliefs. Mental Set refers to a fixed pattern of thinking based on
one’s earlier experiences. Thus we are not able to go beyond the tried and tested
paths/solutions which poses a barrier in problem solving.We see only what we
want to see. You will learn more on it in the section on creativity. 99
Self and its Correlates Emotional barriers: Our emotions of fear, anxiety about making mistakes leads
to stress and may prevent us from seeing things in perspective. This in turn poses
a barrier to effective problem solving. We avoid taking risks for fear of failure in
solving the problem.
Environmental barriers: Refers to factors in one’s physical and social
environment that become barriers to problem solving. For instance, there may be
lack of support, lack of proper communication, lack of infrastructure, stress etc.
Cultural barriers: It refers to one’s beliefs, set notions, attitudes, prejudices, values
and practices influenced by one’s culture which may impact problem solving.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. What are the three components in problem solving?
2. Define well-defined problems.
3. What is algorithm?
4. Explain cultural blocks to problem solving.

6.4 DECISION MAKING

6.4.1 Nature and Stages of Decision Making
What time to get up or go to sleep? What movie to see on the weekend? Or which
story book to read? With whom to make friends? Which courses to join? What careers
do I go for? Whether to marry or not? Which city I want to live and settle in? etc.
We are required to make so many decisions in our life. These can be daily life
decisions and/or major life decisions. The day-to-day decisions are somewhat
easier to make because of our routines and habits. But it is in the case of major
decisions like pursuing a course of study, career, marriage, buying a house,
investment in finance or business, changing a job/city etc. are major decisions
which involves more thinking. It requires us to be decisive and take the step.
Since these are important life decisions which will affect our life in major ways,
we face anxiety in making a decision. Sometimes we may fear the consequences
of our choices and hence avoid taking a decision (Anderson, 2003).
There may also be post-decision regret after having taken a decision, particularly
in case of a difficult decision. One experiences regret and feels that one might
have taken a wrong decision and blames oneself and feels bad about it.
Decision making involves considering several alternatives and then arriving at
one particular option to implement it. The pros and cons of each option are
weighed, the outcomes in each case are deliberated, and then one zeroes in on
one particular option.
There are various steps involved in making a decision (Kirsh, Duffy &Atwater,
2015).
 Rise to the challenge: You are first required to identify the problem you
are faced with. What exactly are the issues, and why it will require you
to take a decision?
100
  Search for alternatives: Here you look for all the possible alternatives to Problem Solving, Decision
Making and Creativity
address the problem and collect information on each of these.
 Evaluate the alternatives: The strengths and limitations of each alternative
are considered to find the best possible alternative.
 Make a commitment: It involves implementing or acting on the best
possible alternative you have selected.
 Assess your decision: After you have taken the decision, you need to
evaluate it in terms of the desired outcome and consequences. This will
provide you the necessary feedback to reflect on your decision-making
process. This will help you further improve your decision making skill.
 Accept and let go: Once you have made a decision, it is wiser to accept
whatever the consequences instead of repenting it. Whatever decision
one takes in a given situation, it is usually the best possible decision one
takes according to herself/himself in that particular situation. Later on
things may change, situations may change, perspectives and priorities
may change. Hence instead of keeping on regretting about the past, it is
best to gain perspective and move ahead and think about making the
present and future better.

6.4.2 Strategies for Effective Decision Making

A decision is considered effective in the context of the person and the context.
Whatever choice or decision is good for you may not be so for another person.
Hence one needs to base the decision keeping in mind the person characteristics
and her/his sociocultural context.
However, a few points can be noted that can help in effective decision making.
Developing self-awareness: Knowing about yourself is important because it is
you only who have to live with the consequences of the decision. Hence one
needs to be aware of one’s attitudes, values, approach to life and life goals etc. so
that there is alignment with the decision one takes.
Collection of appropriate information: Relevant information or data related to
the problem is important to facilitate making of better decisions. One needs to
focus on the facts, analyze the alternatives and draw inferences. This will help in
making better judgement regarding decisions.
Preparing a balance sheet: It involves listing out the alternatives, and then writing
down the pros and cons for each of the alternative. This will help in comparing
and analyzing the advantages and drawbacks of each alternative or choice. It is
also easier to visualize the things when it is written down on the paper. The
objective here is to weigh both and aim at maximum advantage with minimum
cost or disadvantage.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. What is post-decision regret?
2. What do you mean by preparing a balance sheet?
3. Define decision making.
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Self and its Correlates
6.5 CREATIVITY
6.5.1 Nature and Aspects of Creativity
Do you see the two dots below?

Now, you take a pencil/pen and connect these two dots. How did you join it?
Most probably, you would have drawn a straight line between the dots to join it.
But, can you think of alternative ways to join the two dots? Try and see.
What is creativity? We all are creative to various extents. We have exhibited
creative thinking at some point or other when faced with life’s varied situations
and challenges. It can be called as a special kind of problem solving. But creativity
goes beyond the conventional ways of thinking and addresses the problem in a
novel way. It reflects uniqueness in the person and in the approaches used by
him/her. In the above task of joining the two dots, you can do so by drawing
zigzag lines, wavy lines, or even extended lines also.
Creativity can be described in reference to people, the inventive acts or products,
a new creation like a composition or an art/sculpture, or a scientific theory. In
other words, we mainly refer creativity to the person or to some tangible product
or new creation of that individual. We also describe the creative persons in terms
of various specific characteristics.
Creativity has been described and defined in various ways. It is the ability to
come up with or generate creative ideas and possibilities. It involves thinking
in new and original ways to reach a solution. Creativity thus entails originality,
but originality is not always creativity because having unusual and new
thoughts does not always make sense or are appropriate and relevant to the
society. Hence, novelty/originality must go alongwith relevance or usefulness
and practicality.
Other researchers (Runco & Jaeger, 2012) have also supported this when they
point out that originality is vital for creativity, but not sufficient. Creativity
requires both originality and effectiveness (in the form of usefulness, fit or
appropriateness).
Newell, Shaw and Simon (1963) have suggested four criteria for creativity.
One or more of these criteria must be satisfied for an answer to be considered
creative:
 It has novelty and usefulness, either for the individual or the society
 It demands that we reject ideas we had previously accepted
 It results from intense motivation and persistence.
 It comes from clarifying a problem that was originally vague.
Aspects of Creativity
What does creativity involve? Knowing the aspects of creativity can help to design
102 tests for measuring or assessing creativity in people. According to Guilford (1950),
creativity involves divergent thinking in contrast to convergent thinking. The Problem Solving, Decision
Making and Creativity
latter refers to thinking in conventional set pattern whereas divergent thinking
refers to thinking out of the box. Divergent thinking is having divergent ideas
and possibilities, e.g., think of how many ways you can use a brick. Our education
system usually encourages convergent thinking more than divergent thinking,
requiring students to provide “correct” rather than “unique” answers (Chamorro-
Premuzic, 2015).
The importance of divergent thinking can be exemplified by the ‘Nine-dots’
problem shown in Figure 6.1 below. It requires one to join all the nine dots with
the help of ‘four’ straight lines, the lines going through all the dots, without
lifting the pencil from the paper and without retracing?

Figure 6.1: The Nine Dots Problem

As you would see, it requires divergent thinking to reach the solution for it.
Usually, we do not think beyond the instructions. The instructions have not
mentioned that one cannot extend beyond the dots. If one thinks in this line, it
can be solved. You can see the solution at the end of the Unit.
Thus, one of the key aspects of creativity is divergent thinking. It consists of four
processes/aspects such as,
 Fluency: refers to how rapidly the person comes up with ideas. It can be
in respect of words, ideas, expression or associations. For example,
write words containing a specified letter like p, ‘pot’, ‘hop’, ‘option’ etc.
(word fluency); tell the fluids that will burn (ideational fluency); and
write words similar in meaning (associational fluency).
 Flexibility: refers to the ability to produce a large variety of ideas such as
thinking of varied uses of a particular object, e.g., list the different ways
of using a rope or a newspaper. It also includes activities to make objects,
e.g., drawing specified objects using a set of given figures.
 Originality: refers to the uniqueness or novelty of ideas. It is the ability
to produce ides that are unusual, statistically infrequent and not obvious.
 Elaboration: involves the ability to develop and describe an idea, such
as, consequences of a hypothetical event, e.g., what would happen if no
sleep is required?

6.5.2 Stages of Creativity

Creativity is a complex process. It does not come all of a sudden. It takes time
but creative ideas appear all of a sudden, like a flash of lightning. According to
Graham Walls (1926), there are four major stages in creativity: 103
Self and its Correlates Preparation. The person in this stage tries to understand the problem. As Einstein
had said, “the formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution”.
Thus, focus needs to be more on knowing about the problem in detail. Mackworth
(1965) views that problem finding is more important than problem solving. It is
crucial to discover the right problem that needs to be solved. For this, one needs
to collect all the information about the problem that will help identify the problem,
analyze it and understand it. Further, it involves setting the goal and generating
ideas towards the solution of the problem.
Incubation. This is the time out phase where the individual does not engage in
any activity. At least there is no overt activity, but the processing of all the
information gathered during the preparation stage goes on in this stage. The person
does not consciously or actively think about the problem, but the creative processes
carry on within the individual at an unconscious level.
Inspiration. After the incubation stage, the person suddenly gets an insight about
the solution of the problem. In other words, it results in an ‘Aha’ experience. A
new idea or new possibilities emerge and the individual is more active and
conscious in this stage. S/he may also reformulate the problem based on the
illumination or inspiration obtained in this stage. It may be noted that this ‘eureka’
moment involves a lot of thinking and effort in the preparation stage.
Verification. The person then tries to evaluate and verify the ideas and solutions
in this stage. It may result in some modifications of the solution. In some cases,
the person may also need to go back to the first stage to gather or generate more
information about the problem, thus more ‘preparation’ is required.
The process is cyclical. However, sometimes, if the person has good knowledge
of the problem area, the stages may appear in a different order, directly proceeding
to the stage of incubation or inspiration or even to the verification stage.

6.5.3 Ways to Enhance Creativity

Children are generally observed to be more creative than adults. Creativity in
children can be observed in the form of symbolic play or imaginative possibilities
they engage in. However, as children grow, our process of education and
socialization focusing more on conformity, tend to suppress the creativity in them
and even discourage them for their expression of creativity. This poses a serious
challenge for the development of creative abilities in school children. Torrance
(1965), based on his studies on third to sixth grade children, has identified five
principles that teachers should implement in order to reward the creative behavior
of students.
 Be respectful to unusual questions.
 Be respectful of imaginative, creative ideas.
 Show your students that their ideas have value.
 Occasionally have students do something ‘for practice’ without the threat
of evaluation.
 Tie in evaluation with causes and consequences.

104  Encourage the self-initiated learning and evaluate it.

The expression of creativity can be fostered by activities as simple as child’s Problem Solving, Decision
Making and Creativity
play, which stimulates the imagination. Arieti (1976), a psychoanalyst, has
proposed that a society can promote or inhibit the creativity of its citizens by its
values and resources. He talked about a ‘creativogenic society’, a type of society
that promotes creativity. He specifies various socio-cultural factors for a
creativogenic society such as the availability of cultural (and certain physical)
means to all citizens without discrimination; openness to cultural stimuli (in
different aspects of human life); tolerance for diverging views etc.
Thus, the factors related to the socio-cultural environment are important – they
may facilitate expressions of creativity or also act as barriers to creativity in
individuals. Further, personal psychological factors also may affect creativity. A
most common factor is the fear of failure or committing mistakes. People usually
want to follow the beaten path because of their desire for security and the fear of
unknown. There is also rigidity of thinking, lack of drive, difficulty in isolating
the problem, failure to use multi sensory approach in learning, and inability to
see remote associations etc. This limits the creative ideas and exploring new
ways of doing things.
Two of the important factors that have a negative impact on creativity are mental
set and functional fixedness.
Mental set refers to perceiving things and responding to them in a set pattern,
routine approach or stereotypical way. For instance, if we have solved a problem
in a particular way, we tend to use the same method for solution when we face
similar problem later on. Though it is obvious and practical to use the solution
that has worked well in the past, sometimes it poses a problem as we may miss
out on simpler and effective solutions. Mental set can be helpful as well as a
barrier. It is helpful in the sense that it reduces the cognitive load as some aspects
can be addressed/responded in a routine manner, thus saving our resources for
tasks that require it. On the other hand, it poses as a barrier for creative thinking
because of a set pattern of thinking.
Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to perceive things only in terms of
their typical use or function, e.g., a spoon is for eating purpose only, or a pencil is
for writing and drawing only. But can we think of using the spoon in a very
different way, may be as a paper weight;or the pencil as a scale/ruler to draw
straight lines in the notebook? Functional fixedness can be described as a type of
mental set. Here, since the function of a particular object is fixed in our mind, we
usually do not think outside of it, which hinders creative ideas.
Enhancing Creativity
Creative potential of an individual can be increased through various ways and
methods. But there needs to be a general attitude and atmosphere of supporting
or favouring creativity.
Principles for fostering creativity:
1. Introduce a variety of instructional materials need to be used to facilitate
different forms of student expression.
2. Develop a favourable attitude towards creative achievement.
3. Provide encouragement for creative ideas and creative expression. 105
Self and its Correlates 4. Foster the creative abilities of children through feedback and support.
5. Provide reinforcement for engaging in creative work.
6. Provide a supportive environment at school and home to foster a creative
personality – being self confident, sensitive, independent, unconventional
etc.
We can discuss a few techniques below which can be helpful for enhancing
creativity.
 Divergent thinking: It includes thinking and behaving in divergent ways.
It helps come up with multiple ideas that aid creativity. Further, the child
can be given opportunities for original expression in many ideas, such
as through written language, rhythms, music, art etc. Thus, fluency,
originality and flexibility in producing ideas need to be encouraged in
the children.
 Brainstorming: Osborn’s (1957) brainstorming is a group approach to
encourage creativity. It is a technique where people in a group setting
are required to come up with as many ideas as possible without any self-
censor or inhibition. Thus they speak out whatever comes to their mind
on a particular topic/issue without much thinking about it or postponing
it or judging it. There are four basic guidelines for the group: (i) evaluation
of ideas withheld until later, thus ruling out criticism; (ii) the wilder the
idea, the better; (iii) the greater the number of ideas, the better; and (iv)
people can combine two or more ideas proposed by others
Osborn emphasizes that the spirit of the brainstorming session needs to
be maintained by encouragement of each other, complete friendliness
and relaxed mind.
 De Bono’s (1985) ‘Six Hats’ method helps to view an issue or a problem
from a number of different perspectives. The method involves wearing
each hat mentally and thinking according to the characteristic features
of each hat. The idea is that when wearing any of the six possible fictional
coloured hats imbued with certain qualities, the thinker emphasizes
certain approaches to thinking. Thus, it encourages thinking from different
perspectives, thereby leading to creative ideas and solutions.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Differentiate between convergent thinking and divergent thinking.
2. What are the aspects of creativity?
3. What is incubation stage in creativity?
4. In which stage of creative thinking does the ‘Aha’ experience occur?
5. What is mental set?

6.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you learned about three important correlates of self, that is, problem
106 solving, decision making, and creativity. These three aspects related to the process
of thinking influence the growth and functioning of the self. They help in making Problem Solving, Decision
Making and Creativity
life smooth by solving problems effectively, taking good decisions and using
creativity to enrich one’s life. The nature and stages of problem solving were
explained. Various ways to solve problems were described and the barriers in
problem solving were also explained. Further, the nature and stages of decision
making were discussed. The strategies which can help us in making effective
decisions were highlighted. Finally, you developed an understanding of the concept
of creativity and the stages involved in it. Various ways to enhance creativity
were also described.

6.7 KEY WORDS

Well-defined problems : are those where the initial state and goal states are
clearly definable, and there are available rules and
strategies to reach the goal.
Ill-defined problems : are those where all the aspects of problem space
such as the initial state, goal state, the operator and
the rules used are not clear and defined.
Heuristic : is a “rule of thumb” or a simple rule based on prior
experiences which is used to solve problem.
Decision making : involves considering several alternatives and then
arriving at one particular option to implement it.
Mental set : refers to perceiving things and responding to them
in a set pattern, routine approach or stereotypical
way
Functional fixedness : refers to the tendency to perceive things only in
terms of their typical use or function.
Brainstorming : is a technique where people in a group setting are
required to come up with as many ideas as possible
without any self-censor or inhibition.
Creativogenic society : refers to a type of society that promotes creativity
by highlighting the role of sociocultural factors in
it.

6.8 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. The three components in problem solving are, (a) an original state, refers to
the present situation of problem/difficulty; (b) a goal state, which is the desired
state which we want to achieve; and (c) the rules that are applied to reach to
the goal state to achieve the desired outcome. Here the person (the operator)
uses various skills and techniques to arrive at the goal state.
2. In well-defined problems, the initial state and goal states are clearly definable,
and there are available rules and strategies to reach the goal.
107
Self and its Correlates 3. Algorithm refers to the way of problem solving which follows a step-by-step
procedure to reach the solution, and always results in a correct solution.
4. Cultural blocks refer to one’s beliefs, set notions, attitudes, prejudices, values
and practices influenced by one’s culture which may impact problem solving.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Post-decision regret occurs when after having taken a decision, particularly
in case of a difficult decision, one experiences regret and feels that one might
have taken a wrong decision and blames oneself and feels bad about it.
2. Preparing a balance sheet refers to listing out the alternatives, and then writing
down the pros and cons for each of the alternative. This helps in comparing
and analyzing the advantages and drawbacks of each alternative or choice.
3. Decision making involves considering several alternatives and then arriving
at one particular option to implement it.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Convergent thinking refers to thinking in conventional set pattern whereas
divergent thinking refers to thinking out of the box. Divergent thinking is
having divergent ideas and possibilities.
2. Aspects of creativity include fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration.
3. In the incubation stage of creativity, the person does not consciously or actively
think about the problem, but the creative processes carry on within the
individual at an unconscious level.
4. Inspiration stage
5. Mental set refers to perceiving things and responding to them in a set pattern,
routine approach or stereotypical way.

Answer to the Nine dots problem (Fig 6.1)

6.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Explain decision making process.
2. Discuss different ways to solve problems.
3. Define creativity. Describe the stages of creativity.

108 4. Explain the ways of enhancing creativity.

5. What are the barriers to problem solving ? How can one overcome these Problem Solving, Decision
Making and Creativity
barriers ?

6.10 REFERENCES
Anderson, C.J. (2003). The psychology of doing nothing: Forms of decision
avoidance result from reason and emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 139-
168.
Arieti, S. (1976).Creativity: The magic synthesis. New York: Basic Books.
Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2015).Personality and Individual Differences. 3rded. The
British Psychological Society and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
De Bono, E. (1985). Six Thinking Hats: An essential approach to business
management. Little, Brown and Company.
Gordon, W.J.J. (1961). Synectics: the development of creative capacity. New
York: Harper and Row.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5, 444-54.
Kirsh, S.J., Duffy, K.G., & Atwater, E. (2015). Psychology for living: Adjustment,
growth and behavior today. Pearson.
Mackinnon, D. W. (1963). The identification of creativity.Applied Psychology,
12 (1), 25-46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1963.tb00463.x
Mackworth, N. H. (1965). Originality. American Psychologist, 20 (1), 51-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0021900
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., & Simon, H. A. (1963).The process of creative thinking.
In H. E. Gruber, G. Terrel& Wertheimer (Eds.). Contemporary Approaches to
Creative Thinking. New York: Atherton.
Osborn, A. F. (1948). Your creative power: How to use imagination, New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Runco, M.A., & Jaeger, G. J. (2012). The standard definition of
creativity.Creativity Research Journal, 24 (1), 92-96.

6.11 FURTHER LEARNING RESOURCES

Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2015).Personality and Individual Differences. 3rded. The
British Psychological Society and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
De Bono E. (1990). Lateral Thinking: A Textbook of Creativity. Harper Perrenial.
Note: Section 6.5 on Creativity is adapted from Unit 10, BPCC 103: Psychology
of Individual Differences in BA Hons. Psychology (BAPCH) programme of
IGNOU written by Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, School of Social
Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi

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