UNIT 1

A computer is a programmable electronic device capable of executing a

sequence of logical and arithmetic operations automatically. At its core, it
consists of a central processing unit (CPU) that interprets and processes
instructions, memory for storing data and instructions, input/output (I/O)
interfaces for interaction with external systems, and storage devices for long-
term data retention.

From a physics perspective, a computer is a physical realization of

computation, grounded in solid-state physics and information theory. Modern
computers exploit semiconductor materials—primarily silicon—where
controlled doping enables the creation of transistors, the fundamental
switching units. These transistors, in large numbers, form logic gates and
circuits that manipulate binary data (bits: 0 and 1).

Computers operate under the von Neumann architecture, where data and
instructions share the same memory space. Instructions are executed
sequentially unless altered by control structures like loops or conditionals.

For physicists, computers are indispensable tools for data analysis, numerical
simulation, and modeling complex systems. High-performance computing
(HPC) enables solving differential equations, simulating quantum systems, or
performing Monte Carlo methods. Software such as MATLAB, Python (with
SciPy, NumPy), Mathematica, and C/C++ is commonly used.

Quantum computing, an emerging paradigm, pushes the boundaries of

computation by leveraging quantum bits (qubits), enabling superposition and
entanglement, and offering exponential speedups for certain problems—of
particular interest in quantum physics and information theory.

Understanding how computers process and simulate physical laws enables

physicists to develop more efficient algorithms and gain deeper insights into
theoretical and experimental problems.
A computer system functions through the interaction of two fundamental
components: hardware and software. Though both are essential to computing,
they represent fundamentally different aspects—one physical and the other
logical.
Hardware refers to all the physical components of a computer. These are
tangible elements that can be seen and touched. Key components include the
central processing unit (CPU), which performs most of the calculations and
control tasks, and memory units such as RAM (random access memory), which
temporarily store data and instructions currently in use. Storage devices like
hard drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) provide long-term data
retention, while input/output (I/O) devices such as keyboards, mice, screens,
and network cards facilitate user and machine interaction. The motherboard
connects all these components, allowing communication and coordination
between them through electrical signals.
Hardware is built using electronic circuits primarily composed of transistors,
which act as switches that control the flow of current. These are organized into
logic gates and more complex circuits that carry out arithmetic operations and
decision-making processes. The performance of hardware is often described in
terms of clock speed (in GHz), memory size (in GB), and processing power (e.g.,
number of cores).
On the other hand, software is a collection of instructions that tells the
hardware what to do. It is intangible and cannot be physically touched.
Software is created using programming languages such as Python, C++, Java, or
FORTRAN. These high-level languages are eventually compiled or interpreted
into machine code—binary instructions that the hardware can execute directly.
Software is typically divided into two broad categories: system software and
application software. System software includes operating systems (e.g., Linux,
Windows, macOS), device drivers, and utilities that manage hardware and
provide a platform for application software. Application software consists of
programs designed to perform specific tasks, such as word processing, web
browsing, or scientific computing. Examples include Microsoft Word, MATLAB,
and simulation packages like COMSOL or QuTiP.
The relationship between hardware and software is one of mutual
dependence. Hardware executes the instructions provided by software, while
software requires hardware to function. A CPU, for instance, cannot perform
calculations unless it is guided by software code, and software cannot be run
unless a physical processor exists to interpret and act on its instructions.
Importantly, hardware is static and does not change unless physically modified
or replaced. In contrast, software is dynamic and can be updated, modified, or
replaced easily to change the behavior of the computer system without
altering its physical structure. This flexibility makes software development a
crucial aspect of modern computing.
The efficiency and performance of a computing system rely heavily on the
optimization of both hardware and software. Poor hardware may bottleneck
advanced software, while poorly written software may underutilize capable
hardware. Therefore, understanding the distinction and the synergy between
hardware and software is fundamental to working effectively with any
computing system, whether in personal computing, data processing,
simulation, or complex computational tasks.

1. Motherboard

The motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) that serves as the
backbone of a computer system. It connects all the crucial components such as
the CPU, memory (RAM), storage devices, graphics cards, and peripherals,
allowing them to communicate through data buses and control lines. It hosts
the chipset, which manages data flow between the processor, memory, and
peripherals. Key components on the motherboard include the CPU socket,
RAM slots, PCIe/expansion slots, SATA/SSD connectors, BIOS/UEFI chip,
power connectors, and various I/O ports. Modern motherboards also include
integrated components like sound and network chips. It determines the
compatibility of other components, such as which type of CPU or RAM can be
used, and often defines the computer's overall performance capabilities.
Motherboards come in various form factors (e.g., ATX, MicroATX, Mini-ITX),
affecting size, number of expansion slots, and layout. A high-quality
motherboard supports stable operation, system upgrades, and overclocking. It
also features voltage regulators and cooling mechanisms for stable power
delivery to sensitive components. The design and quality of a motherboard
directly impact the system’s reliability, expandability, and efficiency, making it
a foundational element of any computing setup.

2. SMPS (Switched-Mode Power Supply)

The Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is an essential hardware

component responsible for converting and regulating electrical power for a
computer system. It transforms the high-voltage AC (alternating current) from
the wall outlet into low-voltage DC (direct current) that is usable by internal
computer components such as the motherboard, processor, hard drives, and
cooling fans. Unlike linear power supplies, SMPS uses high-frequency switching
and transformers to perform voltage conversion, which results in high
efficiency, reduced heat generation, and compact size.

A typical SMPS has multiple output rails supplying different voltage levels (e.g.,
+12V, +5V, +3.3V, and -12V) required by various parts of the system. It also
incorporates filters, voltage regulators, and safety mechanisms to protect
against power surges, overvoltage, short circuits, and thermal overloads. Many
SMPS units include active power factor correction (PFC) to improve energy
efficiency and reduce line noise.

SMPS units are rated by their wattage capacity (e.g., 450W, 650W), which
determines how much power they can safely supply. Choosing an SMPS with
appropriate wattage and certification (like 80 Plus Bronze/Gold) is critical for
system stability, especially in high-performance systems with GPUs or
overclocked CPUs. The SMPS is physically housed in a metal enclosure, usually
mounted in the rear of a desktop PC cabinet.

3. Processor (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), often referred to as the processor, is the
primary unit responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations
in a computer. It acts as the "brain" of the system, handling tasks from basic
arithmetic to complex algorithms by interpreting and executing program
instructions stored in memory. The CPU operates using a fetch-decode-
execute cycle, retrieving instructions from RAM, decoding them, and executing
them in rapid succession.

A CPU consists of cores, registers, caches, and a control unit. Modern CPUs are
multi-core, meaning they have multiple processing units within a single chip,
allowing them to execute several tasks or threads in parallel. The clock speed
(measured in GHz) determines how many instruction cycles the CPU can
perform per second, while cache memory (L1, L2, L3) provides fast-access
storage to reduce latency during data operations.

Instruction sets like x86, x64, and ARM define the type of operations the CPU
can perform. Modern CPUs also include integrated graphics, power
management, and virtualization support.

Thermal regulation is essential, so CPUs are paired with heatsinks and fans, or
even liquid cooling systems, especially in high-performance computing. The
CPU is installed into a dedicated socket on the motherboard and is one of the
most critical determinants of a computer’s overall speed and efficiency.

4. RAM (Random Access Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of volatile memory used by a

computer to temporarily store data and instructions that are actively being
used or processed by the CPU. It provides fast read and write access, enabling
quick data retrieval that is essential for the smooth operation of applications
and the operating system. RAM serves as a bridge between the much faster
CPU and the relatively slower storage devices (like HDDs or SSDs).

RAM is termed "random access" because data can be read or written in any
order, regardless of its physical location, with equal speed. When a computer is
powered on, the operating system, drivers, and active applications are loaded
into RAM. Once power is turned off, all data in RAM is lost—hence, it is
volatile.

RAM is installed in DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) slots on the

motherboard and comes in various types and generations, such as DDR3,
DDR4, and DDR5, with increasing speeds and lower power consumption in
newer versions. The size of RAM (measured in GB or TB) determines how many
applications or tasks a system can handle simultaneously. Insufficient RAM can
cause slow performance or system lag, especially during multitasking or data-
intensive operations.

5. ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory that permanently

stores essential data required for system operation. Unlike RAM, the contents
of ROM are not lost when the computer is powered off. ROM is primarily used
to store firmware, which is low-level software that directly interacts with
hardware and provides the instructions needed for basic system initialization
and hardware control.

In a typical computer, ROM houses the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or

UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface), which performs crucial tasks
such as the Power-On Self Test (POST), hardware detection, and bootstrapping
the operating system from the storage device. Since the data in ROM is critical
for system startup, it is made immutable or semi-immutable. Some types of
ROM, such as EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) or EEPROM (Electrically
Erasable Programmable ROM), allow updates under controlled conditions,
such as BIOS updates.

ROM chips are mounted on the motherboard and are designed to be

extremely reliable, with long data retention even without power. The access
speed of ROM is slower than that of RAM, but it is sufficient for its intended
purpose. Modern systems often incorporate flash memory (a type of EEPROM)
for firmware, enabling updates and corrections without physical replacement
of chips.

6. Port

A port is a physical interface or connection point on a computer or other

electronic device that allows for communication between the device and
external peripherals. Ports facilitate the transfer of data, power, and signals
between the internal components of the system and external devices such as
keyboards, monitors, printers, network cables, and storage devices. They play
a critical role in expanding the functionality of a computer system.

Ports can be input, output, or both, depending on the type of device they
connect to. For example, USB ports (Universal Serial Bus) support both input
and output, enabling the connection of a wide variety of devices such as mice,
printers, flash drives, and smartphones. Other common types of ports include
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) for video and audio output,
Ethernet ports for network connections, audio jacks for speakers or
headphones, and VGA/DVI ports for older monitor connections.

Modern computers and devices have moved toward digital ports, such as USB-
C, which can support a variety of functionalities, including power delivery,
high-speed data transfer, and video output, all through a single connector.
Additionally, many devices now feature wireless ports, like Bluetooth and Wi-
Fi connectivity, which eliminate the need for physical cables.

Ports on the motherboard are often grouped into clusters and can include
front panel connectors, as well as expansion slots for additional ports via cards
like USB or network cards. The design and number of ports on a computer or
device determine the ease with which it can interface with external hardware.

7. Card

In the context of computers, a card refers to an expansion board that is

inserted into a dedicated slot on the motherboard to enhance or add specific
functionality to the system. These cards allow the computer to interface with
external devices, support advanced features, and extend the overall
capabilities of the system. Some common types of expansion cards include
graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, and storage controller cards.

Graphics cards (GPU) are one of the most common types of expansion cards,
used primarily for rendering images and videos, as well as processing complex
graphical computations in gaming, scientific simulations, and artificial
intelligence. The GPU offloads intensive graphic calculations from the CPU,
significantly improving visual performance and enabling smoother experiences
in 3D rendering and high-definition video playback.

Sound cards enable high-quality audio input and output, providing better
sound processing capabilities than onboard audio solutions. They are essential
for professional audio production, gaming, or multimedia applications, offering
features such as multi-channel audio, higher sampling rates, and low-latency
performance.

Network cards, such as Ethernet cards or Wi-Fi cards, allow the computer to
connect to local area networks (LANs) or the internet, facilitating
communication with other devices and online resources.

Storage controller cards, like RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

cards, are used to manage multiple storage devices and provide configurations
like data redundancy, increased storage capacity, or faster data access speeds.

Expansion cards are typically inserted into PCIe (Peripheral Component

Interconnect Express) slots on the motherboard, providing high-speed data
transfer. Each type of card has a specific set of connectors and features
tailored to its purpose. Modern motherboards may come with integrated
versions of some of these functions (such as onboard graphics or network
adapters), but expansion cards still offer higher performance, more flexibility,
and specialized features for demanding applications.

QUESTIONS

1 List 3 computing devices and 3 softwares that you see in the world but
don’t know about and wish to know about?

2. Give few reasons why each of these 3 devices and 3 softwares fascinate
you?

3. Based on above reading, find out all information about your mobile and/or
laptop.

4. Which software do you use the most on your phone/laptop that you think
you should not use, (probably when you are bored), What do you think could
be a more productive alternative for you. ?